CHAPTER 1 Vectors

I. Introduction
Physics deals with a great many quantities that have both size and direction, and it
needs a special mathematical language—the language of vectors—to describe those
quantities. This language is also used in engineering, the other sciences, and even in
common speech. If you have ever given directions such as “Go five blocks down this
street and then hang a left,” you have used the language of vectors. In fact, navigation
of any sort is based on vectors, but physics and engineering also need vectors in special
ways to explain phenomena involving rotation and magnetic forces, which we get to
in later chapters. In this chapter, we focus on the basic language of vectors.

II. Definition of a vector

A quantity that is characterized by a magnitude and a direction is called a vector. We
represent it by a letter with an arrow on the top of it (AB⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )or by a bolded character
(AB).
A vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB is defined by: B
• Point of application: denoted point A, it signifies
the origin of the vector indicating the starting location
from where the vector is extended;
• Direction: the vector aligns with the direction of A
the line (Δ) on which it lies. This direction is crucial
for understanding how vector orients itself in space;
(Δ)
• Sense: the vector has a directed sense from point A to
point B, indicated by an arrow providing information
about its orientation. This helps distinguishing between Figure 1. Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB
vectors with the same direction but different senses;
• Norm (or magnitude) represented by ‖AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = AB, positive scalar accompanied
by a unit characterizing the height.

Examples:
- Earth’s gravitational field vector (with ‖𝑔‖ = 9,81𝑚/𝑠 2 )
- Force vector 𝐹 , velocity vector 𝑣, and electric field vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸.
These vectors possess specific points of application, directions, senses, and norms
depending on the physical context in which they are employed.

III. Preperties of vectors

Vectors exhibit various properties that underlie their behavior and utility. These properties are:
 • Equality: Two vectors are equal if, and only if, they share the same direction, the
same sense, and the same magnitude.
• Null Vector: The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐴 is a null vector with zero magnitude: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐴 =0 ⃗ and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐴| = 0.
• Opposite Vectors: Two opposite vectors are considered opposites if they share
the same direction, magnitude, but opposite senses: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 =-𝐵𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
• Parallelogram Rule: If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 =𝐶𝐷⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then the pints A, B, C, and D form the vertices of
a parallelogram.
• A vector Displacement: a vector can be displaced anywhere in space or in plane,
provided its components, direction, sense, and magnitude remain unchanged.

IV. Coordinate Systems and Basis Vectors

Coordinate systems and basis vectors are essential for locating objects in space or a
plane, defining their positions within the chosen frame of reference. Typically, a Galilean
⃗ ), sharing a
reference frame is employed, associated with a basis of three vectors (𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
⃗ ) is defined as a reference frame
common origin O, known as a basis vectors. (𝑂, 𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘
⃗ ).
with origin O and basis B (𝑖⃗ , 𝑗, 𝑘

It is worth noting that a Galilean reference frame is one in which the principle of inertia
holds true. In other words, a reference frame in which an isolated material point moves
in rectilinear uniform motion or remains at rest if initially at rest. The Earth’s reference
frame can be considered a Galilean reference frame for experiments with a duration
shorter than the Earth’s rotation period around its axis (e.g., free fall).

IV.1. Orthonormal Basis

In an orthonormal basis, the vectors are pairwise orthogonal, and their norms are equal
⃗ | = 1). In this case, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑘
to 1., (|𝑖| = |𝑗| = |𝑘 ⃗ are unit vectors.

IV.2. Coordinate system

In an orthonormal basis, various coordinate systems can be used to located a point M in

space. These include:

• Cartesian coordinates ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 (x, y, z) ;
• Cylindrical coordinates 𝑂𝑀⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (r, θ, z) ;
• Spherical coordinates ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 (r, θ, φ).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (r, θ) are often used.

For two-dimensional plane (z=0), polar coordinates 𝑂𝑀
 a- Cartesian coordinates: in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (O,
⃗ ), a point M is represented by the vector 𝑂𝑀
𝑖, 𝑗 , 𝑘 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (Fig. 2), with its expression in
cartesian coordinates as:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘⃗
𝑂𝑀 (1) Z
X
And its norm : z
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
‖𝑂𝑀 (2)
M
X

⃗
𝑘
y
Y
𝑖 O 𝑗
M

x M’
X
Fig.2. Cartesian Coordinates.

⃗ , we can associate a unit vector 𝑢

Note: for each vector 𝐴= xi + yj + zk ⃗:

x y z
𝑢
⃗ =( )i + ( )j + ( ) ⃗k
⃗
‖A‖ ⃗
‖A‖ ⃗
‖A‖

With:

‖𝐴‖ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

b- Cylindrical coordinates: this system is particularly suited for locating points on

objects with cylindrical symmetry. The basis vectors in this system are (𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)
𝑢𝜃 , 𝑘
(Fig.3)
Z

z
⃗
𝑘

𝑢
⃗𝜃
Figure 3. Cylindrical coordinates M 𝑢
⃗𝜌
r
X

y
Y
O
M ρ
θ X
x M’
X
In this system, point M is represented by cylindrical coordinates ( 𝜌, 𝜃, 𝑧) (in place of x, y
and z). The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 is then given by:

𝑂𝑀 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑀′ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀′ 𝑀 (3)

Therefore we’ll have :

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 𝜌𝑢 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝑧𝑘 (4)

Relationship between cartesian and cylindrical coordinates:

By replacing ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗 in the equation (4), we can find:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 + ρsin 𝜃𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘

𝑂𝑀 = 𝜌(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 + sin 𝜃𝑗) + 𝑧𝑘 ⃗ (5)

The relationships which can link the cartesian coordinates with the cylindrical ones are
then:

𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
{ 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (6)
𝑧=𝑧
Note: In the case where z=0, we have the polar coordinate system (r, θ) and the vector is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑢
expressed as : 𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (in this case r=ρ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 = 𝑟𝑢 𝑢𝑟 ).
𝑢𝜌 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗

The magnitude of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 in cylindrical coordinates is given by :

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √(𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + (𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 +𝑧 2 = √𝜌2 + 𝑧 2

‖𝑂𝑀

c. Spherical coordinates :

This coordinate system is particularly suitable for locating a point on a sphere. Its basis
vectors are (𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢𝜑 ) (fig. 4).
𝑢𝜃 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Z
X
z
𝑢
⃗𝑟

𝑢
⃗𝜑
M
θ r 𝑢
⃗𝜃
𝜑 X

y
Y
O
M ρ
𝜑 X
x M’
X
Figure 4. Spherical Coordinates
In this system, point M is represented by spherical coordinates (r, θ, 𝜑). The vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 is then expressed as:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑟𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 (7)

- Relationship between spherical and cartesian coordinates:

From Fig.4 we have:

x=ρ cos𝜑, y=ρ sin𝜑 et z=r cosθ. Given that ρ=r sinθ, we obtain :

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
{ 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 (8)
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The magnitude of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 in spherical coordinates is given by :

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑)2 + (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑)2 +(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 𝑟

‖𝑂𝑀

V. Vectors Operations
V.1. Addition of two vectors

⃗ results in another vector 𝐶 (see fig. 5), defined as:

The sum of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

⃗ =𝐶
𝐴+𝐵 (9)

𝐴
𝐶
θ
⃗
𝐵
Figure 5. Geometrical addition of two vectors

With magnitude of :

‖𝐶 ‖ = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (10)

⃗ as:
Given the components of 𝐴 and 𝐵

⃗ and 𝐵
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 ⃗
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘

The components of 𝐶 are then given by :

𝐶 =𝐴+𝐵 ⃗
⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘 (11)

And its magnitude is :

⃗ ‖ = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )2 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )2

‖𝐶 ‖ = ‖𝐴 + 𝐵 (12)

V.2. Scalar multiplication of a vector

The product of the vector 𝑣 by a real scalar λ results in another vector 𝑤

⃗⃗ such that:

𝑤
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝑣 with a magnitude of ‖𝑤
⃗⃗ ‖ = |𝜆|‖𝑣‖

➢ If λ >0, 𝑤
⃗⃗ is in the same direction as 𝑣
➢ If λ <0, 𝑤
⃗⃗ is in the opposite direction to à 𝑣

Note: Two vectors 𝑣 et 𝑤

⃗⃗ are colinear if and only if there exists a real λ such that 𝑤
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝑣 .

V.3. Dot product of two vectors

⃗ is a scalar quantity given by the relationship:
The dot product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

⃗ = ‖𝐴‖. ‖𝐵
𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗ ‖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (13)

⃗.
where θ is the angle between the two vectors𝐴 and 𝐵

⃗ on 𝐴.
B.cosθ is the projection of 𝐵

⃗
𝐵

θ
B cosθ
𝐴
⃗
Figure 6. Dot product of 𝐴 et 𝐵

In an orthonormal coordinate system (O, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 ⃗ ), (where ‖𝑖‖ = ‖𝑗‖ = ‖𝑘⃗ ‖ = 1 et 𝑖. 𝑗 =

⃗ = 𝑗. 𝑘
𝑖. 𝑘 ⃗ = 𝑗. 𝑖 = 𝑘
⃗ .𝑖 = 𝑘
⃗ . 𝑗 = 0), the dot product is given simply in terms of the vector
components:

⃗ and 𝐵
If 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 ⃗
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘 then:

⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘⃗ )(𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘
𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (14)
 Preperties :

⃗ => 𝐴. 𝐵
➢ If 𝐴 ↗↗ 𝐵 ⃗ = ‖𝐴‖‖𝐵
⃗ ‖.
➢ IF 𝐴 ↗↙ 𝐵⃗ => 𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ = −‖𝐴‖‖𝐵⃗ ‖.
⃗ => 𝐴. 𝐵
➢ If 𝐴 ⊥ 𝐵 ⃗ = 0.
➢ The dot product is commutitive: 𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗ =𝐵⃗ .𝐴 .
➢ The dot product is ditributive with respect to addition:

⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵
𝐴. (𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐴. 𝐶 .

V.4. Cross product

⃗ results in another vector, C (fig. 7), defined as

The dot product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
follows:

𝐶 =𝐴 ×𝐵 ⃗ ‖𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴̂
⃗ = ‖𝐴‖ × ‖𝐵 ⃗ )𝑢
,𝐵 ⃗ (15)

• The vector 𝐶 is orthogonal to both of the given vectors;

• Its direction is such that ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ form a tight-handed triad;
𝐶, 𝐴 and 𝐵
• Its magnitude is:

⃗ ‖ = ‖𝐴‖ × ‖𝐵
‖𝐶 ‖ = ‖𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ‖|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)| (16)

⃗
C

⃗
𝐵

𝑢
⃗ α
𝐴

⃗
Figure 7. Cross product of two vectors 𝐴 et 𝐵

The direction of the cross product can be detremined using the right-hand rule (or
corkscrew), resulting in rignt-handed triad( ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ where the thumb represents
𝐶), 𝐴 and 𝐵
 ⃗ ,and the midle finger is the result of the cross
vector 𝐴, the index finger represents 𝐵
product vector 𝐶 (fig. 8).

Figure 8. right-hand rule

• Cross product expression in cartesian coordinates:

According to equation (14), in a direct orthonormal coordinate ( i  i = j  j = k  k = 0 et

i  j = k , j  k = i , k  i = j ), the dot product of two vectors is:

⃗ ) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘
⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗)
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝑖 × 𝑖) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝑖 × 𝑗) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝑖 × 𝑗) (17)

Can be expressed, after expanding this relation, in the form of 3rd-order determinant.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘⃗
⃗ = |𝐴𝑥
𝐴×𝐵 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 −𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑖 − (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )𝑗 + ( 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝑘⃗ (18)
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

• Dot product properties

- The cross product is anticommutative: A  B = − B  A .

- If A and B are colinear ( A// B ), then the cross product A  B = 0 .

-The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors ‖⃗A × ⃗B‖ represents the area of
the parallelogram formed by the two vectors 𝐴 et 𝐵⃗.
 • Application: Moment of a vector with respect to a point

⃗ applied at point A with respect to point is given by the

The moment of a vector 𝑉
relationship:
ℳ⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂 (V
ℳ ⃗ ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 × 𝑉⃗ (19)

⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = ‖𝑂𝐴
‖ℳ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ ‖𝑉
⃗ ‖|sinα ⃗
𝑉
O α
A
Example: Moment of a force
⃗
Figure 9. Moment of a vector 𝑉

IF α=90°, the moment of the force 𝐹 applied at the point A with respect to point O is:
𝜋
⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = ‖𝑂𝐴
‖ℳ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ ‖𝐹 ‖ sin ( ) = 𝐹𝑑 (20)
2

V.5. Mixed Product

Given three vectors V1 , V2 et V3 , the mixed product of these three vectors is denoted as
  ⃗ 1, 𝑉
m= V1 ,V2 ,V3 and is defined as : m= [𝑉 ⃗ 2, 𝑉
⃗ 3] = 𝑉
⃗ 1 . (𝑉
⃗2 × 𝑉
⃗ 3) (21)

It is a real number, and its absolute value represents the volume of the parallelepiped
generated by these three vectors.

⃗3
𝑉
⃗2
𝑉

⃗1
𝑉
Figure 10. Mixed product of three vectors V1 , V2 et V3

In an orthonormal coordinate system, the expression of the mixed product of three

vectors 𝐴, 𝐵⃗ and 𝐶 , referring to the definitions of the dot product and cross product, is
given by: :

⃗ , 𝐶 ] = 𝐴. (𝐵
[𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝑥 (𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 𝐶𝑦 ) − 𝐴𝑦 (𝐵𝑥 𝐶𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 𝐶𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝐵𝑥 𝐶𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑥 ) 22
 • Properties of the mixed product
- The mixed product is anticommutative [𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ , 𝐶 ] = −[𝐶 , 𝐵
⃗ , 𝐴].
- The mixed product is invariant under a circular permutation of the three
⃗ , 𝐶 ] = [𝐵
vectors: [𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ , 𝐶 , 𝐴] = [𝐶 , 𝐴, 𝐵
⃗ ].
- The vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐶 being nonzero, the mixed product [𝐴, 𝐵
⃗ , 𝐶 ] is zero, if and
⃗ and 𝐶 are coplanar.
only if, the three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵

VI. Derivative of a vector with respect

In an orthonormal coordinate system (with a fixed basis), consider a vector

⃗ its derivative with respect to a variable t is given by:
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

⃗
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑉𝑦 𝑑𝑉𝑧
= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ ⃗
𝑘 (23)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

- Rules of Differentiation

d ( A + B) d A d B
= +
dt dt dt
d ( A.B) dB dA
= A. + B.
dt dt dt

d ( A  B) dB d A
= A + B
dt dt dt

d ( A) dA d
= +A
dt dt dt

VII. Differential operators

VI.1. Gradient of a function

The gradient of a scalar function f(x,y,z), denoted as grad f or as  f , is a vector such that:

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ ⃗
𝑘 (24)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 VI.2. Divergence d’un vecteur

The divergence of a vector is given by the dot product of the operator ⃗∇ and the vector 𝑉
⃗ :

⃗⃗ =
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
⃗ .𝑉
∇ + + (25)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗ is a vector that, when applied to another vector yields a scalar.

The divergence ∇

VI.3. Curl of a Vector

⃗ and the vector 𝑉
The curl of a vector is given by the cross product of the operator ∇ ⃗ :

⃗𝑖 ⃗𝑗 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑘
𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 ⃗ 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 ⃗ 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗∇ × ⃗⃗𝐴 = | 𝜕𝜕 𝜕|
=( − )𝑖 − ( − )𝑗 + ( − )𝑘 (26)
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

The result is therefore a vector.

Note: These operators have been expressed in Cartesian coordinates. They can be
expressed in other coordinate systems.