Photosynthesis

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GENERAL BIOLOGY

LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● Chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the


LECTURE TOPIC sun, which plants use to create food through
photosynthesis.

TOPIC OUTLINE
1. Chloroplast
2. Chlorophyll
3. Photosynthesis
a. Light dependent Reaction’
b. Calvin Cycle

1 CHLOROPLAST REVIEW CHLOROPHYLL


WHAT IS CHLOROPLAST? ● Each pigment absorbs or reflects different
● Chloroplasts are found in all green plants wavelengths of light.
and algae. ● Wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll and
● They are the food producers of plants. These other photosynthetic pigments generate
are found in mesophyll cells located in the electrons to power photosynthesis.
leaves of the plants.
● They contain a high concentration of PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
chlorophyll that traps sunlight.
CHLOROPHYLL A
● This cell organelle is not present in animal
● Chlorophyll A absorbs violet-blue and
cells.
reddish orange-red wavelengths.
● Chlorophyll A absorbs light with wavelengths
of 430nm (blue) and 662nm (red).
● Chlorophyll A transfers energy to the
reaction center and donates two excited
electrons to the electron transport chain.

Structure of Chloroplast

2 CHLOROPHYLL
WHAT IS CHLOROPHYLL?
● Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in
plants and algae that's essential for
photosynthesis.

1 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

(a)Absorption Spectra. The 3 curves show the CHLOROPHYLL B


wavelengths of light best absorbed by 3 types of ● Chlorophyll B and beta-carotene absorb
chloroplast pigments. energy that chlorophyll A does not absorb.

CAROTENOIDS
● Are a class of pigments that include
hydrocarbons of various shades of yellow
and orange, because they absorb violet and
blue-green light.

Photoprotection - absorb and dissipate


excessive light energy that would otherwise
damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen,
forming reactive oxidative molecules that are
dangerous to the cell.

3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
WHAT IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
● Photosynthesis is a process by which
(b)Engelmann’s experiments on the action
phototrophs convert light energy into
spectrum measurements. A spectrum of light was
chemical energy, which is later used to fuel
projected onto the spiral chloroplasts of Spirogyra
cellular activities.
(a filamentous green alga);

Phototrophs are organisms that can use visible


light as a primary energy source for metabolism,
a process known as photosynthesis.

● The chemical energy is stored in the form of


sugars, which are created from water and
carbon dioxide.
● Photosynthesis also applies to other
organisms besides green plants. These
include several prokaryotes such as
cyanobacteria, purple bacteria and green
sulfur bacteria. These organisms exhibit
photosynthesis just like green plants.
(c)When introduced, the aerotactic or oxygen ● The glucose produced during photosynthesis
seeking bacteria collected in blue and red is then used to fuel various cellular activities.
regions where chlorophyll absorbs the most.

2 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● The by-product of this physio-chemical reaction, oxidation and reduction always


process is oxygen. occur in pairs, it is impossible to have one
without the other.

6CO2 + 12H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

● Each chloroplast contains a green-coloured


pigment called chlorophyll. Light energy is
absorbed by chlorophyll molecules whereas TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through the ● Photosynthesis consists of the light
tiny pores of stomata located in the reactions (the photo part) and Calvin Cycle
epidermis of leaves. (the synthesis part).
● The light reactions (in the thylakoids):
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS o Split H2O
o Chlorophyll A o Release O2
o Chlorophyll B o Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
o Carotenoids o Generate ATP from ADP by
photophosphorylation
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AS A REDOX PROCESS
● Photosynthesis is a redox process in which LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced. ● The energy storage molecule ATP and the
● An oxidation-reduction reaction is any reduced electron carrier NADPH.
chemical reaction in which the oxidation ● Take place in the thylakoid membranes of
number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes organelles called chloroplast.
by gaining or losing an electron. ● Calvin cycle or light independent reaction
happens in the stroma.
Oxidation is a process which involves the
addition of oxygen. It is also defined as the WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR A PIGMENT TO ABSORB
process in which an atom or ion loses one or LIGHT?
more electrons.

Reduction is defined as the process in which an


atom or ion gains one or more electrons.

● Oxidation and Reduction reactions are


always interlinked. Because electrons are
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical

3 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● When a pigment absorbs a photon of light, it within the cell. Non-cyclic


becomes excited, meaning that it has extra photophosphorylation produces NADPH in
energy and is no longer in its normal, or addition to ATP (this requires the presence of
ground, state. At a subatomic level, water)
excitation is when an electron is bumped into
a higher-energy orbital that lies further from
the nucleus.

● Only a photon with just the right amount of


energy to bump an electron between orbitals
can excite a pigment. In fact, this is why
different pigments absorb different
wavelengths of light: the "energy gaps"
between the orbitals are different in each
pigment, meaning that photons of different NON- CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
wavelengths are needed in each case to
provide an energy boost that matches the Step 1: Excitation of Photosystems by
gap. Light Energy

Cyclic photophosphorylation involves the use of


only one photosystem (PS I) and does not
involve the reduction of NADP+.

When light is absorbed by Photosystem I, the


excited electron may enter into an electron
transport chain to produce ATP. Following this,
the de-energised electron returns to the
photosystem, restoring its electron supply
(hence: cyclic). As the electron returns to the
photosystem, NADP+ is not reduced and water is ● Photosystems are groups of photosynthetic
not needed to replenish the electron supply. pigments (including chlorophyll) embedded
within the thylakoid membrane.
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation involves two ● Photosystems are classed according to their
photosystems (PS I and PS II) and does involve maximal absorption wavelengths (PS I =
the reduction of NADP+. 700 nm ; PS II = 680 nm)
● When a photosystem absorbs light energy,
Cyclic photophosphorylation can be used to delocalised electrons within the pigments
produce a steady supply of ATP in the presence become energised or ‘excited'
of sunlight. However, ATP is a highly reactive
molecule and hence cannot be readily stored

4 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● These excited electrons are transferred to ● ATP synthase uses the passage of H+ ions to
carrier molecules within the thylakoid catalyse the synthesis of ATP (from ADP + Pi)
membrane ● This process is called photophosphorylation
– as light provided the initial energy source
Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to for ATP production
contribute to generate a proton gradient. ● The newly de-energised electrons from
Photosystem II are taken up by Photosystem I
ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using
the proton gradient. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to
reduce NADPH.

Step 2: Production of ATP via an Electron


Photolysis of water generates electrons for use
Transport Chain in the light dependent reactions.

A gradient of electrochemical potential,


generally for an ion that may travel across a
membrane, is referred to as an electrochemical
gradient.

The chemiosmosis process is directly related to


the synthesis of ATP during cellular respiration by
the movement of hydrogen ions across a
membrane.

● Excited electrons from Photosystem II (P680)


are transferred to an electron transport Step 3: Reduction of NADP+ and the
chain within the thylakoid membrane called Photolysis of Water
plastoquinone (ETC near PSII).

Plastocyanin is the ETC near PSI.

● As the electrons are passed through the


chain they lose energy, which is used to
translocate H+ ions into the thylakoid.
● This build up of protons within the thylakoid
creates an electrochemical gradient, or
proton motive force.
● The H+ ions return to the stroma (along the
proton gradient) via the transmembrane
enzyme ATP synthase (chemiosmosis).

5 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● Excited electrons from Photosystem I may be ● The light independent reactions use the
transferred to a carrier molecule chemical energy derived from light
(ferredoxin) and used to reduce NADP+. dependent reactions to form organic
● This forms NADPH – which is needed (in molecules.
conjunction with ATP) for the Calvin cycle. ● The light independent reactions occur in the
● The electrons lost from Photosystem I are fluid-filled space of the chloroplast called
replaced by de-energised electrons from the stroma.
Photosystem II. ● The light independent reactions are
● The electrons lost from Photosystem II are collectively known as the Calvin cycle and
replaced by electrons released from water involve three main steps:
via photolysis. 1. Carboxylation fixation
● Water is split by light energy into H+ ions 2. Reduction
(used in chemiosmosis) and oxygen 3. Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
(released as a by-product).
TERMS USED
RUBP - Ribulose bisphosphate
CALVIN CYCLE
Rubisco - Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate
● The light independent reactions are also carboxylase/oxygenase
collectively known as the Calvin cycle – PGA - phosphoglycerate
named after American chemist Melvin G3P - glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Calvin
● Calvin mapped the complete conversion of
carbon within a plant during the process of
photosynthesis.
● Calvin’s elucidation of photosynthetic carbon
compounds is commonly classed the
‘lollipop experiment’
● This is due to the fact that the apparatus he
utilised was thought to resemble an
upside-down lollipop

Step 1: Carbon Fixation


● The Calvin cycle begins with a 5C compound
called ribulose bisphosphate (or RuBP).
● An enzyme, RuBP carboxylase (or Rubisco),
catalyses the attachment of a CO2 molecule
to RuBP.

6 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

● Reduction by NADPH transfers hydrogen


atoms to the compound, while the hydrolysis
of ATP provides energy.
● Each GP requires one NADPH and one ATP to
form a triose phosphate – so a single cycle
requires six of each molecule.

Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP


and produce carbohydrates.

Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP.

● The resulting 6C compound is unstable, and


Step 3: Regeneration of the CO2
breaks down into two 3C compounds –
acceptor (RuBP)
called glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).
● A single cycle involves three molecules of
RuBP combining with three molecules of CO2
to make six molecules of GP.

Glycerate-3-phosphate is reduced to triose


phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP.

Step 2: Reduction

● Of the six molecules of TP produced per


cycle, one TP molecule may be used to form
half a sugar molecule.
● Hence two cycles are required to produce a
single glucose monomer, and more to
produce polysaccharides like starch.
● The remaining five TP molecules are
recombined to regenerate stocks of RuBP (5
× 3C = 3 × 5C)
● Glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) is converted
● The regeneration of RuBP requires energy
into triose phosphate (TP) using NADPH and
derived from the hydrolysis of ATP.
ATP.

7 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2
GENERAL BIOLOGY
LESSON 2&3 XI-MITCHELL

SUMMARY OF CALVIN CYCLE

IN THREE TURNS OF THE CALVIN CYCLE:


3 molecules of CO2 with 3 RuBP acceptors, making
6 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P).
● 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes
towards making glucose.
● 5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 3
RuBP acceptor molecules.
● ATP - 9 ATP are converted to 9 ADP (6 during
the fixation/reduction step, 3 during the
regeneration step).
● NADPH - 6 NADPH are converted to 6 NADP+
(during the reduction step).

Carboxylation: In the first step, CO2 combines with


a five-carbon compound called ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP) to form an unstable product.

Reduction: In the second step, energy from ATP and


NADPH is used to reduce PGA to
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGaldehyde).

Regeneration: In the third step, energy from ATP is


used to regenerate RuBP from PGA.

8 JHELENE’S REVIEWER | Q2

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