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 Maximum and Minimum

Definition: Let 𝑓 be defined on an interval and let 𝑥 and 𝑥 denote points in

that interval

(a) 𝑓 is strictly increasing on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 𝑓(𝑥 ), wherever, 𝑥 < 𝑥 .
(b) 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 𝑓(𝑥 ), wherever, 𝑥 < 𝑥 .
(c) 𝑓 is constant on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) for all point 𝑥 and 𝑥 .

Strictly Increasing Strictly Decreasing

𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥 )

x1 x2 x1 x2

constant
t

𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑓(𝑥 )

x1 x2

Theorem: Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous in a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and

differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

(a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏) then 𝑓 is increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
(b) If 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏) then 𝑓 is decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
(c) If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏) then 𝑓 is constant on [𝑎, 𝑏].
 ∅
∅

Increasing (𝑓 (𝑥) > 0) decreasing (𝑓 (𝑥) < 0)

𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

Constant

Strictly increasing 𝒇 (𝒙) > 0 Increasing 𝒇 (𝒙) ≥ 𝟎

Decreasing 𝒇 (𝒙) ≤ 𝟎
Strictly decreasing 𝒇 (𝒙) < 0
 [𝟎, 𝝅] Neither increasing nor
decreasing

𝜋
2𝜋
2

𝑦 = sin 𝑥

Problem: Find the interval on which the following functions are increasing and
the interval on which they are decreasing?

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 4
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 1
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

Solution: (a)

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3=(𝑥 − 2) − 1

Now, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4

For increasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

⇒ 2𝑥 − 4 > 0

⇒𝑥>2

For decreasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 (0, 3)

⇒ 2(𝑥 − 2) < 0
(3, 0)
(1, 0)

(2, -1)
⇒𝑥<2

𝑓 is increasing on [2, ∞)

𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, 2]

Solution: (b) 3𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑓’

𝑥<0 - - +
Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 4 0<𝑥<2 + - -
𝑥>2 + + +
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 6𝑥

For critical value, 𝑥 = 0, 2

For increasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

⇒ 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 >0

⇒ 3𝑥(𝑥 − 2) > 0

i.e. 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥 > 2

For decreasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0

⇒ 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 <0

𝑖. 𝑒. 0 < 𝑥 < 2

So, 𝑓 is increasing on, (−∞, 0] ∪ [2, ∞)

𝑓 is decreasing on, [0, 2].

Solution:(c)

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 1

-2 0 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 12
= 3(𝑥 − 4)

Critical values: 2, -2

For increasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

𝑥−2 𝑥+2 𝑓’
3(𝑥 − 4) > 0 𝑥 < −2 - - +
−2 < 𝑥 < 0 - + -
i.e. 𝑥 < −2, 𝑥 > 2 0<𝑥<2 - + -
𝑥>2 + + +
For decreasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0

3(𝑥 − 4) < 0

i.e. −2 < 𝑥 < 0, 0 < 𝑥 < 2,

So, 𝑓 is increasing on, (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞)

𝑓 is decreasing on, [−2, 0] ∪ [0, 2]

Solution: (d)

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 3𝑥 𝑓’(𝑥)
𝑥<0 + +
For increasing function, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 𝑥>0 + +
⇒ 3𝑥 > 0

⇒𝑥>0

So, 𝑓 is increasing on, (−∞, 0] ∪ [0, ∞)

Concavity
Definition:

Let 𝑓 be differentiable on an interval

(a) 𝑓 is called concave up on the interval if 𝑓 (𝑥) is increasing on the interval.

(b) 𝑓 is called concave down on the interval if 𝑓 (𝑥) is decreasing on the interval.

Concave down Concave Up

Theorem:

(a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 on an open interval then 𝑓 is concave up on (𝑎, 𝑏)

(b) If 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 on an open interval then 𝑓 is concave down on (𝑎, 𝑏)

Problem:

Find the interval on which the following functions are concave up and concave
down

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 4

Solution: (1)

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥

For concave up, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

⇒ 6𝑥 > 0

⇒𝑥>0

For concave down, 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0

⇒ 6𝑥 < 0

⇒𝑥<0

𝑓 is concave up on, (0, ∞)

𝑓 is concave down on, (−∞, 0)

Solution: (2)

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6

𝑓 (𝑥) = 9𝑥 − 8𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 18𝑥 − 8 = 2(9𝑥 − 4)

For concave up, 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

⇒ 2(9𝑥 − 4) > 0

⇒𝑥>

For concave down, 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0

⇒ 2(9𝑥 − 4) < 0

⇒𝑥<

𝑓 is concave up on, ,∞
𝑓 is concave down on, −∞,

Solution: (3)

Ans : Concave up: (0, ∞)

Concave down: (−∞, 0)

Critical value: The values of 𝑥 for which = 0 or 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0. These values of 𝑥

are called critical values.

Critical point

Stationary point 𝒇′ (𝒙) does not exist

𝒇 (𝒙) = 𝟎

𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

Maximum and Minimum:

Theorem (First Derivative Test) :

Suppose 𝑓 is continuous at a critical point 𝑥

a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 on an open interval extending left from 𝑥 and 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 on the
open interval extending right from 𝑥 . Then 𝑓 has a relative maximum at 𝑥 .
(+, -)
b) If 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 on an open interval extending left from 𝑥 and 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 on the
open interval extending right from 𝑥 . Then 𝑓 has a relative minimum at 𝑥 .
(-, +)
c) If 𝑓 (𝑥) has the same sign [either 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 0𝑟 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0] on an open interval
extending left from 𝑥 and open interval extending right from 𝑥 then 𝑓 does
not have a relative extremum at 𝑥 (inflection point).

+ - - +

Maximum Minimum

Relative maximum or minimum are known as extemum

Problem 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 5, find the nature of the stationary point.

Solution: Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 5

𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2
At Stationary point, =0

⇒ 2𝑥 − 2 = 0

⇒𝑥=1

Now, at 𝑥 < 1, 𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑣𝑒

𝑥 > 1, 𝑓 (𝑥) = +𝑣𝑒

There is a minimum at 𝑥 = 1.

Problem 02: If 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) , determine the nature of the stationary

point.

Solution: Given, 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2)

𝑑𝑦
= (𝑥 − 1) . 3(𝑥 + 2) . 1 + 4. (𝑥 − 1) . (𝑥 + 2) . 1
𝑑𝑥

= (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) (7𝑥 + 5)

At stationary point, =0

⇒ (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) (7𝑥 + 5) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 1, −2, −

For 𝒙 = 𝟏

When 𝑥 < 1, = −. +. + = −

𝑥 > 1, = +. +. + = +
There is a minimum at 𝑥 = 1

For 𝒙 = −𝟐

If 𝑥 < −2, = −. +. − = +

𝑥 > −2, = −. +. −= +

There is a point of inflection at 𝑥 = −2

𝟓
For, 𝒙 = −
𝟕

If 𝑥 < − , = −. +. −= +

𝑥 > − , −. +. += −

There is a maximum at 𝑥 = −

Home Work:

1. If 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 2) .

Ans: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥 = 3, min
𝑥 = − , maximum

2. If 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3) (3𝑥 − 1)

Ans: 𝑥 = − , 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥 = , min
 𝑥 = − , maximum

Theorem (2nd Derivative Test):

Suppose 𝑓 is twice differentiable at stationary point 𝑥

(a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0, then 𝑓 has a relative minimum at 𝑥 .

(b) If 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0, then 𝑓 has a relative miximum at 𝑥 .

Theorem: If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) = ⋯ … … . . = 𝑓 = 0, 𝑓 (𝑥) ≠ 0

If 𝑛 is even then 𝑓(𝑥) has either max/min.

If 𝑛 is odd no max, no minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) exist.

Problem: Find the maximum and minimum value for the functions

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 4
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 sin 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

Solution: (1)

Given the function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 4

𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 12

Now, tripical point, =0

⇒ 3𝑥 − 12 =0

⇒ 3(𝑥 − 4) = 0

⇒𝑥 =4
⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

= 6𝑥

At 𝑥 = 2, = 6 × 2 = 12 > 0

There is a minimum at 𝑥 = 2

𝑦 = 2 − 12 × 2 + 4

= −12

At 𝑥 = −2, = 6 × (−2) = −12 < 0

There is a miximum at 𝑥 = 2

𝑦 = (−2) + 12 × 2 + 4 = 20

Problem 02:

Given the function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 sin 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 8𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥.cos 𝑥

For maximum and minimum,

=0

⇒ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 8𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥.cos 𝑥=0

⇒ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥(1 − 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) = 0

⇒ cos 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
√
⇒ 𝑥 = , 𝑥 = tan
√

Now, = 8sin x − 28cos x. sin x

At 𝑥 = , = 8sin3 ( ) − 28cos2 ( ). sin =8>0

There is minimum at 𝑥 =

𝑦 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) − 8𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ).cos( ) = 0

√
At 𝑥 = tan then cos 𝑥 = , sin 𝑥 =
√ √ √

𝑑 𝑦 8 2 1 48
= − 28 =− <0
𝑑𝑥 3 √3 3 √3 √3

So, There is maximum at 𝑥 = tan

√

√
𝑦 = 4. =
√ √ √

Problem: Find the maximum and minimum value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −
5𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 1.

Solution:

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 1.

𝑓 (𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 20𝑥 + 15𝑥

At stationary point, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

5𝑥 − 20𝑥 + 15𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 1, 3
𝑓 (𝑥) = 20𝑥 − 60𝑥 + 30𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 60𝑥 − 120𝑥 + 30

At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 30 ≠ 0

So, at 𝑥 = 0 no max/ min value.

At 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓 (1) = −10, so max at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 =0

At = 3, 𝑓 (30) = 90 > 0, so min at 𝑥 = 3, and 𝑦 = −28

Problem : Find the maximum and minimum value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 −
18𝑥 + 15𝑥 − 10

Solution: Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 18𝑥 + 15𝑥 − 10

𝑓 (𝑥) = 30 𝑥 − 90𝑥 + 60𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 150𝑥 − 360𝑥 + 180𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 600𝑥 − 1080𝑥 + 360𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥) = 1800𝑥 − 2160𝑥 + 360

For C.T point, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

⇒ 30 𝑥 − 90𝑥 + 60𝑥 =0

⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2

At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓 (0) = 0, 𝑓 (0) = 0, 𝑓 (0) = 360 > 0

So there is a minimum at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = −10

At 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓 (1) = −30 < 0

So there is a max at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = −8

At 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓 (2) = 240 > 0

So there is a minimum at 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = −26

So, max, -8

Min, -26, -10

Problem: Show that the following functions have no maximum and minimum
value.

(i)𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5

(ii)𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 1

Solution: (i) Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5

𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 6

For T.P, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

⇒ 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 6 =0

⇒ 3[(𝑥 − 1) + 1] = 0

For any real values of 𝑥, 3[(𝑥 − 1) + 1] ≠ 0

i.t. 𝑓 (𝑥) ≠ 0

since , 𝑓 (𝑥) ≠ 0 so no maximum and minimum exist.

Solution (ii):

Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 1
 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 3

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 6

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6

For max/min 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

⇒ 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 3 =0

⇒ 𝑥 = 1, 1

𝑓 (1) = 6 − 6 = 0, 𝑓 (1) = 6 ≠ 0

Since , 𝑓 (1) ≠ 0, so at 𝑥 = 1 there exist no max and min value.

Point of Inflection: If 𝑓 is continuous on an open interval containing 𝑥 and if 𝑓

changes the direction of its concavity at 𝑥 , then the point (𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥 )) on the graph
of 𝑓 is called an inflection point of 𝑓 and we say that 𝑓 has an inflection point at
𝑥 .

𝑦=𝑥

+ +

𝑥=0
=0

At inflection point 𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝟎

Absolute Extremum: Evaluate 𝑓 at all critical points and at the end points 𝑎 and
𝑏. The largest of the values is called absolute maximum value of 𝑓 on [a, b] and
the smallest value is called the absolute minimum value of f on [a, b].

Realtive maximum Relative maximum Relative maximum

𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

𝑓 (𝑥) > 0
𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0

𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

Relative minimum Realative minimum

Problem : Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 15𝑥 + 36𝑥 on the interval [1, 5] and determine where absolute
extremum values occurs.

Solution: Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 15𝑥 + 36𝑥 ……………………………….(1)

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 30𝑥 + 36

For critical points, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0

6𝑥 − 30𝑥 + 36 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 2, 3
For evaluating 𝑥, putting critical values 𝑥 = 2,3 and the end points 𝑥 = 1, 5 in (1)
we get,

𝑓(1) = 2. 1 − 15. 1 + 36.1 = 23

𝑓(2) = 2. 2 − 15. 2 + 36.2 = 28

𝑓(2) = 2. 3 − 15. 3 + 36.3 = 27

𝑓(5) = 2. 5 − 15. 5 + 36.5 = 55

From the above values we conclude that absolute maximum is 55 at x=5 and
absolute minimum is 23 at 𝑥 = 1.

Application:

Problem 01: Find the minimum value of the sum of a positive number and its
reciprocal.

Solution: Let, 𝑦 = 𝑥 +

=1−

At maximum and minimum, =0

1− =0

⇒𝑥 −1=0

⇒ 𝑥 = ±1

Since, 𝑥 > 0, 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = 1

When 𝑥 < 1, =−

𝑥 > 1, =+
There is a minimum at 𝑥 = 1

𝑦 =1+

=2

Problem 02: A rectangular sheet of thin cardboard is 80𝑐𝑚 by 50𝑐𝑚. A square of

𝑥 is cut away from each corner of the sheet which is then folded to form an open
rectangular box of volume 𝑦 𝑐𝑚 . Show that 𝑦 = 4000𝑥 − 260𝑥 + 4𝑥 . Find out
also the maximum value of the box.

Solution:
50-2x

50
cm
x 80-2x

80 cm

Volume of the box, 𝑦 = (80 − 2𝑥) ∙ (50 − 2𝑥) ∙ 𝑥

= 4000𝑥 − 260𝑥 + 4𝑥
For max value of the box, = 4000 − 520𝑥 + 12𝑥

= 4(1000 − 130𝑥 + 3𝑥 )

At S.P, =0

⇒ 1000 − 130𝑥 + 3𝑥 = 0

⇒ (3𝑥 − 100)(𝑥 − 10) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 10,

At, 𝑥 = 10

𝑥 < 10, 𝑓 (𝑥) = −, − = +

𝑥 > 10, 𝑓 (𝑥) = −, += −

There is a maximum at 𝑥 = 10

Therefore, at 𝑥 = 10, 𝑦 = 4000(100 − 260(10) = 4(10) = 18000

Problem 03: A closed rectangle box is made of thin hard box 3𝑥 cm long and 𝑥
cm wide. The volume of the box is 288 𝑐𝑚 . Express the surface area y𝑐𝑚 of the
box in terms of 𝑥 and so find the value of 𝑥 for which 𝑦 is least.

Solution: Let the height of the box be ℎ cm.

Now, 𝑣 = 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ ℎ

⇒ 288 = 3𝑥 ℎ

⇒ℎ=
∴ℎ=

Total surface area, 𝑦 = 2(3𝑥. 𝑥) + 2(𝑥. ℎ) + 2(3𝑥. ℎ)

= 6𝑥 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2𝑥ℎ

= 6𝑥 + 8𝑥ℎ

= 6𝑥 + 8𝑥.

h
= 6𝑥 + h
x
Now, = 12𝑥 −

At Stationary point, =0
3x

⇒ 12𝑥 − =0

⇒ 𝑥 = 64

⇒𝑥=4

Now , 𝑥 < 4, 𝑦 = −

𝑥 > 4, 𝑦 = +

There is min at 𝑥 = 4

Now, 𝑦 = 6 × 16 +

= 288
Problem 04: A closed box with square base is to have volume of 2000 𝑐𝑚 . The
cost for the top and bottom of the box 3/𝑐𝑚 and the material cost for sides of the
box costs 1.50/𝑐𝑚 . Find the minimum material cost of the box.

Solution: Let one side of the box be 𝑥𝑚 and height of the box be ℎ𝑚.

𝑣=𝑥 ℎ

⇒ 2000 = 𝑥 ℎ

2000
⇒ℎ=
𝑥

Cost for top , bottom=2𝑥 × 3 = 6𝑥

Cost for walls = 4𝑥ℎ × 1.5 = 6𝑥ℎ

Total cost, 𝑦 = 6𝑥 + 6𝑥ℎ

= 6𝑥 + 6𝑥ℎ
h
= 6𝑥 + h
x
Now, = 12𝑥 −

At =0
x
⇒ 12𝑥 − =0

⇒ 𝑥 = 10

Now , 𝑥 < 10, 𝑦 = −

𝑥 > 10, 𝑦 = +

There is a min at 𝑥 = 10
∴ℎ= = 20𝑚

𝑦 = 6. 10 +

= 1800
 Tangent and Normal

Tangent:

In geometry, the tangent line (or simply the tangent) to a plane curve at a given
point is the straight line that “just touches” the curve at that point.

Q
T

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a curve and P is any point on it, PQ is any intersecting straight

line and PT any straight line on the limiting point of PQ, when 𝑄 → 𝑃 , then PT

is called the tangent line on P.

Equation of Tangent:

Let, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄(𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦) be two point on the explicit curve 𝑦 =

𝑓(𝑥).
 𝑄(𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦)

∆𝑦

T
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

∆𝑥

𝑦 +∆𝑦 −𝑦 ∆𝑦
Slope of the chord PQ, = =
𝑥+∆𝑥−𝑥 ∆𝑥

∆𝑦
Equation of Chord PQ, 𝑌 − 𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
∆𝑥

Now when 𝑄 → 𝑃 then ∆𝑥 → 0 and the limiting position of PQ is PT, which is

the tangent at P.

So, the equation of tangent at P(x, y)

∆𝑦
𝑌 − 𝑦 = lim∆𝑥→0 (𝑋 − 𝑥)
∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑌−𝑦= (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆:

1. If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a explicit function then the equation of tangent at the point

(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), where (𝑥, 𝑦) are current point

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 1 ,𝑦 1 )
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
⇒ 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑥
2. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 is an implicit function, then =− ⇒
𝑑𝑦 𝑓
= − 𝑓𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
The equation of tangent at the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is given by,

(𝑋 − 𝑥)𝑓𝑥 + (𝑌 − 𝑦)𝑓𝑦 = 0
3. If 𝑥 = 𝜙(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝜓(𝑡) are parametric equation, then
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜓 ′ (𝑡)
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜙 ′ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑆𝑜, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) is given by,
𝜓 ′ (𝑡)
𝑌 − 𝜓(𝑡) = (𝑋 − 𝜙(𝑡))
𝜙 ′ (𝑡)

⇒ 𝑌 − 𝜓(𝑡) 𝜙 ′ (𝑡) = (𝑋 − 𝜙(𝑡)𝜓 ′ (𝑡))

𝒅𝒚
Geometrical meaning of :
𝒅𝒙

The equation of tangent is,

𝑑𝑦
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑌= 𝑋+ 𝑦−𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝜓
X
0 Type equation here.
T
Which being of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐,the standard equation of a straight line.
𝑑𝑦
We conclude that is the ′𝑚′ of the tangent at (𝑥, 𝑦).
𝑑𝑥

Let, 𝜓 be the angle which is make with the positive direction of the x-axis of
tangent at P.then,
𝑑𝑦
tan 𝜓 = 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Hence the derivative at (𝑥, 𝑦) is equal to the trigonometrical tangent of the
𝑑𝑥
angle which is the tangent to the curve at (𝑥, 𝑦) makes with the positive
direction of x-axis.

Example 01: Show that the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 at
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑎2 .

Solution: Given the equation, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 …………………………….(1)

Let, the equation of tangent at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )is,

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ……………………………………………………..(2)

𝑑𝑦
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 1 ,𝑦 1 )

Now, differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get,

2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
⇒ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
 𝑑𝑦 𝑥1
=− ……………………………………………..(3)
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 1 ,𝑦 1 ) 𝑦1

𝑥1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2), 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦1

⇒ 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦12 = −(𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥12 )

⇒ 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 ……………………………………..(4)

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 , (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) lie on 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , then 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 = 𝑎2 ……………………(5)

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (4) and (5) we get, 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑎2

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡.

𝑥𝑚 𝑦𝑚
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟎𝟐: Find the equation of tangent to the curve + = 1 at (𝑥, 𝑦).
𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚

𝑥𝑚 𝑦𝑚
Solution: Given equation, + =1
𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚

𝑥𝑚 𝑦𝑚
Let, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = + −1=0
𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚

𝜕𝑓 𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 −1
∴ 𝑓𝑥 = =
𝜕𝑥 𝑎𝑚

𝜕𝑓 𝑚 𝑦 𝑚 −1
And , 𝑓𝑦 = =
𝜕𝑦 𝑏𝑚

Equation of tangent at (𝑥, 𝑦)

(𝑋 − 𝑥)𝑓𝑥 + (𝑌 − 𝑦)𝑓𝑦 = 0
𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 −1 𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 −1
⇒ (𝑋 − 𝑥) + (𝑌 − 𝑦) =0
𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚
𝑥 𝑚 −1 𝑦 𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑚 𝑦𝑚
⇒ 𝑋+ 𝑌= +
𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚
𝑥 𝑚 −1 𝑦 𝑚 −1
⟹ 𝑋+ 𝑌=1
𝑎 𝑚 −1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑚 −1
Which is the required equation of tangent.

Normal: The line perpendicular to the tangent line to a curve at the point of
tangency is called the normal line to the curve at that point. The slope of
perpendicular lines have product -1, so if the equation of the curve is, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
1
then slope of the normal line is, − 𝑑𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥

And it follows that the equation of normal line is,

𝑑𝑦
(𝑋 − 𝑥) + (𝑌 − 𝑦) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Similarly, if the equation of the curve 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, then the equation of the normal
line is given by

(𝑋 − 𝑥)𝑓𝑦 − (𝑌 − 𝑦)𝑓𝑥 = 0

𝑋−𝑥 𝑌−𝑦
⇒ =
𝑓𝑥 𝑓𝑦

N
Normal
NormalL
T
P
N
Tangent

P
Subtangent and Sub-normal in Cartesian:

Let, P(x, y) be any point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Now PT is the tangent and PN

is the normal at the point P, which cut the X-axis at T and N respectively. Again

draw perpendicular PM at the point P, which cut the X- axis at M.

Then the projection TM of the tangent PT along X- axis is called the subtangent

and the projection MN of the normal PN is called the subnormal. If 𝜓 is the

angle with tangent PT along X-axis, then ∟𝑃𝑇𝑀 = ∟𝑀𝑃𝑁 = 𝜓.

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝜓
X
T M N

𝑇𝑀
Now, Subtangent TM: = cot 𝜓
𝑃𝑀

⇒ 𝑇𝑀 = 𝑃𝑀 cot 𝜓

𝑃𝑀 𝑦 𝑦
= = 𝑑𝑦 =
tan 𝜓 𝑦1
𝑑𝑥
 𝑀𝑁
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑀𝑁: = tan 𝜓
𝑃𝑀

⇒ 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑃𝑀 tan 𝜓

𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1
𝑑𝑥

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕: 𝑃𝑇 = √𝑃𝑀2 + 𝑇𝑀2

𝑦 2
= 𝑦2 +
𝑦1

𝑦
= 1 + 𝑦12
𝑦1

𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍: 𝑃𝑁 = √𝑃𝑀2 + 𝑀𝑁 2

= 𝑦 2 + (𝑦𝑦1 )2

= 𝑦 1 + 𝑦12

# Derivation of Arc length

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔:

𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟎𝟏: Show that the equation of normal to the curve + =2
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏
at the point (a, b) is = .
𝑏 𝑎

𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: Given curve, + =2
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥 𝑛 −1 1 𝑦 𝑛−1 1
∴𝑛 ∙ +𝑛 ∙ ∙ 𝑦1 = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
 𝑥 𝑛 −1
𝑑𝑦 𝑏
⇒ = − 𝑎𝑦 𝑛 −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝑏

𝑎 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑦 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
⇒ =− 𝑏 =−
𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 ,𝑏) 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏

𝑆𝑜, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 𝑏)

1
𝑌−𝑦 =− (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑚

𝑎
⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑏 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑏

𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏
⇒ =
𝑏 𝑎

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟎𝟐: Find the subtangent, subnormal, length of tangent and length of
normal to the curve, 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 + sin 𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝑡).

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: Given the curve,

, 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 + sin 𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝑡)

Now,

𝑑𝑥
Now, = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎 sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 sin 𝑡 2 sin ∙ cos
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = 𝑦1 = ∙ = = 2 2 = tan 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑎(1 + cos 𝑡) 𝑡 2
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2
𝑡
𝑦 𝑎 (1−cos 𝑡) 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
Now, subtangent, = 𝑡 = 𝑡
2
= 𝑎 sin 𝑡
𝑦1 tan tan
2 2
 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
Subnormal, 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝑡) ∙ tan = 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∙ tan
2 2 2

𝑦 𝑡 𝑡
Length of tangent, = 1 + 𝑦12 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 = 2𝑎 ∙ sin
𝑦1 2 2

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
Length of normal, = 𝑦 1 + 𝑦12 = 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛2 . sec = 2𝑎 sin ∙ tan
2 2 2 2

Problem03 : Find the equation of tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 at the

point (1,4).

Problem 04: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve 𝑦(𝑥 −
2)(𝑥 − 3) − 𝑥 + 7 = 0 at the point of x-interception.

Solution;

Given, 𝑦(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) − 𝑥 + 7 = 0 ……………….(10

At the x- axis, 𝑦 = 0

∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑥 = 7

∴ cut x axis at (7, 0)

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 (7, 0)

Differentiating (1) w.r.to x,

𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑦(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑦(𝑥 − 2) − 1 = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑡 , (7, 0), ∙ 20 − 1 = 0
𝑑𝑥 (7,0)

𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 (7,0) 20
 1
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 (7,0), 𝑚1 =
20

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 (7, 0) = 𝑚2 = −20

Now, the equation of tangent at (7,0)

𝑦 − 0 = 𝑚1 (𝑥 − 7)

1
⇒𝑦= (𝑥 − 7)
20

⇒ 𝑥 − 20𝑦 = 7

⇒ 𝑥 − 20𝑦 − 7 = 0

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 (7,0)

𝑦 − 0 = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 7)

⇒ 𝑦 − 0 = −20(𝑥 − 7)

⇒ 20𝑥 + 𝑦 − 140 = 0
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 For the Department of Nanomaterials and
Ceramic Engineering
Level-1, Term-1
MATH 112 (Caleulus)
3.00Credit Hours
Differential Calculus: Limits, continuity and differentiability for
functions of single and multi-variables. Successive differentiation.
Leibnitz's theorem. Expansion of functions. Partial differentiation,
 Depart1ment of Mathematics

Euler's thcorem. Tangent and Normal. Subtangent and subnormal in

Cartesian and polar coordinates. Determination of maxima and
minima for functions of single and multi-variables with applications.
Envelopes, curve tracing. Asymptotes.
Integral Caleulus: Standard integrals. Integration by successive
reduction. Definite integrals and its propcrties. Area under plane
curves and arca of aregion encloscd by two curves in Cartesian and
polar coordinates. Improper integrals. Beta and Gamma functions.
Volume and surface arca of solids of revolution. Double integrals in
polar coordinates. Triple integrals in cylindrical and spherical
coordinates.