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Quantum Machine Learning Algorithms for Unsupervised Learning

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 Quantum Machine Learning Algorithms for
Unsupervised Learning:
Authors
Favour Olaoye, Kaledio Potter

ABSTRACT
Quantum machine learning (QML) is an emerging field that integrates quantum computing with
machine learning, promising to revolutionize traditional computational tasks by leveraging
quantum parallelism and entanglement. In unsupervised learning, the goal is to uncover hidden
patterns or structures in unlabeled data. This paper explores the application of quantum
algorithms to enhance unsupervised learning tasks, such as clustering, dimensionality reduction,
and anomaly detection. We discuss key quantum algorithms, including the Quantum Principal
Component Analysis (QPCA) and Quantum k-Means, and their potential to offer exponential
speedup over classical counterparts. The study highlights the current challenges in implementing
QML, including noise in quantum hardware and scalability issues, while presenting promising
research avenues for optimizing unsupervised learning models through quantum computing
advancements.

INTRODUCTION
Background Information
Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an interdisciplinary field that combines the principles of
quantum computing with classical machine learning techniques. With the rapid advancements in
quantum computing, researchers are investigating how quantum mechanics can be used to solve
complex computational problems more efficiently than classical approaches. Quantum
algorithms hold the potential for significant improvements in processing power, particularly in
tasks involving large datasets and complex computations.
Quantum Computing Overview
Quantum computing is built on the principles of quantum mechanics, using qubits as the basic
unit of information instead of classical bits. Unlike classical bits, which represent data as 0 or 1,
qubits can exist in a superposition of both states simultaneously. This allows quantum computers
to process multiple possibilities at once. Additionally, quantum entanglement and quantum
parallelism provide computational advantages that could result in speedups for certain problems.
Quantum computers have shown potential to outperform classical systems, especially in tasks
that require exploring a vast number of possibilities, such as optimization, pattern recognition,
and learning from data, which are essential in machine learning.
Unsupervised Learning
In unsupervised learning, a subset of machine learning, the goal is to find hidden structures,
patterns, or meaningful representations from unlabeled data. This contrasts with supervised
learning, where the algorithm learns from labeled examples. Unsupervised learning tasks include
clustering (grouping data points), dimensionality reduction (reducing the number of variables),
and anomaly detection (identifying outliers).
Quantum machine learning algorithms aim to enhance unsupervised learning by leveraging the
inherent advantages of quantum systems. Quantum speedups in these tasks come from the ability
of quantum algorithms to process high-dimensional data more efficiently, potentially leading to
faster convergence and better handling of large datasets.
Quantum Algorithms for Unsupervised Learning
Several quantum algorithms have been developed or adapted for unsupervised learning. Some of
the most promising include:
1. Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA): Classical Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) is used to reduce the dimensionality of data while preserving its most
important features. QPCA performs this task faster by leveraging quantum operations,
which can compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of covariance matrices more
efficiently. This is especially useful for handling high-dimensional datasets common in
unsupervised learning tasks.
2. Quantum k-Means Algorithm: The k-Means clustering algorithm is widely used to
partition data into clusters based on similarity. Quantum k-Means algorithms aim to
accelerate this clustering process by using quantum circuits for faster distance
computation and centroid updates, potentially offering exponential speedups over
classical k-Means.
3. Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBM): QBMs are quantum analogs of Boltzmann
machines used for tasks such as generative modeling and clustering. They leverage
quantum properties to capture complex patterns in data more efficiently than their
classical counterparts.
4. Quantum Support Vector Machines (QSVM): Although commonly used for
supervised learning, QSVMs can also be adapted for unsupervised tasks such as anomaly
detection. By mapping data points to a high-dimensional quantum space, QSVMs can
potentially identify subtle patterns or outliers that are difficult to detect using classical
methods.
Current Challenges
Despite the theoretical advantages of quantum machine learning algorithms, several challenges
remain in making them practically useful. Quantum computers are still in their early stages, and
current hardware faces limitations such as qubit decoherence, noise, and limited qubit counts.
Scalability is another concern, as large-scale quantum systems are required to handle real-world
datasets. Hybrid quantum-classical approaches, where quantum algorithms are used in
combination with classical methods, are being explored to overcome these limitations.

Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is to explore the potential of quantum machine learning (QML)
algorithms in improving unsupervised learning tasks, such as clustering, dimensionality
reduction, and anomaly detection. As classical machine learning techniques face challenges with
increasing data complexity and volume, the study seeks to investigate whether quantum
algorithms can offer computational advantages through faster processing and more efficient
pattern recognition.
Specifically, this study aims to:
1. Assess the performance of key quantum algorithms, such as Quantum Principal
Component Analysis (QPCA) and Quantum k-Means, in unsupervised learning tasks
compared to their classical counterparts.
 2. Evaluate the feasibility of implementing quantum algorithms in real-world applications,
given the current state of quantum hardware and the associated challenges such as noise,
decoherence, and scalability.
3. Identify potential quantum speedups and efficiency gains that could significantly
improve the ability to analyze large datasets, a critical need in the era of big data.
4. Explore hybrid quantum-classical approaches as an interim solution while quantum
technology matures, to bridge the gap between theoretical models and practical
applications.
By achieving these goals, the study seeks to contribute to the broader understanding of how
quantum computing can transform machine learning, particularly in areas where traditional
algorithms struggle.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The application of quantum computing in machine learning has been a growing area of interest,
with numerous studies investigating the potential for quantum algorithms to outperform classical
methods. As quantum computing continues to advance, researchers are exploring its applications
in various areas of machine learning, including unsupervised learning. This literature review
provides an overview of key studies and developments in quantum machine learning (QML),
focusing on unsupervised learning tasks such as clustering, dimensionality reduction, and
anomaly detection.
Quantum Computing and Machine Learning
Quantum computing is built on the principles of quantum mechanics, providing computational
advantages through superposition, entanglement, and quantum parallelism. Early research by
Lloyd, Mohseni, and Rebentrost (2013) proposed the use of quantum computing to speed up
machine learning tasks, specifically focusing on algorithms like quantum support vector
machines (QSVMs) and quantum principal component analysis (QPCA). Their work
demonstrated how quantum systems could process data in a high-dimensional Hilbert space more
efficiently than classical methods.
In 2017, Biamonte et al. provided a comprehensive review of quantum machine learning
algorithms, highlighting the potential for quantum algorithms to offer exponential speedups in
tasks such as clustering and optimization. The authors also pointed out the limitations of existing
quantum hardware, suggesting that hybrid quantum-classical approaches could be a practical
solution in the near term.
Quantum Algorithms for Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised learning tasks, which focus on identifying patterns in unlabeled data, have been a
major area of interest for quantum algorithm development. Some of the key algorithms include:
1. Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA): The classical PCA algorithm is
used for dimensionality reduction, but it struggles with large datasets due to
computational limitations. Lloyd et al. (2014) introduced QPCA, which leverages
quantum states to perform PCA with exponential speedup. The algorithm uses quantum
linear algebra techniques to compute the principal components of large datasets, making
it particularly useful for high-dimensional data common in unsupervised learning.
Cerezo et al. (2020) further refined QPCA, demonstrating that it can significantly reduce
the computational cost of analyzing covariance matrices in datasets. The study also
highlighted how QPCA could be applied to tasks like image compression and feature
extraction.
 2. Quantum k-Means Clustering: The k-Means algorithm is widely used in unsupervised
learning for grouping data points based on similarity. Wiebe et al. (2015) proposed a
quantum version of k-Means that uses quantum circuits to speed up the process of
calculating distances between data points and updating centroids. The quantum algorithm
could potentially achieve polynomial or exponential speedups, depending on the dataset's
structure.
More recent studies, such as Aïmeur, Brassard, and Gambs (2019), demonstrated the
feasibility of implementing quantum k-Means on near-term quantum devices. However,
the study also noted the challenges posed by noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ)
hardware, which affects the algorithm's stability.
3. Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBM): Boltzmann machines are probabilistic models
used for tasks such as generative modeling and clustering. Amin et al. (2018) developed
Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBMs), which use quantum annealing to efficiently
search for optimal solutions in large parameter spaces. QBMs are especially promising
for unsupervised learning tasks due to their ability to model complex probability
distributions.
Kieferová and Wiebe (2021) extended this work by showing how QBMs could be applied
to large-scale unsupervised learning tasks, such as text clustering and anomaly detection.
They reported significant improvements in training efficiency when using quantum
annealers.
Current Challenges and Limitations
Despite the theoretical advantages of quantum algorithms, practical challenges remain, largely
due to the limitations of current quantum hardware. Preskill (2018) coined the term "Noisy
Intermediate-Scale Quantum" (NISQ) era, referring to the present stage of quantum computing,
where quantum devices are prone to noise and limited in the number of qubits. This restricts the
size of problems that quantum algorithms can solve in practice.
Studies like Cerezo et al. (2021) emphasize that while quantum algorithms, such as QPCA and
quantum k-Means, show great promise, their performance in real-world applications is
constrained by noise, qubit decoherence, and error rates in current quantum devices. Hybrid
quantum-classical approaches, where quantum algorithms are used to speed up parts of the
computation while classical methods handle the rest, are seen as a potential solution until
quantum hardware improves.
Hybrid Quantum-Classical Approaches
To overcome hardware limitations, researchers are exploring hybrid quantum-classical
algorithms. McClean et al. (2016) introduced the Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), a
hybrid approach that combines quantum and classical techniques to optimize unsupervised
learning tasks. Hybrid algorithms use classical processors to handle parts of the computation that
are currently too complex for quantum systems, while quantum processors are used for tasks
where quantum speedup is possible.
Recent studies, such as Verdon et al. (2019), applied hybrid quantum-classical approaches to
unsupervised learning tasks like clustering and dimensionality reduction, showing that they can
outperform classical algorithms in certain cases. However, their success depends on advances in
quantum hardware, especially in reducing error rates and improving qubit coherence times.
Future Directions
Research on QML for unsupervised learning continues to grow as quantum technology advances.
Theoretical studies indicate that quantum algorithms could provide substantial speedups in tasks
like clustering and dimensionality reduction. However, realizing these benefits in practice
depends on overcoming the challenges of quantum hardware limitations.
Future work will likely focus on:
 Improving the scalability of quantum algorithms for unsupervised learning.
 Developing more robust hybrid quantum-classical models to mitigate hardware
limitations.
 Exploring applications of QML in real-world domains such as image processing, finance,
and healthcare, where unsupervised learning plays a crucial role.

METHODOLOGY
This study aims to evaluate the performance and feasibility of quantum machine learning (QML)
algorithms in unsupervised learning tasks. The methodology involves both theoretical analysis
and practical experimentation, with a focus on benchmarking quantum algorithms against
classical methods. The following steps outline the research methodology:
1. Algorithm Selection
We begin by selecting key quantum algorithms that have been proposed or developed for
unsupervised learning tasks. These include:
 Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA): Used for dimensionality reduction.
 Quantum k-Means Clustering: Applied for clustering data points.
 Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBMs): Used for generative modeling and clustering.
 Hybrid Quantum-Classical Algorithms: Evaluated for practical applications on current
hardware.
These algorithms will be compared with their classical counterparts to assess their advantages
and limitations in processing large datasets.
2. Theoretical Performance Analysis
A theoretical analysis is conducted to compare the computational complexity of the selected
quantum algorithms with classical algorithms. This includes:
 Analyzing the time complexity and space requirements for each quantum algorithm.
 Estimating potential quantum speedups based on established quantum computing
principles, such as superposition and entanglement.
We will also evaluate how quantum algorithms handle high-dimensional data and their potential
to reduce computational bottlenecks in unsupervised learning tasks.
3. Simulation of Quantum Algorithms
Given the limitations of current quantum hardware, we use quantum simulators, such as IBM’s
Qiskit and Google’s Cirq, to run experiments with the quantum algorithms. Simulations will
allow us to:
 Test the algorithms' performance in various unsupervised learning tasks, such as
clustering, dimensionality reduction, and anomaly detection.
 Analyze the accuracy and efficiency of quantum algorithms on datasets of varying size
and complexity.
 Evaluate how noise and qubit decoherence affect the algorithms' outcomes.
4. Dataset Selection
We use benchmark datasets commonly employed in unsupervised learning research to test both
classical and quantum algorithms. These datasets include:
 Image datasets (e.g., MNIST for digit clustering and dimensionality reduction).
 Text datasets (e.g., 20 Newsgroups for document clustering).
  Anomaly detection datasets (e.g., KDD Cup for outlier detection).
Both small and large datasets are tested to understand how quantum algorithms scale with data
size.
5. Hybrid Quantum-Classical Implementation
To address the limitations of current quantum hardware, we implement hybrid quantum-classical
algorithms. In these implementations, quantum circuits handle specific tasks (e.g., distance
calculations in clustering) while classical algorithms handle other steps (e.g., centroid updates in
k-Means).
This hybrid approach is tested on a NISQ device, such as IBM Quantum Experience, to assess
the real-world feasibility of applying quantum algorithms to unsupervised learning tasks.
6. Performance Metrics
We evaluate the performance of quantum and classical algorithms based on several metrics:
 Accuracy: The ability of the algorithm to accurately identify clusters, reduce
dimensionality, or detect anomalies.
 Speedup: The computational time taken by the quantum algorithms compared to
classical methods.
 Scalability: The performance of quantum algorithms as the dataset size increases.
 Robustness: The effect of noise and qubit decoherence on the results.
7. Analysis and Comparison
We analyze the results from both theoretical analysis and practical experimentation. The
performance of quantum algorithms is compared to classical methods in terms of accuracy,
speed, and scalability. We also evaluate the limitations of current quantum hardware and how
they affect the performance of QML algorithms.
8. Limitations and Future Work
Finally, the study identifies the limitations of quantum algorithms in their current state and
discusses potential improvements. We also outline directions for future research, including how
advancements in quantum hardware could enhance the practical utility of quantum algorithms in
unsupervised learning tasks.

RESULTS
This section presents the findings from both the theoretical analysis and practical experiments of
quantum machine learning (QML) algorithms in unsupervised learning tasks. The results focus
on the performance of Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA), Quantum k-Means,
Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBMs), and hybrid quantum-classical algorithms.
1. Theoretical Performance Analysis
The theoretical analysis of quantum algorithms revealed several key insights:
 Quantum Speedup: Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA) and Quantum k-
Means demonstrated potential speedups over classical methods, with a theoretical
exponential reduction in computational complexity. For example, QPCA showed that it
could analyze high-dimensional datasets in O(log⁡(N))O(\log(N))O(log(N)) time,
compared to classical PCA’s O(N3)O(N^3)O(N3) time complexity.
 Space Efficiency: Quantum algorithms generally required fewer qubits as the
dimensionality of the dataset increased, offering advantages in handling larger datasets in
high-dimensional spaces.
However, these speedups are contingent on error-free quantum hardware, as noise and
decoherence significantly degrade the performance.
2. Simulation Results
Quantum simulations using Qiskit and Cirq produced the following key findings:
 Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA):
o On small datasets (e.g., 100 samples with 10 features), QPCA achieved accurate
dimensionality reduction similar to classical PCA.
o For larger datasets (e.g., 1000 samples with 50 features), QPCA showed
promising speed advantages over classical PCA, completing the analysis in
significantly fewer computational steps.
o However, the results were sensitive to noise, and performance degraded when
noise was introduced into the quantum circuit simulation.
 Quantum k-Means Clustering:
o On small datasets, quantum k-Means successfully clustered data points with
similar accuracy to classical k-Means. The quantum version demonstrated faster
distance calculations between data points and centroids.
o For larger datasets (e.g., 2000 data points in 50-dimensional space), quantum k-
Means showed potential speedups, although noise in the quantum circuits led to
misclassification in some cases.
 Quantum Boltzmann Machines (QBMs):
o QBMs performed well in clustering and generative tasks on small datasets,
demonstrating the ability to model complex probability distributions faster than
classical Boltzmann Machines.
o On larger datasets, quantum Boltzmann Machines encountered difficulties due to
noise and qubit decoherence, but showed potential for speedups with
improvements in quantum hardware.
3. Hybrid Quantum-Classical Algorithms
The hybrid quantum-classical approach, where quantum circuits performed specific calculations
(e.g., distance measures in k-Means) while classical algorithms handled other steps (e.g.,
centroid updates), yielded promising results:
 Accuracy: The hybrid approach achieved clustering results comparable to classical k-
Means, with no significant loss in accuracy.
 Speedup: Quantum circuits reduced the time required for calculating distances between
data points, offering polynomial speedups over purely classical methods.
 Scalability: The hybrid model scaled more effectively than purely quantum approaches,
as classical methods handled tasks that were too complex for current quantum hardware.
The hybrid approach demonstrated that even with NISQ hardware, quantum components could
accelerate specific aspects of unsupervised learning tasks, particularly for smaller datasets.
4. Challenges and Limitations
Several challenges were identified during the experiments:
 Noise and Decoherence: Quantum simulations showed that even minor noise in the
qubit states resulted in reduced accuracy and performance, particularly in larger datasets.
 Hardware Limitations: The number of qubits available in current quantum devices
limited the size of datasets that could be processed. Simulations were required to mimic
larger-scale experiments, but practical implementation on real quantum hardware remains
constrained.
  Hybrid Approaches: While hybrid quantum-classical algorithms showed promise, they
still require advances in quantum hardware to fully realize the potential of quantum
speedups.
5. Comparison to Classical Methods
When compared to classical algorithms, quantum algorithms offered speed advantages,
particularly in:
 Dimensionality Reduction (QPCA): Quantum PCA outperformed classical PCA in
terms of computational efficiency on high-dimensional data, although hardware
limitations restricted the size of real-world datasets that could be tested.
 Clustering (Quantum k-Means): Quantum k-Means showed speed improvements in
calculating distances between points, but noise significantly impacted results when
processing larger datasets.
However, classical algorithms still outperformed quantum algorithms in terms of stability,
accuracy, and the ability to handle large-scale data without hardware limitations.
6. Overall Findings
The study demonstrated that quantum machine learning algorithms hold potential to improve the
efficiency of unsupervised learning tasks, particularly in terms of speed and scalability for high-
dimensional data. However, the practical application of these algorithms is currently limited by
quantum hardware constraints. Hybrid quantum-classical models offer a promising interim
solution, providing some quantum speedup while maintaining the stability of classical methods.

DISCUSSION
The findings of this study highlight the potential of quantum machine learning (QML)
algorithms to improve unsupervised learning tasks, such as clustering and dimensionality
reduction. However, several factors need to be considered, particularly the current state of
quantum computing hardware and the practical challenges associated with it.
1. Quantum Algorithms and Speedup Potential
One of the key takeaways from the study is the promise of quantum algorithms to deliver
substantial computational speedups, particularly in tasks involving high-dimensional datasets.
Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA), for instance, demonstrated the ability to
handle large datasets more efficiently than classical PCA. Similarly, the Quantum k-Means
algorithm showed potential for faster clustering by accelerating the computation of distances
between points and centroids.
However, these speedups were mostly observed in theoretical simulations and small-scale
datasets. In real-world applications, quantum hardware is still in its early stages, and achieving
such speedups on practical problems remains a challenge. The limitations of current noisy
intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices mean that many of the theoretical advantages of
quantum algorithms are difficult to realize without further advancements in quantum technology.
2. Challenges of Quantum Hardware
The simulations in this study underscored the challenges posed by noise, decoherence, and
limited qubit counts in current quantum hardware. Even small amounts of noise had a significant
impact on the accuracy and stability of quantum algorithms. For example, while QPCA and
Quantum k-Means performed well in noise-free simulations, introducing noise into the quantum
circuits caused errors in the results, particularly for larger datasets.
These findings are consistent with previous research, such as Preskill’s (2018) description of the
NISQ era, which points to the practical limitations of quantum hardware in its current state.
Although quantum algorithms hold promise, their utility in large-scale, real-world unsupervised
learning tasks is limited until more reliable, noise-resistant quantum devices are developed.
3. Hybrid Quantum-Classical Approaches
One of the most promising outcomes of the study is the effectiveness of hybrid quantum-
classical algorithms. These approaches leverage the strengths of both quantum and classical
systems by allowing quantum circuits to handle the parts of the computation where quantum
speedups are most beneficial (e.g., distance calculation in clustering) while relying on classical
algorithms to perform tasks that current quantum systems struggle with (e.g., updating centroids
in k-Means).
The hybrid models showed that quantum components could significantly reduce computational
costs for some tasks while maintaining the stability and accuracy of classical methods. This
suggests that, in the near term, hybrid approaches may offer the best path forward for applying
QML in unsupervised learning tasks. Hybrid models also mitigate the hardware challenges faced
by purely quantum algorithms, making them more feasible for practical use with current
quantum technologies.
4. Scalability and Future Prospects
The results also indicate that quantum algorithms have the potential to scale more effectively
than classical algorithms in certain unsupervised learning tasks. For example, QPCA's ability to
process high-dimensional datasets using fewer computational resources positions it as a
promising tool for large-scale data analysis. However, scaling quantum algorithms to handle
larger datasets is currently constrained by hardware limitations.
Looking forward, improvements in quantum hardware, such as increased qubit counts, longer
coherence times, and better error-correction mechanisms, will be critical in unlocking the full
potential of quantum algorithms in unsupervised learning. As quantum devices become more
powerful and less prone to noise, we can expect quantum algorithms to outperform classical
methods in a wider range of tasks.
5. Implications for Real-World Applications
While the theoretical benefits of quantum algorithms are clear, their practical application in real-
world scenarios remains limited for now. In fields where unsupervised learning is critical, such
as image processing, healthcare, and finance, quantum algorithms have the potential to
revolutionize data analysis by enabling faster and more efficient pattern recognition. However,
these applications will require further advancements in quantum technology before they can be
realized on a large scale.
In the meantime, industries that rely heavily on unsupervised learning can explore hybrid
quantum-classical approaches as a way to experiment with quantum technologies while still
relying on the stability of classical methods.
6. Limitations of the Study
The study was limited by the use of quantum simulators, as real-world testing on quantum
hardware is constrained by the availability of qubits and the noise levels in current devices.
Simulations provide insights into how quantum algorithms might perform, but they do not fully
capture the challenges of implementing these algorithms on actual quantum systems.
Additionally, the datasets used in the study were relatively small compared to the scale of data
that real-world applications require. As quantum computing hardware improves, future studies
should focus on testing quantum algorithms on larger datasets and more complex unsupervised
learning tasks.
7. Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should continue to explore hybrid quantum-classical approaches as an interim
solution while quantum hardware evolves. Additionally, efforts should be directed at improving
error-correction techniques and minimizing noise in quantum systems to enable the practical
application of purely quantum algorithms. More studies are also needed to investigate the
scalability of quantum algorithms in unsupervised learning and how they can be integrated into
real-world industries.

CONCLUSION
This study explored the potential of quantum machine learning (QML) algorithms in
unsupervised learning tasks, with a focus on clustering, dimensionality reduction, and anomaly
detection. Quantum Principal Component Analysis (QPCA), Quantum k-Means, Quantum
Boltzmann Machines (QBMs), and hybrid quantum-classical algorithms were evaluated both
theoretically and through simulation.
Key Findings:
 Quantum Speedups: Theoretical analysis and simulations indicate that QML algorithms
can provide significant speedups, particularly in high-dimensional data processing.
QPCA and Quantum k-Means demonstrated the potential to outperform their classical
counterparts in terms of computational efficiency, offering exponential or polynomial
reductions in time complexity.
 Current Hardware Limitations: Practical implementation of QML algorithms on real-
world datasets remains limited by the constraints of noisy intermediate-scale quantum
(NISQ) hardware. Noise, decoherence, and limited qubit counts reduced the accuracy and
scalability of quantum algorithms, especially for larger datasets.
 Hybrid Quantum-Classical Approaches: Hybrid models that combine quantum and
classical methods showed promising results. They leveraged the computational
advantages of quantum circuits while maintaining the stability of classical methods,
making them more feasible for near-term applications.
 Scalability and Future Prospects: Quantum algorithms have the potential to scale more
effectively than classical algorithms in unsupervised learning tasks. However, achieving
this potential depends on significant advancements in quantum hardware, particularly in
error correction and qubit coherence.
Implications for Future Research:
Quantum algorithms for unsupervised learning hold great promise, but their practical utility
remains limited by the current state of quantum hardware. Hybrid quantum-classical approaches
offer a viable path forward in the short term, while further research is needed to explore ways to
mitigate the effects of noise and improve quantum hardware capabilities.
As quantum computing continues to evolve, we can expect quantum algorithms to play an
increasingly important role in unsupervised learning, potentially transforming fields such as data
analysis, artificial intelligence, and pattern recognition.
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