Graph theory

Trees and Arborescence

Z.GUELLIL
Trees and Arborescence
• Introduction to Tree
• Trees and Spanning Trees
• Minimum Spanning Trees (MST)
• MST Algorithms
• Prim's Algorithm
• Kruskal's Algorithm
Trees
• Definition: A tree is a connected undirected graph without a cycle
(acyclic).
• A forest is a graph in which each connected component is a tree.
 Properties and characterizations of trees
• G is cycle-free and has n-1 edges
• G is connected and has n-1 edges
• G is cycle-free, and by adding an edge, we create one and only one
elementary cycle,
• G is connected, and by removing any edge, it is no longer connected,
• There exists one and only one chain between any 2 vertices of G.
 Arborescence
• An arborescence is a directed acyclic graph with a root vertex s0 ∈ S such
that for any other vertex si ∈ S, there exists a unique path from s0 to si .
• If the arborescence has n vertices, then it has exactly n-1 arcs.
 Spanning tree
• A spanning tree or covering tree is any tree containing all the vertices of the
graph.
• Given a graph G = (V,E), a spanning tree T = (V,E') is a subgraph of G where:
• T contains all vertices of G (V)
• E' ⊆ E (edges of T are subset of G's edges)
• T is a tree (connected and acyclic)
• A spanning Tree T is:
• Minimal connected subgraph (removing any edge breaks connectivity)
• Maximal acyclic subgraph (adding any edge creates a cycle)
 Properties
• Every connected graph has a spanning tree.
• A connected graph, there can be several non-isomorphic spanning trees.
• A complete graph with n vertices has = n(n-2) spanning trees (Cayley's Formula)
• For an unconnected graph, we speak of a spanning forest.
• Spanning trees can be obtained by DFS and BFS searches.
Properties
• A partial graph of a connected graph 𝐺 is a spanning tree of 𝐺 if and only if
it is connected and minimal with respect to this property concerning the
removal of edges.
• A partial graph of a connected graph 𝐺 is a spanning tree of 𝐺 if and only if
it is acyclic and maximal with respect to this property concerning the
addition of edges.
• Let T be a spanning tree of G and e an edge of G not belonging to T.
The partial graph T + e contains a unique elementary cycle.
• Let T be a spanning tree of G and e be an edge of G not belonging
to T.
• Let e′ be an edge of the cycle of T + e. Then T + e − e′ is a spanning
tree of G not necessarily isomorphic to T.
 Minimum spanning tree
• A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a spanning tree T of a weighted,
connected graph G where the sum of edge weights in T is minimal among all
possible spanning trees.
• If all edge weights in a graph are distinct, the MST is unique.
• If weights are not distinct, multiple MSTs may exist, but they will share the
same set of edge weights.
 cost function
• A cost function on the edges of G,
• C : E(G) → R, is the assignment of a value c( e ) to each edge e of G.
• Let F be any subset of edges of G.
• We define the capacity of F as the minimum cost of an edge of F.
• Cost of F, denoted c(F), as the sum of the costs of the edges of F:
𝐶 𝐹 = ෍𝐶 𝑒
𝑒∈𝐹
• Cost of graph G, denoted c(G), is equal to the cost of the set E of its edges.
cost function

• Given: Graph G = (V, E, w) where w are edge weights MST T

• Total weight W(T) = ∑w(e) for e ∈ T is minimal
 Kruskal’s Algorithm
• A greedy algorithm that builds the MST by adding edges in increasing order
of weight while avoiding cycles.
1. Sort all edges: Arrange edges in ascending order of weight.
2. Initialize subsets: Use a disjoint set (union-find) data structure to track
connected components for each vertex.
3. Iterate through edges:
• For each edge, check if it connects two vertices in different subsets (i.e., no cycle is
formed).
• If it does, add this edge to the MST.
4. Repeat until complete: Continue adding edges until the MST has 𝑛−1
edges, where 𝑛 is the number of vertices.
 Kruskal’s Algorithm
procedure Kruskal (G: graph)
Begin
T←∅
F←E
Wihle (|T| < n − 1) do
find an edge e ∈ F of minimal weight
F←F−e
if T + e is acyclic then T ← T ∪ e End if
End While
End.
Remark:
1. This algorithm gradually "consumes" the selected edges: it is called a greedy algorithm.
2. When several edges have the same weight, the order in which they are taken is indifferent.
3. The same algorithm applies to finding a maximally weighted spanning tree: We sort the edges in order of
decreasing weight.
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order of weight 3 5

4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7

(a, c) 9
Example b
1
e
1. Sort arcs in ascending order 3 5
of weight
4 2
a d 7
g
F T
(b, e) 1 9
c f
3
(d, e) 2

(a, b) 3

(c, f) 3

(a, d) 4

(e, g) 5

(d, g) 7
Weight = 1 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 5 + 9 = 23
(a, c) 9
Class Code: iwmgkyu
• Résultat de ChatGPT :
Dans cette section, présentez le résultat fourni par l'IA sans aucune modification de votre part. Assurez-vous
d'inclure la réponse exacte générée par le modèle.
• Commentaire sur le résultat de ChatGPT :
1. Évaluez la pertinence des réponses fournies par l'IA en tenant compte des connaissances acquises dans le
cours et les travaux dirigés. (. Êtes-vous satisfait de la solution proposée ?)
2. Identifiez si la réponse contient des erreurs ou des biais éventuels et indiquez si la solution vous semble
satisfaisante, en justifiant votre évaluation.

• Résultat de copilot :
• Commentaire sur le résultat de copilot :
• Résultat d’une autre IA:
• Commentaire sur le résultat d’une autre IA :
• ….
• Conclusion :
1. D’après vous, quel est le but de ce travail ? Expliquez en quoi cette démarche est utile dans votre apprentissage.
2. Comparez les différents modèles d'IA que vous avez utilisés pour ce travail, en discutant de leurs avantages et
inconvénients respectifs.
3. Analysez également les avantages et les limites de l'utilisation des outils d'intelligence artificielle dans le
contexte spécifique de l'exercice demandé.
 Prim's Algorithm
• Kruskal’s Algorithm ensures the acyclicity property of the tree, while Prim’s
Algorithm relies on the connectivity of the tree.
• The minimum spanning tree is built by adding a new branch to the already
constructed sub-tree T,
• Selecting one of the minimal-weight edges that connects a vertex of T to a
vertex not yet in T.
• The algorithm stops when all the vertices of the graph are part of T.
• T is the set of edges in the minimum spanning tree.
• S is the set of vertices in T.
Procedure Prim(G: graph)
Choose a vertex x from G.
S ← S ∪ {x} // S will contain the vertices of T
T←∅
While (S ≠ X) do:
Find an edge (y, s) of minimum weight such that y ∈ X − S and s ∈ S
T ← T ∪ (y, s)
S ← S ∪ y)
End while
End procedure
Example b
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S T 3
5
2
a 4 d 7 g

9
c f
3
Example b
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S T 3
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c 4
a d 7 g

9
c f
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Example b
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S T 3
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c 4
a d 7 g

9
c f
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Example b
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S T 3
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c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
c f
3
Example b
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S T 3
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c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
c f
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Example b
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S T 3
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c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
Example b
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S T 3
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2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
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a (a, c) 9 c f
3
Example b
1
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S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3
Example b
1
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S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1

d (d, e) 2
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1

d (d, e) 2
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1

d (d, e) 2

g (e, g) 5
Example b
1
e
S T 3
5
2
c 4
a d 7 g
f (c, f) 3
9
a (a, c) 9 c f
3
b (a, b) 3

e (b, e) 1

d (d, e) 2

g (e, g) 5 Weight = 3+9+3+1+2+5= 23

 1
b e
3
5
2
a d
g

9
c f
3

Weight = 3+9+3+1+2+5= 23