GENERAL

BIOLOGY 1
This subject is designed to enhance the
understanding of the principles and
concepts in the study of biology,
particularly life processes at the cellular
and molecular levels. It also covers the
transformation of energy in organisms.
What is biology?
 General Biology provides a basic
introduction to biology, the study of
life. A major focus of this course is the
cell – its structure and function, cell
transport and cellular energy, and how
cells divide.
What are the two
main types of cells?
Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells include bacteria and
archaea. Prokaryotes—organisms
composed of a prokaryotic cell—are
always single-celled (unicellular).
Prokaryotic cells don’t contain a
nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells can be found
in animals, plants, protists,
and fungi.
What are the
different cell
organelles?
Objectives:
At the end of the discussion, learners are
expected to:
explain the postulates of the cell theory
describe the structure and function of major
and subcellular organelles
distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
according to their distinguishing features
Objectives:
At the end of the discussion, learners are
expected to:
classify different cell types (plant/animal
tissues) and specify the function(s) of each
describe some cell modifications that lead to
adaptation to carry out specialized functions
(e.g., microvilli, root hair)
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Cell Biology
 What do paramecium and whales
have in common?
Why is the shape of a neuron different
from that of a red blood cell even if it
carries the same genetic code?
What do cancerous cells mean?
The Cell
Theory
Prior to the invention of
microscope, everything
that could not be seen by
the naked eye was
unexplainable.
Robert Hooke (1665)
-was able to observe in a
piece of cork specimen
structures which appear as
tiny compartments similar
to small rooms that are
fitted to each other
Robert Hooke (1665)
-coined the word “cell” to
describe these chamber-like
structures and later became
famous.
- thought that only plants
and fungi were the only
ones made up of cells.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676)
-published his
observation on tiny
living organisms
which he named
animalcules
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676)
-it was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the first
to observe under his microscope the structure of
a red blood cell of different animals as well as a
sperm cell.
Hooke - Leeuwenhoek
-between discoveries up to mid-
nineteenth century, very little cell
advancements were made
-it was probably due to the widely
accepted, traditional belief on the
theory of spontaneous generation
Spontaneous generation
-suggests that living organisms
develop from non-living matter.
It was only refuted when Louis Pasteur’s
experiment disproved that theory
Robert Brown (1831)
-was able to compare diverse kinds
of plant specimens under
microscope.
-he markedly indicated that there is
one common thing about them-
cells
Matthias Schleiden (1838)
-German Botanist
-concluded that all
plant parts are made
of cells
Theodor Schwann (1839)
-also a botanist and a
close friend of Schleiden
-stated that all animal
tissues are composed of
cells, too.
Rudolf Virchow (1858)
-concluded that all cells
come from pre-existing
cells
 Discoveries made by Hooke,
Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann,
Virchow, and others led to
formulation of cell theory.
Cell Theory
-is a universal for all the living things, no
matter how simple or complex, tiny or
huge it is.
Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are
composed of one or more
cells
Cell Theory
2. The cell is the basic unit
of life in all living things
Cell Theory
3. All cells come from pre-
existing cells
All living things are fundamentally
made of cells
Organism can be:
1. unicellular
2. multicellular
 Single-celled Multicellular
organisms organisms
-can perform all -are more complex in
essential functions structure and
function but the
which enable it to
mechanism on how
grow, survive, it is able to live is still
and reproduce. the same with the
simple life forms.
The cell is a completely functional
entity that possesses characteristics
which distinguish it from inanimate
objects.
Pre- Assessment: “I-label mo”
 The Cell
Organelles
Plant cell & Plant cell &
Animal cell Animal cell
Animal cell Plant cell &
Animal cell
 Plant cell &
Plant cell
Animal cell
Plant cell & Plant cell &
Animal cell Animal cell
Plant cell & Plant cell
Animal cell & Animal cell
Plant cell
Cell
-is the building block of life, which is able
to control and execute several functions in
all types of organism
Cells are generally
microscopic
Cell structures can only be
observed under high
magnification electron
microscope and separated
internally into numerous
membranous
compartment called
organelles
Cell Organelles
-perform a variety of functions
o production of proteins
o storage of important
materials
o harvesting energy
o repairing cell parts
o digestion of substances
o maintaining shape and
structure of the cell
Cell Structure for
PROTECTION
-encloses the cell and
separates it from external
environment
-actively regulates the
kind of substance that
goes in and out of the
cell
Cell Membrane
-encloses the cell and
separates it from external
environment
-actively regulates the
kind of substance that
goes in and out of the
cell
Cell Membrane
-consist of a bilayer
phospholipid with
integral (embedded) and
peripheral (attached)
proteins, as well as
enzymes, receptor
proteins, and
glycoproteins.
Cell Membrane
Fluidity
- one important
feature of the
membrane
Cell Membrane
Lipid molecules can
move laterally across the
membrane together with
the irregularly arranged
proteins (mosaic),
thereby referred to as
fluid mosaic
Cell Membrane
- it is also selectively
permeable to allow some
molecules to pass through
the membrane such as
H2O, CO, and O, and
prevent polar molecules
and ions to enter or exit
the cell freely.
Cytoplasm
-jelly-like substance
which is mainly
composed of water
with dissolved
substances such as salt
and proteins
Cytoplasm
-responsible for the
fluid nature of the cell’s
internal environment
and that which allows
the organelles to
suspend dynamically
Cytoplasm
-its function is
to transport, maintain
cell shape and
structure, protect, store
macromolecules and
act as the host to
metabolic processes.
Cell Wall
-rigid layer, gives
protection, rigid
support and shape to
the cell
- Plants and algae
(polysaccharide
cellulose
Cell Wall
-Fungi (chitin)
-bacteria
(peptidoglycan
Nucleus
-control center of the cell
-enclosed in a double
membrane which
selectively permits certain
materials or compound
e.g mRNA to exit
Nucleus
-the double membrane
is separated by
approximately 50 nm
- the outer membrane
is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus
-a long strand of DNA
molecule is present
which wounds around
histone proteins to
form helical structure,
termed chromatin
strand
Nucleolus
-within the nucleus, a
suborganelle known as
nucleolus is present
-can be easily
recognized under the
light microscope as a
slightly darker region
Nucleolus
-it is where the subunits
of ribosome are
assembled and include
the synthesis and
maturation of ribosomal
RNA for release in the
cytoplasm where protein
synthesis occurs
10, 000 ribosomes
per minute are
needed by the cell
 There are two steps:
transcription where DNA is
copied to RNA, and
translation, where
ribosomes read the RNA to
make proteins.
Ribosomes
-main structure involved
in protein synthesis.
- each ribosome is made
up of two subunits
coming from the
nucleolus
Ribosomes move subsequently across the mRNA strand and
new ribosomes continuously attached to the end of the strand
forming a polyribosome or polysome
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
-is a membranous
system of
interconnected
tubules which served
as the transport
system of the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
-composed of two
types based on the
presence or absence of
attached ribosomes
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
-appears grainy in
structure in the
electron micrograph
- responsible for the
production of secretory
proteins such as
glycoproteins
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
-is also where membranes
are produced for the cell
and its expanding
membrane from transport
vesicles which is important
in the transit of products
being made by ribosomes
attached in the RER
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
-lacks ribosomes on its outer
surface.
-various metabolic processes
such as metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipid
synthesis, and detoxification
of drugs, chemicals, and
poisons are performed in
this organelle
Golgi Apparatus
-consist of stacks or piles
of flattened sacs called
cisternae, which
functions in the
packaging, sorting, and
refining of products that
the cells are making
Vacuole
-is one organelle that
is larger in plants
than in animal cells.
-has the ability to
enlarge as plant cells
absorb water
Central vacuole or tonoplast
-serves as the main
compartment for
storing essential
organic and inorganic
compounds
Central vacuole or tonoplast
-it is also a disposal
site for substances
that are not needed
by the cell or that
could harm the cell
Lysosome
-is an exclusive
organelle for animal
cells which carries out
intracellular digestion
Lysosome
-it contains hydrolytic
enzymes that are
used to digest all
kinds of
macromolecules
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)
-is the powerhouse
of the cell where
cellular respiration
takes place
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
-is the usable form of
energy for the cell to
perform its functions.
-it is generated by
metabolizing sugar, fats,
and other energy sources
with the presence of
oxygen
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)
outer membrane
-smooth
inner membrane
(cristae)
-has infoldings giving
large surface area for
metabolic activities
Matrix
-one of the two
compartments of
cristae containing
different enzymes,
DNA, and ribosomes
Chloroplasts
-is only found in
plant cell and other
photosynthetic
eukaryotic organisms
-site for food
production
Chloroplasts
-contains the green
pigment chlorophyll
which functions in
glucose production
Chloroplasts
-composed of
flattened sacs called
thylakoids and each
stack is called granum
(pl.grana)
Stroma
-is the fluid outside
the thylakoid where
enzymes, the
chloroplast’s DNA,
and ribosomes are
found
Cytoskeleton
-establishes the form of
cell and holds the
organelles in place
-composed of
microfilaments,
microtubules, and
intermediate filaments
Microfilaments
-are made up of actin
molecules which form
fine fibers of
approximately 7-8 nm
diameter
Actin
-is a highly abundant
intracellular protein
present in all eukaryotic
cells and has a pivotal
role in muscle
contraction as well as in
cell movements
Function of Microfilaments
-participate in many
cellular
processes, including
organelle movement
and the maintenance
of cell shape
Microtubules
-are composed of
tubulin forming a
hollow cylinder of
25 nm in diameter
Function of Microtubules
- is to move cellular
components from one
part of the cell to
another.
Intermediate filaments
-8-10 nm in diameter
that make it
“intermediate” in size.
-rigid and resist
stretching
Function of Intermediate filaments
-have no role in cell
movement
-provide tensile strength
Function of Intermediate filaments
- provide tensile strength, which is the strength
to help a cell withstand mechanical stress.
- help to maintain the shape of the cell and
anchor the nucleus and other organelles in
place.
Some cells possess cilia and flagella
which are cellular projections that
are used for movement of cell over
a surface
Flagella
-flagellar length ranges
from 20 to 100 µm
with fewer number on
the cells
Cilia
-cilium length ranges
from 2 to 20 µm,
which is numerous and
found all over the cell
surface
Cilia and Flagella
-covered by plasma
membrane
-are connected to the
cell by an array of
microtubules arranged
as axoneme
Dynein arms
-protein that appears
as two short arms of
the double
Cell Types
Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells
-eu means “true” while -DNA (pro means “before”) is
found in a region called
karyon means
nucleoid that has no
“nucleus” membrane
-chromosomes are -semi-rigid cell wall is present
enclosed inside the and membrane-bound
nucleus organelles with specialized
functions are absent
Prokaryotic organisms
-are unicellular (single-
celled)
-include members of
Kingdom Eubacteria
and Archaebacteria
Prokaryotic organisms
-extremely microscopic
ranging from 1-10 µm
in diameter compared
to eukaryotic cells that
are bigger with 10-100
µm in diameter.
Multicellular organisms
-includes human
-composed of complex or
many cells are example of
eukaryotic cells
-Kingdom Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia
Multicellular organisms
-generally larger in size,
eukaryotes cellular
structures perform variety
of functions