2.

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

A fluid flows under the action of a force
Can you recall?
or a pressure gradient. Behaviour of a fluid
1. How important are fluids in our life? in motion is normally complicated. We can
2. What is atmospheric pressure? understand fluids by making some simple
3. Do you feel excess pressure while assumptions. We introduce the concept of an
swimming under water? Why? ideal fluid to understand its behaviour. An
ideal fluid has the following properties:
2.1 Introduction: 1. It is incompressible: its density is constant.
In XIth Std. we discussed the behaviour of 2. Its flow is irrotational: its flow is smooth,
solids under the action of a force. Among three there are no turbulences in the flow.
states of matter, i.e., solid, liquid and gas, a 3. It is nonviscous: there is no internal friction
solid nearly maintains its fixed shape and in the flow, i.e., the fluid has no viscosity.
volume even if a large force is applied to it. (viscosity is discussed in section 2.6.1)
Liquids and gases do not have their own shape 4. Its flow is steady: its velocity at each point
and they take the shape of the containing is constant in time.
vessel. Due to this, liquids and gases flow under It is important to understand the difference
the action of external force. A fluid means a between a solid and a fluid. Solids can be
substance that can flow. Therefore, liquids and subjected to shear stress (tangential stress) as
gases, collectively, are called fluids. A fluid shown in Fig. 2.1 and normal stress, as shown
either has no rigidity or its rigidity is very low. in Fig.2.2.
In our daily life, we often experience
the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest and in
motion. Viscosity and surface tension play
an important role in nature. We will try to
understand such properties in this chapter.
2.2 Fluid:
Any substance that can flow is a
fluid. A fluid is a substance that deforms Fig. 2.1: Shear stress.
continually under the action of an external
force. Fluid is a phase of matter that
includes liquids, gases and plasmas.

Do you know?

Plasma is one of the four fundamental states (a) Compressive (b) Tensile
of matter. It consists of a gas of ions, free Fig. 2.2: Normal stress.
electrons and neutral atoms.
Solids oppose the shear stress either by
We shall discuss mechanical properties developing a restoring force, which means that
of only liquids and gases in this Chapter. The the deformations are reversible, or they require
shear modulus of a fluid is zero. In simpler a certain initial stress before they deform and
words, fluids are substances which cannot start flowing. (We have studied this behavior
resist any shear force applied to them. Air, of solids (elastic behaviour) in XIth Std).
water, flour dough, toothpaste, etc., are some Ideal fluids, on the other hand, can only
common examples of fluids. Molten lava is be subjected to normal, compressive stress
also a fluid. (called pressure). Most fluids offer a very
26
weak resistance to deformation. Real fluids Figure 2.4 shows a fluid exerting normal
display viscosity and so are capable of being forces on a vertical surface and Fig. 2.5 shows
subjected to low levels of shear stress. fluid exerting normal forces on a horizontal
surface.

Fig. 2.3: Forces acting on a small surface dA

Fig. 2.4: Fluid exerts force on vertical surface.
within a fluid at rest.
The Fig. 2.3 shows a small surface of
area dA at rest within a fluid. The surface does
not accelerate, so the surrounding fluid exerts
equal normal forces dF on both sides of it.
Properties of Fluids:
1. They do not oppose deformation, they get
permanently deformed. Fig. 2.5: Fluid exerts force on horizontal surface.
2. They have ability to flow. Thus, an object having small weight
3. They have ability to take the shape of the can exert high pressure if its weight acts on a
container. small surface area. For example, a force of
A fluid exhibits these properties because 10 N acting on 1 cm2 results in a pressure of
it cannot oppose a shear stress when in 105 N m-2. On the other hand, the same force of
static equilibrium. 10 N while acting on an area of 1 m2, exerts a
pressure of only 10 N m-2.
Remember this
Remember this
The term fluid includes both the liquid and gas 1 N weight is about 100 g mass, if
phases. It is commonly used, as a synonym g =10 m s-2.
for liquid only, without any reference to gas. The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. Also,
For example, ‘brake fluid’ is hydraulic oil 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa). The dimension of
and will not perform its required function if pressure is [L-1M1T-2]. Pressure is a scalar
there is gas in it! This colloquial use of the quantity. Other common units of measuring
term is also common in the fields of medicine pressure of a gas are bar and torr. One torr is
and nutrition, e.g., “take plenty of fluids”. one mm of mercury column.
1 bar = 105 Nm-2
2.2.1 Fluids at Rest: 1 hectapascal (hPa) = 100 Pa
The branch of physics which deals
with the properties of fluids at rest is called Can you tell?
hydrostatics. In the next few sections we will Why does a knife have a sharp edge,
and a needle has a sharp tip?
consider some of the properties of fluids at rest.
2.3 Pressure:
Use your brain power
A fluid at rest exerts a force on the surface
of contact. The surface may be a wall or the A student of mass 50 kg is standing on both
bottom of an open container of the fluid. The feet. Estimate the pressure exerted by the
normal force (F) exerted by a fluid at rest per student on the Earth. Assume reasonable
unit surface area (A) of contact is called the value to any other quantity you need. Justify
pressure (p) of the fluid. your assumption. You may use g = 10 m s-2
F By what factor will it change if the student
P= --- (2.1) lies on back?
A
27
 Remember this Remember this

The concept of pressure is useful in dealing 1. As p = hρg, the pressure exerted by a

with fluids, i.e., liquids and gases. As fluids fluid at rest is independent of the shape
do not have definite shape and volume, it and size of the container.
is convenient to use the quantities pressure 2. p = hρg is true for liquids as well as for
and density rather than force and mass when gases.
studying hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
Example 2.1: Two different liquids of
2.3.1 Pressure Due to a Liquid Column: density ρ1 and ρ2 exert the same pressure at
a certain point. What will be the ratio of the
heights of the respective liquid columns?
Solution: Let h1 be the height of the liquid of
density ρ1. Then the pressure exerted by the
liquid of density ρ1 is p1 = h1ρ1g. Similarly,
let h2 be the height of the liquid of density
ρ2. Then the pressure exerted by the liquid
of density ρ2 is p2 = h2ρ2g.
Both liquids exert the same pressure,
Fig. 2.6: Pressure due to a liquid column.
therefore we write,
A vessel is filled with a liquid. Let us p1 = p2
calculate the pressure exerted by an imaginary h1  2
h
∴ 1 1ρ g = h ρ g or, 
cylinder of cross sectional area A inside the 2 2 h2 1
Alternate method:
container. Let the density of the fluid be ρ, and
For a given value of p = hρg = constant,
the height of the imaginary cylinder be h as
as g is constant. So the hight is inversely
shown in the Fig. 2.6. The liquid column exerts
a force F = mg, which is its weight, on the proportional to the density of the fluid ρ. In
bottom of the cylinder. This force acts in the this case, since pressure is constant, height
downward direction. Therefore, the pressure p is inversely proportional to density of the
exerted by the liquid column on the bottom of liquid.
cylinder is, Example 2.2: A swimmer is swimming in
F a swimming pool at 6 m below the surface
P= of the water. Calculate the pressure on the
A
mg swimmer due to water above. (Density of
∴P=
A water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2)
Now, m = (volume of cylinder) x (density of Solution: Given,
liquid) h = 6 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2
= (Ah) × ρ = Ahρ p = hρg = 6 × 1000 × 9.8 = 5.88 × 104 N/m2

P
 Ah  g (Which is nearly 0.6 times the atmospheric
A pressure!)
p = hρg --- (2.2) 2.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure:
Thus, the pressure p due to a liquid of Earth's atmosphere is made up of a fluid,
density ρ at rest, and at a depth h below the
namely, air. It exerts a downward force due
free surface is hρg.
to its weight. The pressure due to this force
Note that the pressure dose not depend
is called atmospheric pressure. Thus, at any
on the area of the imaginary cylinder used to
point, the atmospheric pressure is the weight of
derive the expression.
a column of air per unit cross section starting
28
from that point and extending to the top of the Substituting Eq. (2.4) and Eq. (2.5) in Eq. (2.3)
atmosphere. Clearly, the atmospheric pressure we get,
is highest at the surface of the Earth, i.e., at the p2A = p1A + ρAg (x1- x2)
sea level, and decreases as we go above the p2 = p1 + ρg (x1- x2) --- (2.6)
surface as the height of the column of air above This equation can be used to find the
decreases. The atmospheric pressure at sea pressure inside a liquid (as a function of
level is called normal atmospheric pressure. depth below the liquid surface) and also the
The density of air in the atmosphere decreases atmospheric pressure (as a function of altitude
with increase in height and becomes negligible or height above the sea level).
beyond a height of about 8 km so that the
height of air column producing atmospheric
pressure at sea level can be taken to be 8 km.
The region where gas pressure is less than
the atmospheric pressure is called vacuum.
Perfect or absolute vacuum is when no matter,
i.e., no atoms or molecules are present.
Usually, vacuum refers to conditions when the
gas pressure is considerably smaller than the
atmospheric pressure.
2.3.3 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure: Fig. 2.7: Pressure due to an imaginary cylinder
Consider a tank filled with water as shown of fluid.
in Fig. 2.7. Assume an imaginary cylinder of To find the pressure p at a depth h below
horizontal base area A and height x1- x2 = h. the liquid surface, let the top of an imaginary
x1 and x2 being the heights measured from a cylinder be at the surface of the liquid. Let
reference point, height increasing upwards: this level be x1. Let x2 be some point at depth h
x1 > x2. The vertical forces acting on the below the surface as shown in Fig. 2.8. Let p0
cylinder are:

 be the atmospheric pressure at the surface, i.e.,
1. Force F1 acts downwards at the top surface at x1. Then, substituting x1 = 0, p1 = p0, x2 = -h,
of the cylinder, and is due to the weight of and p2 = p in Eq. (2.6) we get,
the water
 column above the cylinder. p = p0+ hρg --- (2.7)
2. Force F2 acts upwards at the bottom The above equation gives the total
surface of the cylinder, and is due to the pressure, or the absolute pressure p, at a depth
water below the cylinder. h below the surface of the liquid. The total
3. The gravitational force on the water pressure p, at the depth h is the sum of:
enclosed in the cylinder is mg, where m is 1. p0, the pressure due to the atmosphere,
the mass of the water in the cylinder. As which acts on the surface of the
the water is in static equilibrium, the forces liquid, and
on the cylinder are balanced. The balance
2. hρg, the pressure due to the liquid at depth
of these forces in magnitude is written as,
h.
F2= F1+ mg --- (2.3)
p1and p2 are the pressures at the top and
bottom surfaces of the cylinder respectively
due to the fluid. Using Eq. (2.1) we can write
F1 = p1A, and F2 = p2A --- (2.4)
Also, the mass m of the water in the cylinder
can be written as,
m = density × volume = ρV
Fig. 2.8. Pressure at a depth h below the surface
∴m = ρA(x1-x2) --- (2.5) of a liquid.
29
 In general, the difference between the base of the vessel B and the liquid from vessel
absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure C would rise into the vessel B. However,
is called the gauge pressure. Using Eq. (2.7), it is never observed. Equation 2.2 tells that
gauge pressure at depth h below the liquid the pressure at a point depends only on the
surface can be written as, height of the liquid column above it. It does
p - p0 = hρg --- (2.8) not depend on the shape of the vessel. In this
Eq. (2.8) is also applicable to levels above case, height of the liquid column is the same
the liquid surface. It gives the pressure at a for all the vessels. Therefore, the pressure of
given height above a liquid surface, in terms liquid column in each vessel is the same and
of the atmospheric pressure p0 (assuming that the system is in equilibrium. That means the
the atmospheric density is uniform up to that liquid in vessel C does not rise in to vessel B.
height).
To find the atmospheric pressure at a
distance d above the liquid surface as shown
in Fig. 2.9, we substitute x1 = d, p1 = p, x2 = 0,
p2 = p0 and ρ = ρair in Eq. (2.6) we get,
p = po - dρair g --- (2.9) (a) (b)
Fig. 2.10: Hydrostatic paradox.
Consider Fig. 2.10 (b). The arrows indicate
the forces exerted against the liquid by the walls
of the vessel. These forces are perpendicular to
walls of the vessel at each point. These forces
can be resolved into vertical and horizontal
components. The vertical components act in
the upward direction. Weight of the liquid in
Fig. 2.9: Change of atmospheric pressure
section B is not balanced and contibutes the
with height. pressure at the base. Thus, it is no longer a
paradox!
Can you tell?
2.3.5 Pascal’s Law:
The figures show three containers filled Pascal’s law states that the pressure
with the same oil. How will the pressures at applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at
the bottom compare? rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to
every point of the fluid and also on the walls of
the container, provided the effect of gravity is
neglected.
(a) (b) (c)
Experimental proof of Pascal’s law.
2.3.4 Hydrostatic Paradox:
Consider a vessel with four arms A, B, C,
Consider the inter connected vessels and D fitted with frictionless, water tight
as shown in Fig. 2.10 (a). When a liquid is pistons and filled with incompressible fluid
poured in any one of the vessels, it is noticed as shown in the figure given. Let the area of
that the level of liquids in all the vessels is the cross sections of A, B, C, and D be a, 2a, 3a,
same. This observation is somewhat puzzling. and a/2 respectively. If a force F is applied
It was called 'hydrostatics paradox' before on the piston A, the pressure exerted on the
the principle of hydrostatics were completely liquid is p = F/a. It is observed that the other
understood. three pistons B, C, and D move outward.
One can feel that the pressure of the base In order to keep these three pistons B, C,
of the vessel C would be more than that at the
30
 transmitted undiminished to the bigger piston
and D in their original positions, forces 2F,
S2. A force F2 = pA2 will be exerted upwards
3F, and F/2 respectively are required to be
on it.
applied on the pistons. Therefore, pressure
A 
on the pistons B, C, and D is: F2  F1  2  --- (2.10)
 A1 
Thus, F2 is much larger than F1. A heavy
load can be placed on S2 and can be lifted up
or moved down by applying a small force on
S1. This is the principle of a hydraulic lift.

Observe and discuss

Blow air in to a flat balloon using a cycle

2F F pump. Discuss how Pascal’s principle is
on B, =
pB  =  applicable here.
2a a
3F F ii) Hydraulic brakes: Hydraulic brakes are
on C, p=
C =  and used to slow down or stop vehicles in motion.
3a a
F/2 F It is based on the same principle as that of a
on D, =pD  =  hydraulic lift.
a/2 a
Figure 2.12 shows schematic diagram
i.e. pB = pC = pD = p, this indicates that the of a hydraulic brake system. By pressing the
pressure applied on piston A is transmitted brake pedal, the piston of the master cylinder
equally and undiminished to all parts of the is pushed in forward direction. As a result,
fluid and the walls of the vessel.
the piston in the slave cylinder which has a
Applications of Pascal’s Law: much larger area of cross section as compared
i) Hydraulic lift: Hydraulic lift is used to lift a to that of the master cylinder, also moves in
heavy object using a small force. The working forward direction so as to maintain the volume
of this machine is based on Pascal’s law. of the oil constant. The slave piston pushes the
friction pads against the rotating disc, which
is connected to the wheel. Thus, causing a
moving vehicle to slow down or stop.

Fig. 2.11 Hydraulic Lift.

As shown in Fig. 2.11, a tank containing
a fluid is fitted with two pistons S1 and S2 . S1
has a smaller area of cross section, A1 while
Fig. 2.12 Hydraulic brake system (schematic).
S2 has a much larger area of cross section,
The master cylinder has a smaller area of
A2 (A2 >> A1). If we apply a force F1 on the
cross section A1 compared to the area A2 of the
smaller piston S1 in the downward direction it
slave cylinder. By applying a small force F1
will generate pressure p = (F1/A1) which will be
31
to the master cylinder, we generate pressure i) Mercury Barometer: An instrument that
p = (F1/A1). This pressure is transmitted measures atmospheric pressure is called a
undiminished throughout the system. The force barometer. One of the first barometers was
F2 on slave cylinder is then, invented by the Italian scientist Torricelli.
A  The barometer is in the form of a glass tube
F
F2  PA2   1  A2  F1  2  completely filled with mercury and placed
A1  A1  upside down in a small dish containing
This is similar to the principle used in mercury. Its schematic diagram is shown in
hydraulic lift. Since area A2 is greater than A1, Fig. 2.13.
F2 is also greater than F1. Thus, a small force Torricelli’s vacuum
applied on the brake pedal gets converted into
large force and slows down or stops a moving
vehicle.
Example 2.3: A hydraulic brake system Fig. 2.13: Mercury
barometer.
of a car of mass 1000 kg having speed of
50 km/h, has a cylindrical piston of radius
of 0.5 cm. The slave cylinder has a radius
of 2.5 cm. If a constant force of 100 N is
applied on the brake what distance the car 1. A glass tube of about 1 meter length and
will travel before coming to stop? a diameter of about 1 cm is filled with
Solution: Given, mercury up to its brim. It is then quickly
F1 = 100 N, A1 = π (0.5 × 10-2)2 m2, inverted into a small dish containing
A2 = π (2.5 × 10-2)2 m2, F2 = ? mercury. The level of mercury in the glass
By Pascal’s Principle, tube lowers as some mercury spills in the
F2 F1 dish. A gap is created between the surface
=
A2 A1 of mercury in the glass tube and the closed
100   ( 2.5 10 2 ) 2 end of the glass tube. The gap does not
F2   2500 N contain any air and it is called Torricelli’s
 2 ) 2
 ( 0.5 10
Acceleration of the car = vacuum. It does contain some mercury
vapors.
a = F2 /m = 2500/1000 = 2.5 m/s2. Using 2. Thus, the pressure at the upper end of the
Newton's equation of motion, mercury column inside the tube is zero, i.e.
v2 = u2 -2as where final velocity v = 0, pressure at point such as A is PA= zero.
u = 50 km/h 3. Let us consider a point C on the mercury
 50  1000 
2
1 surface in the dish and another point B
s    38.58 m inside the tube at the same horizontal level
 3600  ( 2  2.5)
as that of the point C.
­2.3.6 Measurement of Pressure: 4. The pressure at C is equal to the
Instruments used to measure pressure are atmospheric pressure p0 because it is open
called pressure meters or pressure gauges or to atmosphere. As points B and C are at the
vacuum gauges. Below we will describe two same horizontal level, the pressure at B is
instruments which are commonly used to also equal to the atmospheric pressure Po,
measure pressure. i.e. PB= Po.
Caution: 5. Suppose the point B is at a depth h below
Use of mercury is not advised in a the point A and ρ is the density of mercury
laboratory because mercury vapours are then,
hazardous for life and for environment. PB= PA + hρg --- (2.11)
32
pA = 0 (there is vacuum above point A) and pressure at C is the same as at D, i.e., inside
pB = p0, therefore, p0 = hρg, where h is the length the chamber. Therefore, the pressure p in the
of mercury column in the mercury barometer. container is,
p = pC
Remember this Using Eq. (2.12) and Eq. (2.13) we can write,
The atmospheric pressure is generally p = p0 + hρg --- (2.14)
expressed as the length of mercury column in As the manometer measures the gauge
a mercury barometer. pressure of the gas in the container D, we can
Patm= 76 cm of Hg = 760 mm of Hg =760 write the gauge pressure in the container D as
Torr. p - p0 = hρg

Can you recall?

Can you tell? 1. You must have blown soap bubbles in
What will be the normal atmospheric your childhood. What is their shape?
pressure in bar and also in torr? 2. Why does a greased razor blade float
on the surface of water?
ii) Open tube manometer: A manometer 3. Why can a water spider walk
consists of a U – shaped tube partly filled with comfortably on the surface of still
a low density liquid such as water or kerosene. water?
This helps in having a larger level difference 4. Why are free liquid drops and bubbles
between the level of liquid in the two arms of always spherical in shape?
the manometer. Figure 2.14 shows an open
2.4 Surface Tension:
tube manometer. One arm of the manometer
is open to the atmosphere and the other is A liquid at rest shows a very interesting
connected to the container D of which the property called surface tension. We have
seen that water spider walks on the surface
pressure p is to be measured.
of steady water, greased needle floats on the
steady surface of water, rain drops and soap
bubbles always take spherical shape, etc.
All these phenomena arise due to surface
tension. Surface tension is one of the important
properties of liquids.
Fig. 2.14 Open tube
manometer. Do you know?
The pressure at point A is atmospheric 1. When we write on paper, the ink sticks
pressure p0 because this arm is open to to the paper.
atmosphere. To find the pressure at point C, 2. When teacher writes on a board, chalk
which is exposed to the pressure of the gas particles stick to the board.
in the container, we consider a point B in the 3. Mercury in a glass container does not
open arm of the manometer at the same level wet its surface, while water in a glass
as point C. The pressure at the points B and C
container wets it.
is the same, i.e.,
pC = pB --- (2.12) 2.4.1 Molecular Theory of Surface Tension:
The pressure at point B is, All the above observations can be
pB = po + hρg --- (2.13) explained on the basis of different types of
where, ρ is the density of the liquid in the forces coming into play in all these situations.
manometer, h is the height of the liquid column We will try to understand the effect of these
above point B, and g is the acceleration due forces and their relation to the surface tension
to gravity. According to Pascal’s principle, in liquids.
33
 To understand surface tension, we need
to know some terms in molecular theory
that explain the behaviour of liquids at their
surface.
a) Intermolecular force: Matter is made up
of molecules. Any two molecules attract each (a)
(b)
other. This force between molecules is called Fig. 2.15: (a) sphere of influence and
intermolecular force. There are two types of (b) surface film.
intermolecular forces - i) Cohesive force and (e) Free surface of a liquid: It is the surface
ii) Adhesive force. of a fluid which does not experience any shear
i) Cohesive force: The force of attraction stress. For example, the interface between
between the molecules of the same liquid water and the air above. In Fig. 2.15 (b),
substance is called cohesive force or XY is the free surface of the liquid.
force of cohesion. The force of attraction
between two air molecules or that between Remember this
two water molecules is a cohesive force.
Cohesive force is strongest in solids and While studying pressure, we considered both
weakest in gases. This is the reason why liquids and gases. But as gases do not have
solids have a definite shape and gases do a free surface, they do not exhibit surface
not. Small droplets of liquid coalesce into tension.
one and form a drop due to this force. (f) Surface tension on the basis of molecular
ii) Adhesive force: The force of attraction theory: As shown in Fig. 2.15 (b), XY is the
between the molecules of different free surface of liquid and X′Y′ is the inner
substances is called adhesive force or layer parallel to XY at distance equal to the
force of adhesion. The force of attraction range of molecular force. Hence, the section
between glass and water molecule is a XX′-Y′Y near the surface of the liquid acts as
force of adhesion. the surface film. Consider three molecules A,
b) Range of molecular force: The maximum B, and C such that molecule A is deep inside
distance from a molecule up to which the the liquid, molecule B within surface film and
molecular force is effective is called the range molecule C on the surface of the liquid.
of molecular force. Intermolecular forces As molecule A is deep inside the liquid, its
are effective up to a distance of the order of sphere of influence is also completely inside
few nanometer (10-9 m) in solids and liquids. the liquid. As a result, molecule A is acted
Therefore, they are short range forces. upon by equal cohesive forces in all directions.
c) Sphere of influence: An imaginary sphere Thus, the net cohesive force acting on molecule
with a molecule at its center and radius equal A is zero.
to the molecular range is called the sphere of Molecule B lies within the surface layer
influence of the molecule. The spheres around and below the free surface of the liquid. A
molecules A, B or C are shown in Fig. 2.15 (a) larger part of its sphere of influence is inside
and (b). The intermolecular force is effective the liquid and a smaller part is in air. Due to
only within the sphere of influence. this, a strong downward cohesive force acts on
d) Surface film: The surface layer of a the liquid molecule. The adhesive force acting
liquid with thickness equal to the range of on molecule B due to air molecules above it
intermolecular force is called the surface film. and within its sphere of influence is weak. It
This is the layer shown between XY and X′Y′ points upwards. As a result, the molecule B
in Fig. 2.15 (b). gets attracted inside the liquid.
34
 The same holds for molecule C which lies This force per unit length is the surface
exactly on the free surface of the liquid. Half tension. Surface tension T is defined as, the
of the sphere of influence is in air and half in tangential force acting per unit length on both
the liquid. The number of air molecules within sides of an imaginary line drawn on the free
the sphere of influence of the molecule C, surface of liquid.
above the free surface of the liquid is much less F
T = --- (2.15)
than the number of liquid molecules within the L
SI unit of surface tension is N/m. Its dimensions
sphere of influence that lies within the liquid.
are, [L0M1T-2].
This is because, the density of air is less than
that of a liquid. The adhesive force trying to
pull the molecule above the liquid surface is Use your brain power
much weaker than the cohesive force that tries
to pull the molecule inside the liquid surface. Prove that, equivalent S.I. unit of surface
tension is J/m2.
As a result, the molecule C also gets attracted
inside the liquid. Example 2.4: A beaker of radius 10 cm
Thus, all molecules in the surface film is filled with water. Calculate the force
are acted upon by an unbalanced net cohesive of surface tension on any diametrical line
force directed into the liquid. Therefore, the on its surface. Surface tension of water is
molecules in the surface film are pulled inside 0.075 N/m.
the liquid. This minimizes the total number of Solution: Given,
molecules in the surface film. As a result, the L = 2 × 10 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
surface film remains under tension. The surface T = 0.075 N/m
film of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic We have,
membrane. This tension is known as surface F
T=
tension. The force due to surface tension acts L
tangential to the free surface of a liquid. ∴F = TL = 0.075 × 0.2 = 0.015
2.4.2 Surface Tension and Surface Energy: = 1.5 × 10-2 N
a) Surface Tension: As seen previously, the
free surface of a liquid in a container acts as Table 2.1 – Surface tension of some liquids at 20oC.
a stretched membrane and all molecules on Sr. Liquid S.T. S.T.
the surface film experience a stretching force. No. (N/m) (dyne/cm)
Imagine a line PQ of length L drawn tangential 1 Water 0.0727 72.7
to the free surface of the liquid, as shown in 2 Mercury 0.4355 435.5
Fig. 2.16. 3 Soap 0.025 25
solution
4 Glycerin 0.0632 63.2
b) Surface Energy: We have seen that a
molecule inside the volume of a liquid (like
molecule A in Fig 2.15) experiences no net
Fig. 2.16: Force of surface tension. cohesive force and the molecules B and C
All the molecules on this line experience experience net inward cohesive force. Thus,
equal and opposite forces tangential to surface work has to be done to bring any molecule from
as if they are tearing the surface apart due inside the liquid into the surface film. Clearly,
to the cohesive forces of molecules lying on the surface molecules possess extra potential
either side. energy as compared to the molecules inside
the liquid. The extra energy of the molecules
35
in the surface layer is called the surface energy opposite to F) applied isothermally (gradually
of the liquid. As any system always tries to and at constant temperature), to the arm
attain a state of minimum potential energy, the QR, so that it pulls the arm away and tries
liquid tries to reduce the area of its surface film. to increase the surface area of the film. The
Energy has to be spent in order to increase the arm QR moves to Q′R′ through a distance dx.
surface area of a liquid. Therefore, the work done against F, the force
due to surface tension, is given by
dw = F ′dx
Remember this
Using Eq. (2.16),
1) Molecules on the liquid surface dw = T (2Ldx)
experience net inward pull. In spite of But, 2Ldx = dA, increase in area of the two
this if they remain at the surface, they surfaces of the film. Therefore, dw = T(dA).
possess higher potential energy. As a This work done in stretching the film is
universal property, any system tries to stored in the area dA of the film as its potential
minimize its potential energy. Hence energy. This energy is called surface energy.
liquid surface tries to minimize its ∴ Surface energy = T (dA) --- (2.17)
surface area. Thus, surface tension is also equal to the
2) When a number of droplets coalesce surface energy per unit area.
and form a drop, there is reduction
in the total surface area. In this case, Example 2.5: Calculate the work done
energy is released to the surrounding. in blowing a soap bubble to a radius of
1 cm. The surface tension of soap solution is
c) Relation between the surface energy 2.5 × 10-2 N/m.
and surface tension: Consider a C shaped Solution: Given
frame of wire P′PSS′. It is fitted with a movable T = 2.5 × 10-2 N/m
arm QR as shown in Fig. 2.17. This frame is Initial radius of bubble = 0 cm
dipped in a soap solution and then taken out. A Final radius of bubble, r = 1 cm = 0.01 m
film of soap solution will be formed within the Initial surface area of soap bubble = 0
boundaries PQRS of the frame. (A soap bubble has two surfaces, outer
surface and inner surface).
Final surface area of soap bubble is,
A = 2 × (4πr 2) = 8πr 2
∴change in area = dA = A – 0 = 8πr2
= 0.002514 m2
∴ work done = T × dA
Fig. 2.17: Surface energy of a liquid
= 2.5 × 10-2 × 0.251 × 10-2
= 6.284 × 10-5 J
Each arm of the frame experiences an
inward force due to the film. Under the action
of this force, the movable arm QR moves Try this
towards side PS so as to decrease the area
Take a ring of about 5 cm in diameter. Tie
of the film. If the length of QR is L, then this
a thin thread along the diameter of the ring.
inward force F acting on it is given by
Keep the thread slightly loose. Dip the ring
F = (T) × (2L) --- (2.16)
in a soap solution and take it out. A soap
Since the film has two surfaces, the upper
film is formed on either side of thread.
surface and the lower surface, the total length
Break the film on any one side of the thread.
over which surface tension acts on QR is Discuss the result.
2L. Imagine an external force F′ (equal and
36
 Remember this Do you know?
The work done, under isothermal condition, • when we observe the level of water in a
against the force of surface tension to capillary, we note down the level of the
change the surface area of a liquid is stored tangent to the meniscus inside the water.
as surface energy of liquid. • When we observe the level of mercury
in a capillary we note down the level of
2.4.3 Angle of Contact: the tangent to the meniscus above the
When a liquid surface comes in contact mercury column.
with a solid surface, it forms a meniscus, a) Shape of meniscus:
which can be either convex (mercury-glass) or
i) Concave meniscus - acute angle of contact:
concave (water glass), as shown in Fig. 2.18.
The angle of contact, θ , between a liquid and
a solid surface is defined as the angle between
the tangents drawn to the free surface of the
liquid and surface of the solid at the point of
contact, measured within the liquid.

Fig. 2.19 (a): Acute angle of contact.

Figure 2.19 (a) shows the acute angle of
contact between a liquid surface (e.g., kerosene
in a glass bottle). Consider a molecule such as
A on the surface of the liquid near the wall of
the container. The molecule experiences both
Fig. 2.18 (a): Concave meniscus due to liquids cohesive as well as adhesive forces. In this case,
which partially wet a solid surface. since
 the wall is vertical, the net adhesive force
When the angle of contact is acute, the ( AP ) acting on the molecule A is horizontal,

liquid forms a concave meniscus Fig. 2.18 (a) Net cohesive force ( AC ) acting on molecule is
at the point of contact. When the angle of directed at nearly 45o to either of the surfaces.
contact is obtuse, it forms a convex meniscus Magnitude of adhesive force is so large that

Fig. 2.18 (b). For example, water-glass interface the net force ( AR ) is directed inside the solid.
forms a concave meniscus and mercury-glass For equilibrium or stability
 of a liquid
interface forms a convex meniscus. surface, the net force ( AR ) acting on the
molecule A must be normal to the liquid surface

at all points. For the resultant force AR to
be normal to the tangent, the liquid near the
wall should pile up against the solid boundary
so that the tangent AT to the liquid surface
is perpendicular to AR. Thus, this makes the
meniscus concave. Obviously, such liquid
wets that solid surface.
Fig. 2.18 (b): Convex meniscus due to liquids ii) Convex meniscus - obtuse angle of
which do not wet a solid surface.
This difference between the shapes of contact:
menisci is due to the net effect of the cohesive Figure 2.19 (b) shows the obtuse angle
forces between liquid molecules and adhesive of contact between a liquid and a solid
forces between liquid and solid molecules as (e.g., mercury in a glass bottle). Consider a
discussed below. molecule such as A on the surface of the liquid
37
near the wall of the container. The molecule iv) Angle of contact 900 and conditions for
experiences both cohesive as well as adhesive convexity and concavity:
forces.
 In this case also, the net adhesive force
( AP ) acting on the molecule A is horizontal
since the wall is vertical. Magnitude of
cohesive
 force is so large that the net force
( AR ) is directed inside the liquid.

Fig. 2.19 (d): Acute angle equal to 900.

Consider a hypothetical liquid having
angle of contact 900 with a given solid
container, as shown in the Fig. 2.19
 (d). In this
case, the net cohesive force AC is exactly at
Fig. 2.19 (b): Obtuse angle of contact. 450 with
either of the surfaces and the resultant
force AR is exactly vertical (along the solid
For equilibrium or stability
 of a liquid surface).
surface, the net force ( AR ) acting on all  AC
molecules similar to molecule A must be For this to occur, AP = where, AC is
2
normal to the liquid surface at all points. The the magnitude of the net cohesive force. From
liquid near the wall should, therefore, creep this we can write the conditions for acute and
inside against the solid boundary. This makes
obtuse angles of contact:
the meniscus convex so that its tangent AT is  AC
normal to AR. Obviously, such liquid does not For acute angle of contact, AP > , and for
2
wet that solid surface. 
obtuse angle of contact, AP < AC .
iii) Zero angle of contact : 2

Can you tell?

How does a water proofing agent work?

b) Shape of liquid drops on a solid surface:
When a small amount of a liquid is
dropped on a plane solid surface, the liquid
Fig. 2.19 (c): Angle of contact equal to zero. will either spread on the surface or will form
Figure 2.19 (c) shows the angle of droplets on the surface. Which phenomenon
contact between a liquid (e.g. highly pure will occur depends on the surface tension of
water) which completely wets a solid the liquid and the angle of contact between
(e.g. clean glass) surface. The angle the liquid and the solid surface. The surface
of contact in this case is almost zero (i.e., tension between the liquid and air as well as
θ → 00). In this case, the liquid molecules near that between solid and air will also have to be
the contact region, are so less in number that taken in to account.

the cohesive force is negligible, i.e., AC =0 Let θ be the angle of contact for the given
and the net adhesive
 force itself is the resultant solid-liquid pair.
force, i.e., AP = AR . Therefore, the tangent T1 = Force due to surface tension at the liquid-
AT is along the wall within the liquid and the solid interface,
angle of contact is zero. T2 = Force due to surface tension at the air-
solid interface,

38
T3 = Force due to surface tension at the air- Table 2.2 – Angle of contact for pair of
liquid interface. liquid - solid in contact.
As the force due to surface tension is Sr. Liquid - solid in contact Angle of
tangential to the surfaces in contact, directions No. contact
of T1, T2 and T3 are as shown in the Fig. 2.20.
1 Pure water and clean glass 0°
For equilibrium of the drop,
T T 2 Chloroform with clean 00
T2  T1  T3 cos , cos   2 1 --- (2.18) glass
T3
From this equation we get the following cases: 3 Organic liquids with clean 00
1) If T2 > T1 and (T2-T1) < T3, cos θ is positive glass
and the angle of contact θ is acute as 4 Ether with clean glass 160
shown in Fig. 2.20 (a). 5 Kerosene with clean glass 260
6 Water with paraffin 1070
7 Mercury with clean glass 1400
2.4.4 Effect of impurity and temperature on
surface tension:
Solid a) Effect of impurities:
i) When soluble substance such as common
Fig. 2.20 (a): Acute angle of contact. salt (i.e., sodium chloride) is dissolved
2) If T2 < T1 and (T2 – T1) < T3, cos θ is in water, the surface tension of water
negative, and the angle of contact θ is increases.
obtuse as shown in Fig. 2.20(b). ii) When a sparingly soluble substance such
as phenol or a detergent is mixed with
water, surface tension of water decreases.
For example, a detergent powder is mixed
with water to wash clothes. Due to this,
the surface tension of water decreases and
water makes good contact with the fabric
Fig. 2.20 (b): Obtuse angle of contact. and is able to remove tough stains.
iii) When insoluble impurity is added
3) If (T2 – T1) = T3, cos θ = 1 and θ is nearly
into water, surface tension of water
equal to zero.
decreases. When impurity gets added
4) If (T2 – T1) >T3 or T2> (T1 + T3), cosθ > 1
to any liquid, the cohesive force of that
which is impossible. The liquid spreads
over the solid surface and drop will not be liquid decreases which affects the angle
formed. of contact and hence the shape of the
c) Factors affecting the angle of contact: meniscus. If mercury gathers dust then
The value of the angle of contact depends on its surface tension is reduced. It does not
the following factors, form spherical droplets unless the dust is
i) The nature of the liquid and the solid in completely removed.
contact. b) Effect of temperature: In most liquids,
ii) Impurity : Impurities present in the liquid as temperature increases surface tension
change the angle of contact. decreases. For example, it is suggested that
iii) Temperature of the liquid : Any increase new cotton fabric should be washed in cold
in the temperature of a liquid decreases its water. In this case, water does not make good
angle of contact. For a given solid-liquid contact with the fabric due to its higher surface
surface, the angle of contact is constant at tension. The fabric does not lose its colour
a given temperature. because of this.
39
 Hot water is used to remove tough stains
on fabric because of its lower surface tension.
In the case of molten copper or molten
cadmium, the surface tension increases with
increase in its temperature.
The surface tension of a liquid becomes
zero at critical temperature.
Fig. 2.21 (b) : Convex surface.
2.4.5 Excess pressure across the free surface 
of a liquid: downward force f A . This develops greater
Every molecule on a liquid surface pressure at point B, which is inside the liquid
experiences forces due to surface tension and on the concave side of the meniscus. Thus,
which are tangential to the liquid surface at the pressure on the concave side i.e., inside the
rest. The direction of the resultant force of liquid is greater than that on the convex side
surface tension acting on a molecule on the i.e., outside the liquid.
liquid surface depends upon the shape of that c) Concave liquid surface:
liquid surface. This force also contributes in
deciding the pressure at a point just below the
surface of a liquid.
Figures 2.21 (a), (b) and (c) show surfaces
of three liquids with different shapes and their
menisci. Let f A be the downward force due to
the atmospheric pressure. All the three figures
show two molecules A and B. The molecule A Fig. 2.21 (c): Concave Surface.
is just above, and the molecule B is just below Surface of the liquid in the Fig. 2.21 (c)
it (inside the liquid). Level difference between is upper concave (concave, when seen from
A and B is almost zero, so that it does not above). In
 this case, the force due to surface
f
tension T , on the molecule
 at B is vertically
contribute anything to the pressure difference.
f
upwards. The force A due to atmospheric 
In all the three figures, the pressure at the point
f
pressure acts downwords. Forces A and T f
A is the atmospheric pressure p.
a) Plane liquid surface: thus, act in opposite direction. Therefore,
Figure 2.21 (a) shows planar free surface the net downward force responsible
 for the
f
pressure at B is less than A . This develops a
of the liquid. In this case,
 the resultant force
due to surface tension, f lesser pressure at point B, which is inside the
T on the molecule at B
 liquid and on the convex side of the meniscus.
is zero. The force f A itself decides the pressure
Thus, the pressure on the concave side i.e.,
and the pressure at A and B is the same.
outside the liquid, is greater than that on the
convex side, i.e., inside the liquid.
2.4.6 Explanation of formation of drops and
bubbles:
Liquid drops and small bubbles are
spherical in shape because the forces of
surface tension dominate the gravitational
Fig. 2.21 (a): Plane surface.
b) Convex liquid surface: force. These force always try to minimize the
Surface of the liquid in the Fig.2.21 (b) surface area of the liquid. A bubble or drop
is upper convex. (Convex, when seen from does not collapse because the resultant of the
above). In this case, the resultant force due force due to external pressure and the force of
to surface tension, f T on the molecule at B surface tension is smaller than the pressure
is vertically downwards and adds up to the inside a bubble or inside a liquid drop.

40
 Consider a spherical drop as shown in surface and the outer surface. For a bubble,
Fig. 2.22. Let pi be the pressure inside the drop Eq. (2.19) charges to dA = 2(8πr∆r). Hence, total
and p0 be the pressure out side it. As the drop is increase in the surface area of a soap bubble,
spherical in shape, the pressure, pi, inside the while increasing its radius by ∆r, is 2(8πr∆r)
drop is greater than p0, the pressure outside. The work done by this excess pressure is
Therefore, the excess pressure inside the drop dW = (pi – p0) 4πr 2∆r = T(16πr∆r)
is pi- p0. 4T
∴ (pi – p0) = --- (2.24)
r
Remember this
The gravitational force acting on a
molecule, which is its weight, is also one
of the forces acting within the sphere of
influence near the contact region. However,
Fig. 2.22. Excess pressure inside a liquid drop. within the sphere of influence, the cohesive
Let the radius of the drop increase from and adhesive forces are so strong that the
r to r + ∆r, where ∆r is very small, so that gravitational force can be neglected in the
the pressure inside the drop remains almost
above explanation.
constant.
Let the initial surface area of the drop be Brain teaser:
A1 = 4πr 2, and the final surface area of the 1. Can you suggest any method to measure
drop be A2 = 4π (r+∆r)2. the surface tension of a soap solution?
∴ A2 = 4π(r2 + 2r∆r + ∆r 2) Will this method have any commercial
∴ A2 = 4πr2 + 8πr∆r + 4π∆r 2 application?
As ∆r is very small, ∆r 2 can be neglected, 2. What happens to surface tension under
∴ A = 4πr 2 + 8πr∆r different gravity (e.g. Space station or
2
Thus, increase in the surface area of the drop is lunar surface)?
dA = A2 – A1 = 8πr∆r --- (2.19)
Work done in increasing the surface area Example 2.6: What should be the diameter
by dA is stored as excess surface energy. of a water drop so that the excess pressure
∴ dW = TdA= T (8πr∆r) --- (2.20) inside it is 80 N/m2? (Surface tension of
This work done is also equal to the product water = 7.27 × 10-2 N/m)
of the force F which causes increase in the area Solution: Given
of the drop and the displacement ∆r which is pi – po = 80 N/m2
the increase in the radius of the bubble. T = 7.27 × 10-2 N/m
∴ dW = F∆r --- (2.21) We have,
2T
The excess force is given by, (pi – po) =
r
(Excess pressure) × (Surface area) 2T  2
2 7.27 10
∴ F = (pi – p0) 4πr 2 ∴ r = p  p    1.818  10 3 m
--- (2.22) i o 80
Equating Eq. (2.20) and Eq. (2.21), we get,
T(8πr∆r) = (pi – p0) 4πr 2∆r ∴ d = 2r = 3.636 × 10-3 mm
2T 2.4.7 Capillary Action:
∴ (pi – p0) = --- (2.23)
r A tube having a very fine bore ( ~ 1 mm)
This equation gives the excess pressure and open at both ends is called a capillary
inside a drop. This is called Laplace’s law of a tube. If one end of a capillary tube is dipped in
spherical membrane. a liquid which partially or completely wets the
In case of a soap bubble there are two surface of the capillary (like water in glass)
free surfaces in contact with air, the inner the level of liquid in the capillary rises. On the
41
other hand, if the capillary tube is dipped in than that on the convex side.
a liquid which does not wet its surface (like ∴ pB > pA
mercury in glass) the level of liquid in the As the points A and C are at the same level, the
capillary drops. pressure at both these points is the same, and it
The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid is the atmospheric pressure.
inside a capillary tube when it is dipped in the ∴pA = pC --- (2.25)
liquid is called capillarity. Capillarity is in Between the points C and D, the surface is
action when, plane.
• Oil rises up the wick of a lamp. ∴ pC = pD= pA --- (2.26)
• Cloth rag sucks water. ∴ pB > pD. But the points B and D are at the
• Water rises up the crevices in rocks. same horizontal level. Thus, in order to
• Sap and water rise up to the top most maintain the same pressure, the mercury in the
leaves in a tree. capillary rushes out of the capillary. Because
• Blotting paper absorbs ink. of this, there is a drop in the level of mercury
When a capillary is dipped in a liquid, inside the capillary as shown in Fig. 2.23 (b).
two effects can be observed, a) The liquid
level can rise in the capillary (water in a glass
capillary), or b) The liquid level can fall in the
capillary (mercury in glass capillary). Here we
discuss a qualitative argument to explain the
capillary fall.
a) Capillary fall:
Fig. 2.23 (b): Capillary in mercury, drop in level.
Consider a capillary tube dipped in a
b) Capillary rise:
liquid which does not wet the surface, for
Refer to Fig. 2.24 (a) and Fig. 2.24 (b) and
example, in mercury. The shape of mercury
explain the rise of a liquid inside a capillary.
meniscus in the capillary is upper convex.
Consider the points A, B, C, and D such that,
(see Fig. 2.23 (a)).
i) Point A is just above the convex surface
and inside the capillary.
ii) Point B is just below the convex surface
inside the capillary.
iii) Point C is just above the plane surface
Fig. 2.24 (a): Capillary just immersed in water.
outside the capillary.
iv) Point D is just below the plane surface
and outside the capillary, and below the
point C.

Fig. 2.24 (b): Capillary in water after rise in level.

Expression for capillary rise or fall:
Method (I): Using pressure difference
Fig. 2.23 (a) : Capillary just immersed in mercury. The pressure due to the liquid (water)
Let pA, pB, pC, and pD be the values of column of height h must be equal to the
the pressures at the points A, B, C, and D pressure difference 2T/R due to the concavity.
respectively. As discussed previously, the 2T
pressure on the concave side is always greater ∴ hρg = --- (2.27)
R
42
where, ρ is the density of the liquid and g is Ignoring the liquid in the concave
acceleration due to gravity. meniscus, the volume of the liquid in the
Let r be the radius of the capillary tube capillary rise is V   r 2 h .
and θ be the angle of contact of the liquid as ∴Mass of the liquid in the capillary rise,
shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). m   r 2 h
∴Weight of the liquid in the capillary (rise or
fall), w   r 2 h  g --- (2.30)
This must be equal and opposite to the vertical
Fig. 2.25 (a): Forces acting at
the point of contact.
component of the force due to surface tension.
Thus, equating right sides of equations (2.29)
and (2.30), we get,
 r 2 h  g  T  2 r  cos 
Then radius of curvature R of the meniscus 2Tcos
is given by R 
r  h 
cos rg
2Tcos In terms of capillary rise, the expression
 h g   for surface tension is,
r
rh  g
2Tcos T --- (2.31)
 h  --- (2.28) 2 cos 
rg
The same expression is also valid for
The above equation gives the expression
for capillary rise (or fall) for a liquid. Narrower capillary fall discussed earlier.
the tube, the greater is the height to which the Example 2.7: A capillary tube of radius
liquid rises (or falls).
5 × 10-4 m is immersed in a beaker filled
If the capillary tube is held vertical in
a liquid that has a convex meniscus, then with mercury. The mercury level inside the
the angle of contact θ is obtuse. Therefore, tube is found to be 8 × 10-3 m below the level
cos θ is negative and so is h. This means of reservoir. Determine the angle of contact
that the liquid will suffer capillary fall or between mercury and glass. Surface tension
depression. of mercury is 0.465 N/m and its density is
b) (Method II): Using forces: 13.6 × 103 kg/m3. (g = 9.8 m/s2)
Rise of water inside a capilary is against Solution: Given,
gravity. Hence, weight of the liquid column r = 5 × 10-4 m
must be equal and opposite to the proper h = − 8 × 10-3 m
component of force due to surface tension at
the point of contact. T = 0.465 N/m
The length of liquid in contact inside the g = 9.8 m/s2
ρ = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3
we have,
hr  g
T=
2cos
∴ 0.465
Fig 2.25 (b): Forces acting on liquid inside a capillary.  3 5 10
8 10  4 13
 .6 10
 3 9.8
=
capillary is the circumference 2 π r . Thus, the 2 cos
force due to surface tension is given by, 40 9.8 13.6 10 4
 cos  
fT = (surface tension) × (length in contact) 2 0.465
= T × 2πr cos  0.5732
Direction of this force is along the tangent,
∴cos(π  ) = 0.5732
as shown in the Fig. 2.25 (b).
Vertical component of this force is ∴ 1800  = 550 2′
 f T v  T  2 r  cos  --- (2.29)  = 1240 58′
43
 Steady flow: Measurable property, such as
Do you know? pressure or velocity of the fluid at a given
point is constant over time.
Einstein's first ever published
scientific article deals with capillary
action? Published in German in 1901,
it was entitled Folegerungen aus den
capillaritatserscheinungen (conclusions
drawn from the phenomena of capillarity).
2.5 Fluids in Motion: Fig. 2.26: Flow lines and flow tube.
We come across moving fluids in our day Flow line: It is the path of an individual particle
to day life. The flow of water through our taps, in a moving fluid as shown in Fig. 2.26.
the flow of cooking gas through tubes, or the Streamline: It is a curve whose tangent at
flow of water through a river or a canal can any point in the flow is in the direction of the
be understood using the concepts developed in velocity of the flow at that point. Streamlines
this section. and flow lines are identical for a steady flow.
The branch of Physics which deals with Flow tube: It is an imaginary bundle of flow
the study of properties of fluids in motion is lines bound by an imaginary wall. For a steady
called hydrodynamics. As the study of motion flow, the fluid cannot cross the walls of a flow
of real fluid is very complicated, we shall limit tube. Fluids in adjacent flow tubes cannot mix.
our study to the motion of an ideal fluid. We Laminar flow/Streamline flow: It is a steady
have discussed an ideal fluid in the beginning flow in which adjacent layers of a fluid
of this Chapter. Study of a fluid in motion is move smoothly over each other as shown in
Fig. 2.27 (a). A steady flow of river can be
very important.
assumed to be a laminar flow.
Consider Fig. 2.26 which shows a pipe
Turbulent flow: It is a flow at a very high
whose direction and cross sectional area
flow rate so that there is no steady flow and the
change arbitrarily. The direction of flow of the
flow pattern changes continuously as shown in
fluid in pipe is as shown. We assume an ideal Fig. 2.27 (b). A flooded river flow or a tap
fluid to flow through the pipe. We define a few running very fast is a turbulent flow.
terms used to describe flow of a fluid.
Table 2.3 Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow
Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1) The smooth flow of a fluid, with velocity 1) The irregular and unsteady flow of a fluid
smaller than certain critical velocity (limiting when its velocity increases beyond critical
value of velocity) is called streamline flow or velocity is called turbulent flow.
laminar flow of a fluid.
2) In a streamline flow, velocity of a fluid at a 2) In a turbulent flow, the velocity of a fluid
given point is always constant. at any point does not remain constant.
3) Two streamlines can never intersect, i.e., they3) In a turbulent flow, at some points, the
are always parallel. fluid may have rotational motion which
gives rise to eddies.
4) Streamline flow over a plane surface can be 4) A flow tube loses its order and particles
assumed to be divided into a number of plane move in random direction.
layers. In a flow of liquid through a pipe of
uniform cross sectional area, all the streamlines
will be parallel to the axis of the tube.

44
 less than 1000, the flow of a fluid is streamline
while for Rn greater than 2000, the flow of
fluid is turbulent. When Rn is between 1000
and 2000, the flow of fluid becomes unsteady,
i.e., it changes from a streamline flow to a
turbulent flow.
Fig. 2.27 (a): Streamline flow. 2.6.1 Viscosity:
When we pour water from a glass, it flows
freely and quickly. But when we pour syrup
or honey, it flows slowly and sticks to the
container. The difference is due to fluid friction.
This friction is both within the fluid itself and
between the fluid and its surroundings. This
Fig. 2.27 (b): Turbulent flow.
property of fluids is called viscosity. Water
Can you tell? has low viscosity, whereas syrup or honey has
high viscosity. Figure 2.28 shows a schematic
What would happen if two streamlines section of viscous flow and Fig. 2.29 that of a
intersect? non viscous flow. Note that there is no dragging
force in the non-viscous flow, and all layers are
Activity moving with the same velocity.

Identify some examples of streamline flow

and turbulent flow in every day life. How
would you explain them? When would
your prefer a stream line flow?
Fig. 2.28: Viscous flow. Different layers flow with
2.6 Critical Velocity and Reynolds number: different velocities. The central layer flows the
The flow of a fluid, whether streamline fastest and the outermost layers flow the slowest.
or turbulent, is differentiated on the basis Viscosity of such fluid is zero. The only
of velocity of the flow. The velocity beyond fluid that is almost non-viscous is liquid
which a streamline flow becomes turbulent is helium at about 2K. In this section, we will
called critical velocity. study viscosity of a fluid and how it affects the
According to Osborne Reynolds (1842 - flow of a fluid.
1912), critical velocity is given by
R
v c  n , --- (2.32)
d
where,
vc= critical velocity of the fluid
Rn= Reynolds number Fig. 2.29: Non-viscous flow. Different layers
η = coefficient of viscosity flow with the same velocity.
ρ = density of fluid If we observe the flow of river water, it
d = diameter of tube is found that the water near both sides of the
From Eq. (2.32) equation for Reynolds number river bank flows slow and as we move towards
can be written as, the center of the river, the water flows faster
gradually. At the centre, the flow is the fastest.
v d
Rn  c --- (2.33) From this observation it is clear that there is
 some opposing force between two adjacent
Reynolds number is a pure number. It has layers of fluids which affects their relative
no unit and dimensions. It is found that for Rn motion.
45
 Viscosity is that property of fluid, by virtue The coefficient of viscosity can be
of which, the relative motion between different defined as the viscous force per unit area per
layers of a fluid experience a dragging force. unit velocity gradient. S.I. unit of viscosity is
This force is called the viscous drag. This is Ns/m2.
shown schematically in Fig. 2.30.
Use your brain power

CGS unit of viscosity is Poise. Find the

relation between Poise and the SI unit of
viscosity.
A Microsopic View of Viscosity:
Viscosity of a fluid can be explained
Fig. 2.30: Change in velocity of layer as its on the basic of molecular motion as follow.
distance from a referee layer changes. Consider the laminar flow between plats
In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short X and Y as shown in the figure. Plate X is
range molecular cohesive forces, and in gases stationary and plate Y moves with a velocity
it is due to collisions between fast moving v0. Layers a, b, and c move with velocity,
v-dv, v, and v + dv respectively. Consider
molecules. In both liquids and gases, as long
two adjacent layers, b and c. The velocity
as the relative velocity between the layers is
of the fluid is equal to mean velocity of the
small, the viscous drag is proportional to the
molecules contained in that layer. Thus,
relative velocity. However, in a turbulent flow,
the mean velocity of the molecules in
the viscous drag increases rapidly and is not
layer b is v, while the molecules in layers
proportional to relative velocity but proportional
c have a slightly greater mean velocity
to higher powers of relative velocity. v + dv. As you will learn in the next
Velocity gradient: The rate of change of chapter, each molecule possesses a random
velocity (dv) with distance (dx) measured velocity whose magnitude is usually larger
from a stationary layer is called velocity than that of the mean velocity. As a result,
gradient (dv/dx). molecules are continually transferred in
2.6.2 Coefficient of viscosity: large numbers between the two layers. On
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the average, molecules passing from layer
for a streamline flow, viscous force (f) acting
on any layer is directly proportional to the
area (A) of the layer and the velocity gradient
(dv/dx) i.e.,
 dv 
f  A 
 dx 
 dv 
 f   A  --- (2.34)
 dx  c to layer b will be moving too fast for
where η is a constant, called coefficient of their 'new' layer by an amount dv and will
viscosity of the liquid. From Eq. (2.34) we can slow down as a result of collisions with the
write, molecules in layer b. The result is a transfer
f of momentum from faster-moving layers c
   to their neighboring slower-moving layers
 dv 
A   --- (2.35) such as b and thus eventually to plate X.
 dx  Because the original source of this transfer
Note: ‘A’ in this expression is not the cross of momentum is plate Y, the overall result
sectional area, it is the area of the layer, is a transfer of momentum from plate Y
parallel to the direction of the flow.

46
 2.7 Stokes’ Law:
to plate X. If there are no external forces
In 1845, Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819-
applied, this momentum transfer would
1903) stated the law which gives the viscous
reduce speed of the plate Y to zero with
force acting on a spherical object falling
respect to the plate X.
through a viscous medium (see Fig. 2.31).
Reduction in the velocity of the
molecules in the direction of laminar flow
is due to the fact that their directions after
collision are random. This randomness, to be
discussed in Chapter 3, results in an increase
in the thermal energy of the fluid at the cost
of its macrosopic kinetic energy. That is, the
process is dissipative, or frictional.
In liquids there is an additional, Fig 2.31: Spherical object moving through a
stronger interaction between molecules in viscous medium.
adjacent layers, due to the intermolecular The law states that, “The viscous force
forces that distinguish liquid from gases. (Fv) acting on a small sphere falling through
As a result, there is a transfer of momentum a viscous medium is directly proportional
from faster-moving layers to slower-moving to the radius of the sphere (r), its velocity
layers, which results in a viscous drag. (v) through the fluid, and the coefficient of
viscosity (η) of the fluid”.
 Fv   rv
Remember this
The empirically obtained constant of
Coefficient of viscosity of a fluid changes proportionality is 6π .
with change in its temperature. For  Fv  6 rv --- (2.36)
most liquids, the coefficient of viscosity This is the expression for viscous force
decreases with increase in their temperature. acting on a spherical object moving through
a viscous medium. The above formula can be
It probably depends on the fact that at
higher temperatures, the molecules are derived using dimensional analysis.
farther apart and the cohesive forces or
Example 2.8: A steel ball with radius
inter-molecular forces are, therefore, less
effective. Whereas, in gases, the coefficient 0.3 mm is falling with velocity of 2 m/s at
of viscosity increases with the increase a time t, through a tube filled with glycerin,
in temperature. This is because, at high having coefficient of viscosity 0.833 Ns/m2.
temperatures, the molecules move faster Determine viscous force acting on the steel
and collide more often with each other, ball at that time.
giving rise to increased internal friction. Solution: Given
r = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10-3 m, v = 2 m/s,
Table 2.4 Coefficient of viscosity at different
temperatures. η = 0.833 N s/m2.
Coefficient of We have, F  6 rv
Fluid Temperature Viscosity F = 6 × 3.142 × 0.833 x 0.3 × 10-3 × 2
Ns/m2 Therefore, F = 9.422 × 10-3 N
00C 0.017 x 10-3 2.7.1 Terminal Velocity:
Air
40 C
0
0.019 x 10-3 Consider a spherical object falling
200C 1 x 10-3 through a viscous fluid. Forces experienced by
Water
100 C
0
0.3 x 10-3 it during its downward motion are,
Machine 160C 0.113 x 10-3 1. Viscous force (Fv), directed upwards.
oil 380C 0.034 x 10-3 Its magnitude goes on increasing with
increase in its velocity.
47
2. Gravitational force, or its weight (Fg), This is the expression for the terminal velocity
directed downwards, and of the sphere. From Eq. (2.37) we can also write,
3. Buoyant force or upthrust (Fu), directed 2 r    g
2

upwards.   --- (2.38)

9 v
Net downward force given by The above equation gives coefficient of
f = Fg - (Fv+ Fu), is responsible for initial increase viscosity of a fluid.
in the velocity. Among the given forces, Fg and
Fu are constant while Fv increases with increase Example 2.9: A spherical drop of oil falls
in velocity. Thus, a stage is reached when at a constant speed of 4 cm/s in steady air.
the net force f becomes zero. At this stage, Calculate the radius of the drop. The density
Fg = Fv + Fu. After that, the downward velocity of the oil is 0.9 g/cm3, density of air is
remains constant. This constant downward 0.0013 g/cm3 aud the coefficient of viscosity
velocity is called terminal velocity. Obviously, of air is 1.8 × 10-4 poise, (g = 980 cm/s2)
now onwards, the viscous force Fv is also Solution: Given,
constant. The entire discussion necessarily v = 4 cm/s
applies to streamline flow only. η = 1.8 × 10-4 Poise
ρ = 0. 9 g/cm3
σ = 0.0013 g/cm3
We have,
2 r    g
2

 
9 v
9 v
Fig. 2.32: Forces acting on object moving r 
through a viscous medium. 2   g
Consider a spherical object falling under
gravity through a viscous medium as shown in 9  1.8 10 4  4
r 
Fig. 2.32. Let the radius of the sphere be r, its 2   0.9  0.0013  980
mass m and density ρ. Let the density of the \ r = 1.356 × 10-3 cm
medium be σ and its coefficient of viscosity
be η. When the sphere attains the terminal
velocity, the total downward force acting on Remember this
the sphere is balanced by the total upward The velocity with which an object can
force acting on the sphere. move through a viscous fluid is always less
Total downward force = Total upward force than or equal to the terminal velocity in that
weight of sphere (mg) = fluid for that object.
viscous force + buoyant to due to the medium
4 3 4 2.8 Equation of Continuity:
 r  g  6 rv    r 3 g Consider a steady flow of an
3 3
incompressible fluid as shown in Fig. 2.33. For
 4   4 
6 rv    r 3  g     r 3 g  a steady flow, the velocity of a particle remains
3  3  constant at a given point but it can vary from
4 point to point. For example, consider section
6 rv     r 3 g     
3 A1 and A2 in Fig. 2.33. Section A1 has larger
cross sectional area than the section A2. Let v1
4 1
v     r 3 g       and v2 be the velocities of the fluid at sections
3 6 r A1 and A2 respectively.
 2  r g   
2
This is because, a particle has to move
v    --- (2.37) faster in the narrower section (where there is
9 

48
 Av is the volume rate of flow of a fluid,
i.e.,
dV dV
Av = . The quantity is the volume
dt dt
of a fluid per unit time passing through any
Fig. 2.33: Steady
cross section of the tube of flow. It is called
flow fluid.
the volume flux. Similarly, ρdV/dt =dm/dt is
called mass flux.
Equation (2.40) is called the equation of
less space) to accommodate particles behind continuity in fluid dynamics. The continuity
it hence its velocity increases. When a particle equation says that the volume rate of flow of
enters a wider section, it slows down because an incompressible fluid for a steady flow is
there is more space. Because the fluid is the same throughout the flow.
incompressible, the particles moves faster
through a narrow section and slow down while Do you know?
moving through wider section. If the fluid does
When water is released from a dam, the
not move faster in a narrow regain, it will be
amount of water is mentioned in terms of
compressed to fit into the narrow space.
Thousand Million Cubic feet (TMC). One
Consider a tube of flow as shown in
TMC is 109 cubic feet of water per second.
Fig. 2.33. All the fluid that passes through
Basic unit of measuring flow is cusec. One
a tube of flow must pass through any cross
cusec is one cubic feet per sec (28.317 lit
section that cuts the tube of flow. We know per sec).
that all the fluid is confined to the tube of flow.
Fluid can not leave the tube or enter the tube. Example 2.10: As shown in the given figure,
Consider section A1 and A2 located at a piston of cross sectional area 2 cm2 pushes
points A and B respectively as shown in the liquid out of a tube whose area at the
Fig. 2.33. Matter is neither created nor outlet is 40 mm2. The piston is pushed at a
destroyed within the tube enclosed between rate of 2 cm/s. Determine the speed at which
section A1 and A2. Therefore, the mass of the the fluid leaves the tube.
fluid within this region is constant over time.
That means, if mass m of the fluid enters the
section A1 then equal mas of fluid should leave
the section A2.
Let the speed of the fluid which crosses
the section EFGH at point A in time interval Solution: Given,
∆t be v1. Thus, the mass of the fluid entering A1 = 2 cm2 = 2 × 10-4 m2
the tube through the cross section at point A v1 = 2 cm/s = 2 × 10-2 m/s
is ρA1v1∆t. Similarly, let the speed of the fluid A2 = 40 mm2 = 40 × 10-6 m2
be v2 at point B. The fluid crosses the section From equation of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2
PQRS of area A2 in time interval ∆t. Thus, the Therefore,
mass of the fluid leaving the tube through the A v 2 10 4 2 10 2
v 2  1 1   0.1m / s
cross section at B is ρA2v2∆t. A2 40 10 6
As fluid is incompressible, the mass of the
fluid entering the tube at point A is the same as
Use your brain power
the mass leaving the tube at B.
Mass of the fluid in section EFGH = mass A water pipe with a diameter of 5.0 cm is
of fluid in section PQRS connected to another pipe of diameter 2.5
ρA1v1∆t = ρA2v2∆t --- (2.39) cm. How would the speeds of the water flow
A1v1 = A2v2 or, Av = constant --- (2.40) compare?

49
 energy, kinetic energy and gravitational
Do you know? potential energy.
Figure 2.34 shows flow of an ideal fluid
1. How does an aeroplane take off? through a tube of varying cross section and
2. Why do racer cars and birds have typical height. Consider an element of fluid that lies
shape? between cross sections P and R.
3. Have you experienced a sideways jerk Let,
while driving a two wheeler when a • v1 and v2 be the speed the fluid at the lower
heavy vehicle overtakes you? end P and the upper end R respectively.
4. Why does dust get deposited only on one
• A1 and A2 be the cross section area of the
side of the blades of a fan?
fluid at the lower end P and the upper end
5. Why helmets have specific shape?
R respectively.
2.9 Bernoulli's Equation: • P1 and P2 be the pressures of the fluid at the
On observing a river, we notice that the lower end P and the upper R respectively.
speed of the water decreases in wider region • d1 and d2 be the distances travelled by the
whereas the speed of water increases in the fluid at the lower end P and the upper end
regions where the river is narrow. From this R during the time interval dt with velocities
we might think that the pressure in narrower v1 and v2 respectively.
regions is more than that in the wider region. • Now P1 A1 and P2 A2 are the forces acting
However, the pressure within the fluid in the on areas A1 at P and A2 at R respectively.
narrower parts is less while that in wider parts The volume dV of the fluid passing through
is more. any cross section during time interval dt is
Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1700- the same; i.e.,
1782), while experimenting with fluid inside dV = A1d1 = A2d2 --- (2.41)
pipes led to the discovery of the concept There is no internal friction in the fluid as
mentioned above. He observed, in his the fluid is ideal. In practice also, for a fluid like
experiment, that the speed of a fluid in a narrow water, the loss in energy due to viscous force is
region increases but the internal pressure of a negligible. So the only non-gravitational force
fluid in the same narrow region decreases. This that does work on the fluid element is due to the
phenomenon is called Bernoulli’s principle. pressure of the surrounding fluid. Therefore,
the net work, W, done on the element by the
surrounding fluid during the flow from P to R
is,
W = P1A1d1 – P2A2d2
The second term in the above equation has
a negative sign because the force at R opposes
the displacement of the fluid. From Eq. (2.41)
the above equation can be written as,
W = P1dV – P2dV
∴ W = (P1-P2) dV --- (2.42)
Fig. 2.34: Flow of fluid through a tube of As the work W is due to forces other than
varying cross section and height. the conservative force of gravity, it equals the
Bernoulli’s equation relates the speed of a change in the total mechanical energy i.e.,
fluid at a point, the pressure at that point and kinetic energy plus gravitational potential
the height of that point above a reference level. energy associated with the fluid element.
It is an application of work – energy theorem i.e., W = ∆K.E. + ∆P.E. --- (2.43)
for a fluid in flow. As Bernoulli's principle is The mechanical energy for the fluid
consistent with the principle of conservation between sections Q and R does not change.
of energy, we shall derive it using pressure
50
 At the beginning of the time interval
dt, the mass and the kinetic energy A different way of interpreting the
Bernoulli’s equation:
of the fluid between P and Q is, ρ
1
A1d1, and
1
  A1d1  v12 respectively. At 2
 
 P1  P2     v 22  v12   g  h2  h1 
2 Dimensionally, pressure is energy per unit
the end of the time interval dt, the kinetic volume. Both terms on the right side of the
energy of the fluid between section R and S is above equation have dimensions of energy
1 per unit volume. Hence, quite often, the
  A2 d2  v 22 . Therefore, the net change in the left side is referred to as pressure energy
2 per unit volume. The left side of equation
kinetic energy, ∆K.E., during time interval dt is called pressure head. The first term on
is, the right side is called the velocity head
1 1 and the second term is called the potential
∆K.E. =   A2 d2  v 2     A1d1  v1
2 2

2 2 head.
1 1 In other words, the Bernoulli’s principle
∆K.E. = 2  dVv 2  2  dVv1
2 2
is thus consistent with the principle of
conservation of energy.
1
2

∆K.E. =  dV v 2  v1
2
2
--- (2.44) Example 2.11: The given figure shows a
Also, at the beginning of the time interval streamline flow of a non-viscous liquid
dt, the gravitational potential energy of the having density 1000 kg/m3. The cross
mass m between P and Q is mgh1 = ρdVgh1. sectional area at point A is 2 cm2 and at
At the end of the interval dt, the gravitational point B is 1 cm2. The speed of liquid at the
potential energy of the mass m between R and point A is 5 cm/s. Both points A and B are
S is mgh2 = ρdVgh2. Therefore, the net change at the same horizontal level. Calculate the
in the gravitational potential energy, ∆P.E., difference in pressure at A and B.
during time interval dt is,
∆P.E. = ρdVgh2 - ρdVgh1
∆P.E. = ρdVg (h2- h1) --- (2.45) Solution: Given,
Substituting Eq. (2.42), (2.44) and (2.45) in ρ = 1000 kg/m3, A1 = 2 cm2 = 2 × 10-4 m2
Eq. (2.43) we get, A2 = 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2, v1 = 5 cm/s = 5 × 10-2
1 m/s and h1= h2

 P1  P2  dV    dV v 22  v12
2
 From the equation of continuity,
A1v1 = A2v2
  dVg  h2  h1 
Av  2 = 10 cm/s
 v 2   1 1 = 2 5 10
1
2

  P1  P2     v 22  v12  A2 10 2
By Bernoulli’s equation,
  g  h2  h1  1
--- (2.46)
This is Bernoulli’s equation. It states that 2
 
 P1  P2  dV    dV v 22  v12
the work done per unit volume of a fluid by   dVg  h2  h1 
the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of (since, h2  h1  0 )
the changes in kinetic and potential energies 1
per unit volume that occur during the flow.  
 P1  P2  dV    dV v 22  v12
2
Equation (2.46) can also be written as,
1
1 1  1000  100  25 
P1   v12   gh1  P2   v22   gh2 ---(2.47) 2
2 2
= 500 × 75
1 2 P1 - P2 = 37500 Pa = 3.75 × 104 Pa
or, P   v   gh  constant --- (2.48)
2
51
   A 2 
Use your brain power  1   2   v 22  2gh
Does the Bernoulli’s equation change when   A1  
the fluid is at rest? How? If A2<<A1, the above equation reduces to,
Applications of Bernoulli’s equation: v 2 = 2 gh --- (2.50)
a) Speed of efflux: This is the equation of the speed of a
The word efflux means fluid out flow. liquid flowing out through an orifice at a depth
Torricelli discovered that the speed of efflux ‘h’ below the free surface. It is the same as that
from an open tank is given by a formula of a particle falling freely through the height
identical to that of a freely falling body. ‘h’ under gravity.
Example 2.12: Doors of a dam are 20 m
below the surface of water in the dam. If
one door is opened, what will be the speed
of the water that flows out of the door?
(g = 9.8 m/s2), specific gravity of mercury =
(ρHg/ρw)=13.6
Solution: Given, h = 20 m
From Toricelli’s law,
v = 2gh = 2 ×9.8 ×20 = 392
Fig. 2.35: Efflux of fluid from an orifice. = 19.79 m/s
Consider a liquid of density ‘ρ’ filled in a b) Ventury tube:
tank of large cross-sectional area A1 having an A ventury tube is used to measure the
orifice of cross-sectional area A2 at the bottom speed of flow of a fluid in a tube. It has a
as shown in Fig. 2.35. Let A2<<A1. The liquid constriction in the tube. As the fluid passes
flows out of the tank through the orifice. Let through the constriction, its speed increases
v1 and v2 be the speeds of the liquid at A1 and in accordance with the equation of continuity.
A2 respectively. As both, inlet and outlet, are The pressure thus decreases as required by the
exposed to the atmosphere, the pressure at Bernoulli equation.
these position equals the atmosphere pressure
p0. If the height of the free surface above the
orifice is h, Bernoulli’s equation gives us,
1 1
P0   v12   gh  P0    v 22 --- (2.49)
2 2
Using equation the of continuity we can write,
A Fig. 2.36: Ventury tube.
v1 = 2 v 2
A1 The fluid of density ρ flows through the
Substituting v1 in Eq.(2.49) we get, Ventury tube. The area of cross section is A1
2 at wider part and A2 at the constriction. Let the
1  A2  2 1 speeds of the fluid at A1 and A2 be v1 and v2,
   v 2   gh    v 22
2  A1  2 and the pressures, be p1 and p2 respectively.
2 From Bernoulli’s equation,
 A2  2 1 1
  v 2  2 gh  v 2
2
P1    v12  P2    v 22
A
 1 2 2
1
 
2
A 
2 gh  v   2  v 22
2  P1  P2     v 22  v12 --- (2.51)
2 2
 A1  Figure 2.36 shows two vertical tubes connected

52
to the Ventury tube at A1 and A2. If the difference below the wings does not change. Due to this
in height of the liquid levels in the tubes is h, pressure difference, an upward force called the
we have, dynamic lift acts on the bottom of the wings of
 p1  p2 )   gh  a plane. When this force becomes greater than
the weight of aeroplane, the aeroplane takes
Substituting above equation in Eq. (2.51) we
off.
get,
d) Working of an atomizer:
2 gh  v 22  v12 --- (2.52)
From the equation of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2,
substituting v1 in terms of v2 or vice versa in
Eq. (2.52) the rate of flow of liquid passing
through a cross section can be calculated by Fig. 2.38: Atomizer.
knowing the areas A1and A2.
The action of the carburetor of an
Example 2.13: Water flows through a tube as automobile engine, paint-gun, scent-spray
shown in the given figure. Find the difference in or insect-sprayer is based on the Bernoulli’s
mercury level, if the speed of flow of water at principle. In all these, a tube T is dipped in a
point A is 2 m/s and at point B is 5 m/s. (g = 9.8
liquid as shown in Fig. 2.38. Air is blown at
m/s2, specific gravity of mercury = 13.6)
Solution: Given, v1 = 2 m/s, v2 = 5 m/s high speed over the tip of this tube with the help
We have, Pressure difference in water generates of a piston P in the cylinder C. This high speed
level difference for the mercury in the manometer. air creates low pressure over the tube, due to
1 which the liquid rises in it and is then blown off
∆P =  
 w v 22  v12  h  g
2 in very small droplets with expelled air.
v 22 −v12 25  4 e) Blowing off of roofs by stormy wind:
h= = = 0.07878 m
2g 2 9.8  13.6
= 7.878 cm

c) Lifting up of an aeroplane:
Fig. 2.39: Airflow along a roof.
When high speed, stormy wind blows
over a roof top, it causes low pressure p above
the roof in accordance with the Bernoulli’s
principle. However, the air below the roof
(i.e. inside the room) is still at the atmospheric
Fig. 2.37: Airflow along an aerofoil. pressure p0. So, due to this difference in
The shape of cross section of wings pressure, the roof is lifted up and is then blown
of an aeroplane is as shown in Fig. 2.37. off by the wind as shown in Fig. 2.39.
When an aeroplane runs on a runway, due to
aerodynamic shape of its wings, the streamlines Observe and discuss
of air are crowded above the wings compared
to those below the wings. Thus, the air above Observe the shape of blades of a fan and
the wings moves faster than that below the discuss the nature of the air flow when fan
wings. According to the Bernoulli’s principle, is switched on.
the pressure above the wings decreases and that

53
 Internet my friend
5. https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/
1. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
chapter/viscosity-and-laminar-flow-
hbase/pfric.html
poiseuilles-law/
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chapter/chapter-1/
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hbase/fluid.html#flucon

Exercises

1) Multiple Choice Questions 2) Answer in brief.

i) A hydraulic lift is designed to lift heavy i) Why is the surface tension of paints and
objects of maximum mass 2000 kg. The lubricating oils kept low?
area of cross section of piston carrying ii) How much amount of work is done in
the load is 2.25 × 10-2 m2. What is the forming a soap bubble of radius r?
maximum pressure the piston would iii) What is the basis of the Bernoulli’s
have to bear? principle?
(A) 0.8711 × 106 N/m2 iv) Why is a low density liquid used as
(B) 0.5862 × 107 N/m2 a manometric liquid in a physics
(C) 0.4869 × 105 N/m2 laboratory?
(D) 0.3271 × 104 N/m2 v) What is an incompressible fluid?
ii) Two capillary tubes of radii 0.3 cm and 3. Why two or more mercury drops form a
0.6 cm are dipped in the same liquid. single drop when brought in contact with
The ratio of heights through which the each other?
liquid will rise in the tubes is
4. Why does velocity increase when water
(A) 1:2 (B) 2:1 (C) 1:4 (D) 4:1
flowing in broader pipe enters a narrow
iii) The energy stored in a soap bubble of
pipe?
diameter 6 cm and T = 0.04 N/m is nearly
(A) 0.9 × 10-3 J (B) 0.4 × 10-3 J 5. Why does the speed of a liquid increase
(C) 0.7 × 10-3 J (D) 0.5 × 10-3 J and its pressure decrease when a
iv) Two hail stones with radii in the ratio liquid passes through constriction in a
of 1:4 fall from a great height through horizontal pipe?
the atmosphere. Then the ratio of their 6. Derive an expression of excess pressure
terminal velocities is inside a liquid drop.
(A) 1:2 (B) 1:12 (C) 1:16 (D) 1:8 7. Obtain an expression for conservation
v) In Bernoulli’s theorem, which of the of mass starting from the equation of
following is conserved? continuity.
(A) linear momentum 8. Explain the capillary action.
(B) angular momentum 9. Derive an expression for capillary rise
(C) mass for a liquid having a concave meniscus.
(D) energy
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10 Find the pressure 200 m below the value of the pipe. Calculate the speed of
surface of the ocean if pressure on the water flowing through the pipe. (Density
free surface of liquid is one atmosphere. of water = 1000 kg/m3).
(Density of sea water = 1060 kg/m3) [Ans. 14.14 m/s]
[Ans. 21.789 × 105 N/m2] 18. Calculate the rise of water inside a
11. In a hydraulic lift, the input piston had clean glass capillary tube of radius
surface area 30 cm2 and the output piston 0.1 mm, when immersed in water of
has surface area of 1500 cm2. If a force surface tension 7 × 10-2 N/m. The angle
of 25 N is applied to the input piston, of contact between water and glass is
calculate weight on output piston. zero, density of water = 1000 kg/m3, g
[Ans. 1250 N] = 9.8 m/s2.
12. Calculate the viscous force acting on [Ans. 0.1429 m]
a rain drop of diameter 1 mm, falling 19. An air bubble of radius 0.2 mm is situated
with a uniform velocity 2 m/s through just below the water surface. Calculate
air. The coefficient of viscosity of air is the gauge pressure. Surface tension of
1.8 × 10-5 Ns/m2. water = 7.2 × 10-2 N/m.
[Ans. 3.393 × 10-7 N] [Ans. 720 N/m2]
13. A horizontal force of 1 N is required to 20. Twenty seven droplets of water, each
move a metal plate of area 10-2 m2 with a of radius 0.1 mm coalesce into a single
velocity of 2 × 10-2 m/s, when it rests on drop. Find the change in surface energy.
a layer of oil 1.5 × 10-3 m thick. Find the Surface tension of water is 0.072 N/m.
coefficient of viscosity of oil. [Ans. 1.628 × 10-7 J = 1.628 erg]
[Ans. 7.5 Ns/m2] 21. A drop of mercury of radius 0.2 cm is
14. With what terminal velocity will an broken into 8 identical droplets. Find
air bubble 0.4 mm in diameter rise in a the work done if the surface tension of
liquid of viscosity 0.1 Ns/m2 and specific mercury is 435.5 dyne/cm.
gravity 0.9? Density of air is 1.29 kg/m3. [Ans. 2.189 × 10-5J]
[Ans. - 0.782 × 10-3 m/s, The negative 22. How much work is required to form
sign indicates that the bubble rises up] a bubble of 2 cm radius from the
15. The speed of water is 2m/s through a soap solution having surface tension
pipe of internal diameter 10 cm. What 0.07 N/m.
should be the internal diameter of nozzle [Ans. 0.7038 × 10-3 J]
of the pipe if the speed of water at nozzle 23. A rectangular wire frame of size
is 4 m/s? 2 cm × 2 cm, is dipped in a soap solution
[Ans. 7.07 × 10-2 m] and taken out. A soap film is formed,
16. With what velocity does water flow if the size of the film is changed to
out of an orifice in a tank with gauge 3 cm × 3 cm, calculate the work done in
pressure 4 × 105 N/m2 before the flow the process. The surface tension of soap
starts? Density of water = 1000 kg/m3. film is 3 × 10-2 N/m.
[Ans. 28.28 m/s] [Ans. 3 × 10-5 J]
17. The pressure of water inside the closed
pipe is 3 × 105 N/m2. This pressure
reduces to 2 × 105 N/m2 on opening the

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