CIVL1113 ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND MATERIALS

Mechanics part

Lecture 2: Axial loading

Instructor: Dr. Jiaji Wang

Email: [email protected]

Office hour: Thursday 4:40-6:30 pm HW604

Note: content marked in * is more advanced knowledge for understanding

Introduction

2
Introduction

F F

F F

• Load: equal and opposite forces along bar axis

• Deformation: extension (contraction) along bar axis and

contraction (extension) transversely

3
Diagram of Axial Force

m
F F

m
FN

• Positive for tension; negative for compression.

4
Example 2.1
• Plot the diagram of axial force
3 kN A B 2 kN/m C D 1 kN
• Solution
2m 2m 2m
1. Internal force in AB、CD
3 kN FN
FN AB  3 k N x
F N C D   1 kN x
2m
2. Internal force in BC
FN  x   3  2 x 0  x  2
3. Diagram of axial force FN  kN  3
4. Maximum internal force

F N , m ax  3 kN
1
5
Stresses Acting on Cross Sections

Saint-Venant’s Principle:

For static elastic analysis, the difference between the effects of two different but
statically equivalent loads becomes very small at sufficiently large distances
from the loads. Therefore, we don’t need to study the distribution of external load
at the end, as long as it pass the centroid of the beam.

6
Stresses Acting on Cross Sections
Transverse
Longitudinal

F F
Assumption: stresses are uniformly distributed on the cross sections
of axially loaded bars (Saint-Venant’s Principle)

FN
σ

FN
FN    dA    dA   A 
A A A
7
Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars
• Longitudinal (axial) & transverse strains

b
+Δ

L
⊿L＋L
• Longitudinal strain: • Transverse strain:
  L L  t  b b
• Relationship between longitudinal and transverse strain
 t      t / 
• ν: Poisson’s ratio: 0.2 for concrete, 0.3 for steel before yielding, close to
0.5 for incompressible material (rubber).
8
Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars
• For uniaxial loading,


 
  E


• This linear relation is referred to as the one-dimensional Hooke’s

law, with E denoting the Young’s modulus.
• The measurement of axial deformation

L FN FN L
 L  L  L  
E AE EA
• EA: section tension (Compression) stiffness, A: Cross section area
9
Elastic Constants of Engineering Materials

E
G 
2 (1  v )
10
Elastic Constants of Engineering Materials

E
G 
2 (1  v ) 11
Strength of Engineering Materials

10-160

12
Strength of Engineering Materials

10-160

13
Non-uniform Tension/Compression
• Pure tension/compression formula refers to a prismatic bar subjected
to axial forces acting only at the ends.
• Nonuniform tension/compression differs from pure tension in that
the bar need not to be prismatic and the applied axial forces may act
anywhere along the axis of the bar.
• Bars in nonuniform tension/compression can be analyzed by
applying the formulas of pure tension/compression to finite segments
of the bar and then adding the results, or by applying the formulas to
differential elements of the bar and then integrating.

FN i Li FN  x  d x
 
L L
L 
i
 Li 
i E i Ai
L   0
d L   0 EA x 
14
Governing equation of axial force in beam
• 1. Equilibrium equation for arbitrary beam:
Suppose the area of bar change as A0(x), a distributed force p(x) is applied

A0  x    x  A0  x  dx    x  dx 

d
A0  x  dx    x  dx   p  x  dx  A0  x    x   A0  x    x    p  x   0
dx
• 2. Hook’s law:  x  
 x 
E
du x 
• 3. Compatibility equation:   x  
dx

• 4.1. Displacement boundary condition: u 0   0

PB
• 4.2. Force boundary condition:   L 
A0 ( L)
15
 Governing equation of axial force in beam*
• 1. Equilibrium equation for arbitrary beam:
Suppose the area of bar change as A0(x), a distributed force p(x) is applied

p( x) dx

dFN  x  FN  L  
PB
 p  x  0
dx A0 ( L)

• 2. From force to calculate displacement of segment

du ( x) FN ( x)

dx EA0 ( x)
L FN ( x)
u ( x)   dx
0 EA0 ( x)
16
Example 2.2
• Consider an axially loaded bar with varied cross section. Given: E
= 210 GPa; Section 1 (circular): d1 = 20 mm; Section 2 (square):
side length a = 25 mm, 2 = -30 MPa; Section 3 (circular)
d3=12mm. Find: Total change in bar length △L.

F 2 3 F
1

0.2 m 0.4 m 0.2 m

• Solution:
F   2 A 2   3 0 M P a  2 5 2 m m 2   1 8 .7 5 k N
 
FN1 L1 FN2 L2 FN3 L3 18750  0.2 0.4 0.2 
L          0.272mm
EA1 EA2 EA3 210  109  π  0.022 0.0252 π  0.0122 

 4 4 
17
Mechanical Behavior of Materials
• Mechanical behavior of materials focus on the strength and
deformation characteristics of solid materials under external loading.
• Tensile specimen

• For cylindrical tensile specimen • For square tensile specimen

L = 10d or 5d = 11.3√A, 5.65√A L = 11.3b or 5.65b.
• Compressive specimen: L = 13d, 13b
d b

L L
18
Mechanical Behavior of Materials

19
Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• Uniaxial tension test of reinforcing bar

20
Nominal Stress-strain Curve

• Find more animations at http://em2lab.yolasite.com/.

21
Stress and Deformation Indices of Low-carbon Steel

True stress-strain
relationship*
σ
d

b c Nominal stress-
a strain relationship
σb
σe σp σs

O ε
Stress-strain Diagram
• p: Proportional limit • Percent elongation:
• e: Elastic limit δ = (Lfinal - Linitial ) / Linitial×100%
• Y: Yield stress • Percent reduction in area
• u: Ultimate stress ψ = (Ainitial - Afinal) / Ainitial×100%
True stress vs true strain*
• True stress (Cauchy stress): axial force F divided by current cross-
section area A
F
 true 
A
• Engineering stress (nominal): axial force F divided by original
cross-section area A0
F

A0
• True strain (logarithm strain):
 L
 true  ln    ln(1   )
 L0 
• Engineering strain (nominal):
L  L0

L0 23
Yield Stress, Ultimate Stress and Percent Elongation
Yield Stress, Ultimate Stress and Percent Elongation

25
Yield Stress, Ultimate Stress and Percent Elongation

26
Exercise 2.1
σ 2
• Based on the three stress-strain curves 1
shown in the figure, which one of the
following regarding ultimate stress,
Young’s modulus and percent
elongation is correct? 3

A： u 1   u  2    u  3 O
C：  u  3   u 1   u  2 
ε

E 1  E  2   E  3
E  3  E 1  E  2 
 1    2     3
  3    2    1
B：  u  2    u 1   u  3 D：  u 1   u  2    u  3
E  2   E 1  E  3 E  2   E 1  E  3
 1    2     3   2    1    3
27
Mechanical Behavior of General Ductile Materials under Tension

• Possess distinctive σY and σu σ

1500 35CrMnSi steel
• May not have yielding and/or σ0.2
1000
localized deformation stage
45# steel
500
• Relatively large extension rate Al alloy
Q235 steel
brass
after fracture (δ ≥ 5%) O ε
0.2%

• If there is no obvious yielding stage: take the normal stress

corresponding to 0.2% plastic strain as yield limit (σp0.2)

• Typical steel strength used in structural engineering: 235 Mpa

to 690 MPa, while 960 MPa is also under investigation.

28
Mechanical Behavior of Brittle Materials under Tension

• σ-ε is a slightly curved line and 

approximately obeys the Hooke’s law tangent
u
• No yielding, hardening and localized
deformation stage
• Relatively small percent elongation
after fracture (δ = 2%-5%)
• Tangential modulus: slope at any point
of σ-ε curve intersection
• secant modulus: can be defined at ε =
0.1%
O 0.1%

• Currently, brittle metal material are
rarely used in structural members

29
Relationship between tensile strength and elongation for steel

Different steel grades: elongation vs. tensile strength

30
Failure of Brittle vs. Ductile Bars under Tension

Brittle Ductile

• Under uniaxial tension, brittle bars break along cross-

sections while ductile ones glide along 450 sections
during yielding.
31
Strength Condition (Allowable stress design, ASD)
• Limit stress (lim): the stress under which mechanical components are damaged.
• Damage Criteria: yielding (σY) for ductile materials; fracture (σu) for brittle
materials
• Allowable Stress []: the maximum stress allowed in engineering practice. It is
typically taken as one nth (Safety Factor) of the limit stress

• Strength Condition:
 lim
 max    
n
• Strength Analysis:

(1) Strength check:  max   

(2) Cross-section design: A  FN max [ ]
(3) Find allowable load: FN max  A[ ]

32
Example 2.3
Given: d = 14 mm, [σ] = 170 MPa, uniaxial tension load F = 2.5 kN.
Check the strength condition of the circular bar.

• Solution
FN，max 2.5  103
 max   Pa  162 MPa<[ ]
A π
 14 2  106
4

• The strength condition is satisfied.

33
Statically Indeterminate Structure 1 (Example 2.4)

Statically indeterminate bars

To solve for statically indeterminate bars, there is
an additional unknown (reaction force at A),
equation of force equilibrium will not solve it
alone, additional equation is needed to solve it:

ΣFvert  0 RA  P  PB  0

The additional equation is the total length of

the bar is not changed during the loading
(equation of compatibility):

L  0
Force-displacement relationship: calculate
the displacement of bar based on internal force
Statically determinate Statically indeterminate

34
Statically Indeterminate Structure 1 (Example 2.4)
Statically indeterminate bars
RA To solve the statically indeterminate bars, the
section stiffness need to be input, assume the
bar has uniform EA and total length L, a point
load P is applied at point C.

1. force equilibrium ΣFvert  0 RA  P  PB  0

RA a RB b
2. Force-displacement  AC   CB  
relationship EA EA
3. equation of RA a RB b
compatibility L   AC   CB   0
RB EA EA
Axial force Pb Pa
diagram RA  RB 
L L
R a Pab
 C   AC  A 
EA LEA 35
Statically Indeterminate Structure 2 Example 2.5

A horizontal rigid bar ABC is pinned at A

T2 and supported by two wires DB and DC at

T1 points B and C. A vertical load act on point

C at bar end. All wires have modulus of E
and area of A. Obtain the formulas for the
allowable load P.

Note 1: In rigid bar ABC, axial force, shear force and moment can happen, but we
neglect the displacement induced by these force and moment and only consider rigid
body rotation around hinge A in this study.

Note 2: If we assume cable DB is infinitely soft (neglect), then this is a statically

determinate structure and ABC will only be subject to axial compression force.

36
Statically Indeterminate Structure 2 Example 2.5

T2
T1

1. Equation of equilibrium: Taking moments about point A (with counterclockwise

moments being positive)

ΣM A  0 T1  b  sin  B   T2  2b  sin  C   P  2b  0

T1  sin  B   T2  2sin  C   2 P

37
Statically Indeterminate Structure 2 Example 2.5

2. Compatibility equation: Because ABC is rigid bar, it can only rotate around A.
The deflection at C must be twice the deflection at B.

ΔC  2Δ B

Using geometry relationship at point B, the elongation of cable DB can be obtained as

1  Δ B sin  B   2  Δ C sin  C   2Δ B sin  C 
sin  C 
 2  21
sin  B 
38
Statically Indeterminate Structure 2 Example 2.5

3. Force-displacement relationship (Hooke’s law):

 L1   L2  sin  C 
1    T1 2    T2  2  21
 EA   EA  sin  B 
2
 sin  C    L1   sin  C    a / sin  B    sin  C  
T2  2     T1  2     T1  2   T1
 sin  B    L2   sin  B    a / sin  C    si n   B  
T1  sin  B   T2  2sin  C   2 P
2 P sin  B  4 P sin  C 
2 2

T1  T1 
sin  B   4 sin  C  sin  B   4 sin  C 
3 3 3 3
39
 Thermal effect
Thermal effect widely happen due to temperature effect and sunshine. It includes global thermal
effect (temperature) and local thermal effect (e.g. due to sunshine).

Thermal strain T will happen when temperature changes for most structural material. α is a
property of the material called the coefficient of thermal expansion. For statically determinate
structure, thermal strain will result in movement of members, but no stress. When the thermal strain
is limited in statically indeterminate structures, thermal stress will happen.

Temperature-displacement relation:  T   (ΔT ) LT   (ΔT ) L

   T   mechanical
  E   mechanical
Suppose a beam is fixed at both end and heated, total strain  is 0, thermal strain  T is
positive, and compressive mechanical strain will happen, thereby inducing mechanical
stress.

 mechanical   (ΔT )    E  T

40
 Thermal effect

Statically determinant structure: AB increase Statically indeterminant structure: It may

by T1 and BC increase by T2, both bars will or may not develop temperature stress,
deform freely and point B will deform freely. depending on the structure and
There will be no constraint force due to temperature effect. The top structure has
temperature change. Even when each bar have 1 redundant constraint, if all bars are
different temperature. This apply to almost all heated uniformly, it just expand and point
statically determinant truss and frames D will move to right, B move up, no
(considering only axial force and axial constraint force happen.
displacement).
41
Thermal effect
For instance, consider a stainless steel bar with E=210 GPa and α=1.7×10-5/°C.
A quick calculation for σ shows that a change in temperature of 60 degree
Celsius produces the same strain as a compressive stress of 214 MPa. This stress
is in the range of typical allowable stresses for stainless steel. Therefore,
statically indeterminate structures need to consider thermal effect and
designed properly to mitigate thermal effect. Heating may induce compression
failure or buckling of member if not properly designed:
   E  T

Mitigate thermal stress by human-made gaps 42

Thermal effect: Example 2.6
Consider a uniform bar heated uniformly by temperature and fixed at both ends，
the elastic modulus is E, area is A and thermal expansion coefficient is :

1. Equation of Equilibrium: RA  RB  0
2. Equation of Compatibility:  T   mechanical  0
3. Temperature-displacement relation:  T   (ΔT ) L
L
4. Force-displacement relationship:  mechanical   (ΔT ) L  RB
EA
RB   EA (ΔT )
43
 Axial force in prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete (PC) is intentionally manufactured to have tendon in tension
and concrete in compression. Two kinds of prestressing techniques exist: pre-
tensioning concrete vs post tensioning concrete.

Pre-tensioned prestressed concrete member Post-tensioned prestressed concrete member

44
Axial force in prestressed concrete
Assume tendon is at the center of cross section, the concrete part is under axial
compression and the steel (tendon) part is under axial tension with equal
magnitude. Thereby inducing an initial compression stress filed in concrete along
the tendon direction, this will delay the tensile cracking of concrete due to loads.

In finite element software, engineers can use reduce temperature method to

simulate prestressing, by reducing the temperature of tendon and keep the
temperature of concrete not changed.

After prestressed concrete member is cast, both concrete part and steel part will
transfer the axial force as a whole member under future loads.

45
Summary

• 1. Displacement, force and stress in axially loaded members

• 2. Displacement of non-uniform cross-section

• 3. Axial stress-strain relationship of typical materials

• 4. Statically indeterminant axial members

• 5. Temperature effect

• 6. Prestressed concrete

46