OOSE MOD 3

PART-A

1)Define transform mapping? Explain the process with an

illustration. What is its strength and weakness?
Transform mapping is a set of design steps that allows a DFD with
transform flow characteristics to be mapped into a specific architectural
style. In this section transform mapping is described by applying design
steps to an example system—a portion of the SafeHome security
software.

https://www.1000sourcecodes.com/2012/05/software-engineering-transf
orm-mapping.html (Go through this link for the whole answer)

One strength of transform mapping is that it allows data to be transformed and mapped
in a flexible and customizable way, allowing for a wide range of data formats and
structures to be supported. It also allows for data to be transformed and mapped in
real-time, as needed, which can be useful in dynamic or high-volume environments.

One weakness of transform mapping is that it can be time-consuming and

resource-intensive to set up and maintain, particularly for large or complex data sets. It
can also be challenging to ensure the accuracy and integrity of the transformed data,
especially if there are errors or inconsistencies in the source data.

Another potential weakness is that transform mapping may not be suitable for all types
of data or transformations. It may not be able to support certain data formats or
structures, or it may not be able to handle certain types of data transformations, such as
those that require more advanced data manipulation or processing.

2)Discuss about frequent item set? Write the Apriori

algorithm for frequent item set generation? Explain with
an example
A Frequent Itemset is a subset(s) of an itemset that occurs in a dataset with a
particular frequency. For instance, given a frequency value, perhaps of 0.1 or
0.01%, for a stationery store, all subsets of school items that many customers have
bought at different times are called Frequent Itemset.

Frequent Itemset is an itemset whose support value is greater than a threshold

value(support). Apriori algorithm uses frequent item sets to generate association
rules. It is based on the concept that a subset of a frequent itemset must also be a
frequent itemset.

Apriori algorithm(geeks for geeks) OR

Apriori algorithm(JavaTpoint)

3)Explain the examples of three data abstractions and the

procedural abstractions that can be used to manipulate
them(doubt)

In software engineering, data abstraction is the process of exposing only the essential
characteristics of data, hiding the implementation details. Procedural abstraction is the
process of exposing only the essential features of a procedure, hiding the
implementation details.

Here are some examples of data abstractions and procedural abstractions that can be
used to manipulate them:

1.​ Stacks: A stack is a data structure that allows elements to be added and
removed only from the top. An example of a procedural abstraction for
manipulating stacks is the push and pop operations, which allow elements to be
added to and removed from the top of the stack, respectively.
2.​ Queues: A queue is a data structure that allows elements to be added only to the
end and removed only from the front. An example of a procedural abstraction for
 manipulating queues is the enqueue and dequeue operations, which allow
elements to be added to the end and removed from the front of the queue,
respectively.
3.​ Linked lists: A linked list is a data structure that consists of a series of nodes,
each containing a value and a reference to the next node. An example of a
procedural abstraction for manipulating linked lists is the insert and delete
operations, which allow nodes to be added and removed from the list,
respectively.

Overall, data abstractions and procedural abstractions are important concepts in

software engineering, as they allow developers to work with complex data structures
and algorithms in a simple and intuitive way. By exposing only the essential
characteristics and features of data and procedures, abstractions make it easier to
understand and modify complex systems.

4)Demonstrate the architecture of a house or building as

a metaphor, Draw comparison with software architecture.
How are the disciplines of classical architecture and
software architecture similar? How do they differ

The architecture of a house or building can be thought of as a metaphor for software

architecture. Both involve the design and planning of a structure to meet certain needs
and requirements, and both involve the use of various disciplines and principles to
achieve this.

One way to draw a comparison between classical architecture and software

architecture is to consider the various components and their relationships. In classical
architecture, the main components might include the foundation, walls, roof, windows,
doors, and so on. These components are arranged and integrated in a specific way to
form the overall structure of the house.

In software architecture, the main components might include modules, libraries,

frameworks, and other software components. These components are also arranged and
integrated in a specific way to form the overall structure of the system.
There are several ways in which classical architecture and software architecture are
similar:

1.​ Both involve the use of a set of disciplines and principles to guide the design and
planning process. For example, classical architecture may involve the use of
principles such as balance, proportion, and symmetry, while software
architecture may involve the use of principles such as modularity, encapsulation,
and separation of concerns.
2.​ Both involve the use of diagrams and models to represent and communicate the
design of the structure. For example, classical architecture may use floor plans,
elevations, and sections, while software architecture may use class diagrams,
component diagrams, and sequence diagrams.
3.​ Both involve the use of materials and construction techniques to build the
structure. For example, classical architecture may involve the use of materials
such as wood, concrete, and steel, while software architecture may involve the
use of programming languages, libraries, and frameworks.

There are also some ways in which classical architecture and software architecture
differ:

1.​ Classical architecture is concerned with the physical structure of the building,
while software architecture is concerned with the logical structure of the
software system.
2.​ Classical architecture involves the use of physical materials and construction
techniques, while software architecture involves the use of logical components
and design patterns.
3.​ Classical architecture is typically more constrained by physical limitations, such
as the availability of materials and the laws of physics, while software
architecture is typically more flexible and can be more easily modified and
evolved over time.

While classical architecture and software architecture are similar in many ways, they
also have some key differences. Both involve the use of disciplines and principles to
guide the design and planning process, but software architecture is concerned with the
logical structure of a software system, while classical architecture is concerned with the
physical structure of a building.
5)Why are control components necessary in traditional
software and generally not required in object-oriented
software.

Control components are a type of software component that are responsible for
controlling the flow of execution in a system. They are used to coordinate the activities
of other components and ensure that they are executed in the correct sequence.

In traditional software, control components are often necessary to manage the

complexity of the system and ensure that it functions correctly. This is because
traditional software is often structured in a procedural or linear fashion, with a clear
sequence of steps that must be followed.

Control components are generally not required in object-oriented software, as

object-oriented software is structured in a more modular and flexible way. In
object-oriented software, the individual components (i.e., objects) are responsible for
their own behavior and can interact with each other through well-defined interfaces.
This makes it easier to manage the complexity of the system and allows for more
flexibility and reuse of the components.

Overall, control components are necessary in traditional software to manage the

complexity and ensure the correct execution of the system, but they are generally not
required in object-oriented software due to its more modular and flexible structure.

6)Explain the state oriented approaches for representing

behavioral specifications of software.(doubt)

State-oriented approaches are a type of software engineering technique that are used to
represent the behavioral specifications of a software system. These approaches are
based on the idea that the behavior of a system can be modeled as a series of states,
transitions, and events.

There are several ways that state-oriented approaches can be used to represent
behavioral specifications:
 1.​ State machines: A state machine is a model of a system's behavior that consists
of a set of states and transitions between them. The system's behavior is
determined by the current state and the events that trigger transitions between
states.
2.​ Statecharts: A statechart is a graphical representation of a state machine, using
symbols such as circles, rectangles, and arrows to represent states, transitions,
and events. Statecharts can be used to visualize and communicate the behavior
of a system in a clear and concise way.
3.​ State diagrams: A state diagram is a type of diagram that shows the possible
states of a system and the transitions between them. State diagrams can be
used to represent the behavior of a system in a more abstract way, and can be
useful for understanding the overall behavior of the system.

State-oriented approaches are useful for representing behavioral specifications because

they provide a clear and structured way to represent the behavior of a system. They can
help to ensure that the system's behavior is well-defined and easy to understand, and
can serve as a basis for testing and debugging the system.

Overall, state-oriented approaches are an important tool for representing the behavioral
specifications of software, and can be used to ensure that the system is reliable,
flexible, and easy to understand and modify

7)Construct dynamic model diagram, comprising of state

transition diagrams(doubt)

To construct a dynamic model diagram comprising of state transition diagrams, you will need to

follow these steps:

1.​ Identify the states that the system can be in. A state is a unique condition or situation that
the system can be in at a given time.
2.​ Identify the transitions that can occur between states. A transition is a change in state that
occurs when certain conditions are met.
3.​ Determine the triggers that cause transitions to occur. Triggers are events or conditions that
initiate a transition.
4.​ Create a state transition diagram to represent the dynamic behavior of the system. A state
transition diagram is a graphical representation of the states and transitions in a system. It
 consists of a series of circles or rectangles, each representing a state, and arrows
connecting the states to represent transitions.
5.​ Label the states and transitions with descriptive names or symbols to make the diagram
more meaningful.
6.​ Add additional information to the diagram as needed, such as conditions for transitions,
actions that occur during transitions, or time delays.
7.​ Review and validate the diagram to ensure that it accurately represents the dynamic behavior
of the system.

8)Explain in detail about the characteristics and criteria

for a good design.

Characteristics for a good design:

For good quality software to be produced, the software design must also be of
good quality. Now, the matter of concern is how the quality of good software design
is measured? This is done by observing certain factors in software design. These
factors are:

1.​ Correctness
2.​ Understandability
3.​ Efficiency
4.​ Maintainability

1) Correctness
First of all, the design of any software is evaluated for its correctness. The
evaluators check the software for every kind of input and action and observe the
results that the software will produce according to the proposed design. If the
results are correct for every input, the design is accepted and is considered that the
software produced according to this design will function correctly.

2) Understandability
The software design should be understandable so that the developers do not find
any difficulty to understand it. Good software design should be self- explanatory.
This is because there are hundreds and thousands of developers that develop
different modules of the software, and it would be very time consuming to explain
each design to each developer. So, if the design is easy and self- explanatory, it
would be easy for the developers to implement it and build the same software that
is represented in the design.

3) Efficiency
The software design must be efficient. The efficiency of the software can be
estimated from the design phase itself, because if the design is describing software
that is not efficient and useful, then the developed software would also stand on
the same level of efficiency. Hence, for efficient and good quality software to be
developed, care must be taken in the designing phase itself.

4) Maintainability
The software design must be in such a way that modifications can be easily made in
it. This is because every software needs time to time modifications and
maintenance. So, the design of the software must also be able to bear such
changes. It should not be the case that after making some modifications the other
features of the software start misbehaving. Any change made in the software
design must not affect the other available features, and if the features are getting
affected, then they must be handled properly.

Criteria for a good design:(doubt)

In software engineering, some of the criteria for a good design include:

1.​ Modularity: The design should be modular, with clearly defined and separated components
that can be easily maintained and modified independently.
2.​ Reusability: The design should be reusable, with components that can be easily adapted and
integrated into other systems or projects.
 3.​ Extensibility: The design should be extensible, with the ability to add new features or
functionality without requiring significant redesign or rework.
4.​ Scalability: The design should be scalable, able to handle increased workloads or user
demands without a decrease in performance.
5.​ Portability: The design should be portable, able to be easily adapted and run on different
platforms or environments.
6.​ Maintainability: The design should be maintainable, with a clear and logical structure that
makes it easy to understand and modify as needed.
7.​ Testability: The design should be testable, with a clear separation of concerns and
well-defined interfaces that make it easy to create and run automated tests.
8.​ Security: The design should be secure, with measures in place to protect against external
threats and vulnerabilities.
9.​ Performance: The design should be efficient and have good performance, with fast response
times and minimal resource usage.
10.​User experience: The design should be user-friendly and provide a positive and intuitive
experience for users.

9)Draw the basic structure of analysis model and explain

each entity in detail.(doubt)
10)Describe various prototyping techniques and discuss
on analysis sand modeling
Prototyping techniques

Sand modeling?

PART-B

1)Write in detail about Object Model and its relationship

The object model is a way of organizing and structuring the data and functionality of a
software system. It represents the components of a system, their properties and
behaviors, and the relationships between them.

In software engineering, the object model is used to design and implement software
systems. It helps developers to understand the structure of a system and how its
various components interact with each other. The object model also serves as a
blueprint for the implementation of the system, providing a clear and concise
representation of its structure and functionality.

The object model is closely related to the concept of object-oriented programming

(OOP). OOP is a programming paradigm that focuses on the use of objects and their
interactions to design and implement software systems. In OOP, objects are
self-contained units that represent real-world entities and encapsulate their properties
and behaviors. The object model represents the structure and relationships of these
objects in a system.

The object model is an important tool in software engineering because it helps

developers to organize and structure the data and functionality of a system in a logical
and intuitive way. It also enables developers to reuse code and design more flexible and
maintainable systems.

2)Explain about Design concepts for Modular Design

3)Explain the steps in effective Modular Design

For part B qn 2 and 3:

4)Explain in detail about Flow-oriented Modeling and
Behavioral Modeling

Flow-oriented Modeling

Flow-oriented modeling is a software design technique that involves representing the

flow of data and control through a system as a series of interconnected nodes. Each
node represents a discrete step in the process, and the flow of data and control is
represented by the connections between the nodes.

Flow-oriented modeling is often used to design and implement systems that involve a
high degree of data processing or transformation, such as data pipelines, ETL (extract,
transform, load) systems, or data integration systems. It is particularly well-suited to
systems that involve a high degree of parallelism or concurrency, as it allows developers
to easily visualize and understand the flow of data and control through the system.

There are several advantages to using flow-oriented modeling in software engineering:

1.​ It provides a clear and intuitive representation of the flow of data and control
through a system.
2.​ It makes it easy to identify and model parallelism and concurrency in a system.
3.​ It allows developers to easily visualize and understand the dependencies
between different parts of a system.
4.​ It enables developers to identify and optimize bottlenecks and other performance
issues in a system.
5.​ It allows for the easy modification and evolution of a system, as changes can be
made by modifying individual nodes rather than the entire system.

Overall, flow-oriented modeling is a powerful tool for designing and implementing

complex systems that involve the processing or transformation of data.

Behavioral Modeling

Behavioral modeling is a software design technique that involves representing the

behavior of a system as a series of interactions between objects or components. It is
used to design and implement systems that involve complex or dynamic behavior, such
as real-time systems, event-driven systems, or systems with a high degree of
concurrency.

In behavioral modeling, the behavior of a system is represented as a set of interactions

between objects or components, which are represented as nodes in a model. The
interactions between objects are represented as edges between the nodes, and the flow
of control through the system is represented by the sequence of interactions.

There are several advantages to using behavioral modeling in software engineering:

1.​ It provides a clear and intuitive representation of the behavior of a system.

2.​ It allows developers to easily understand and model complex or dynamic
behavior.
3.​ It enables developers to identify and optimize performance issues in a system.
4.​ It allows for the easy modification and evolution of a system, as changes can be
made by modifying the interactions between objects or components.
5.​ It helps to ensure that the behavior of a system is consistent with the
requirements and design of the system.

Overall, behavioral modeling is a powerful tool for designing and implementing complex
systems with dynamic or concurrent behavior.

5)Explain in detail about Design Concepts and Principles

Software Design Concepts:

The design concepts provide the software designer with a foundation from which
more sophisticated methods can be applied. A set of fundamental design concepts
has evolved. They are:
1)Abstraction - Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing
the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically in
order to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose.
2)Refinement - It is the process of elaboration. A hierarchy is developed by
decomposing a macroscopic statement of function in a step-wise fashion until
programming language statements are reached. In each step, one or several
instructions of a given program are decomposed into more detailed instructions.
Abstraction and Refinement are complementary concepts.
3)Modularity - Software architecture is divided into components called modules.
4)Software Architecture - It refers to the overall structure of the software and the
ways in which that structure provides conceptual integrity for a system. A good
software architecture will yield a good return on investment with respect to the
desired outcome of the project, e.g. in terms of performance, quality, schedule and
cost.

5)Control Hierarchy - A program structure that represents the organization of a

program component and implies a hierarchy of control.

6)Structural Partitioning -The program structure can be divided both horizontally

and vertically. Horizontal partitions define separate branches of modular hierarchy
for each major program function. Vertical partitioning suggests that control and
work should be distributed top down in the program structure.

7)Data Structure-It is a representation of the logical relationship among

individual elements of data.

8)Software Procedure - It focuses on the processing of each modules individually.

9)Information Hiding - Modules should be specified and designed so that

information contained within a module is inaccessible to other modules that have
no need for such information.

Design concepts taken from here

Principles Of Software Design :
1.​ Should not suffer from “Tunnel Vision” –​
While designing the process, it should not suffer from “tunnel
vision” which means that is should not only focus on completing or
achieving the aim but on other effects also.
2.​ Traceable to analysis model –​
The design process should be traceable to the analysis model
which means it should satisfy all the requirements that software
requires to develop a high-quality product.
3.​ Should not “Reinvent The Wheel” –​
The design process should not reinvent the wheel that means it
should not waste time or effort in creating things that already exist.
Due to this, the overall development will get increased.
4.​ Minimize Intellectual distance –​
The design process should reduce the gap between real-world
problems and software solutions for that problem meaning it
should simply minimize intellectual distance.
5.​ Exhibit uniformity and integration –​
The design should display uniformity which means it should be
uniform throughout the process without any change. Integration
means it should mix or combine all parts of software i.e.
subsystems into one system.
6.​ Accommodate change –​
The software should be designed in such a way that it
accommodates the change implying that the software should
 adjust to the change that is required to be done as per the user’s
need.
7.​ Degrade gently –​
The software should be designed in such a way that it degrades
gracefully which means it should work properly even if an error
occurs during the execution.
8.​ Assessed or quality –​
The design should be assessed or evaluated for the quality
meaning that during the evaluation, the quality of the design needs
to be checked and focused on.
9.​ Review to discover errors –​
The design should be reviewed which means that the overall
evaluation should be done to check if there is any error present or
if it can be minimized.
10.​ Design is not coding and coding is not design –​
Design means describing the logic of the program to solve any
problem and coding is a type of language that is used for the
implementation of a design.
6)Explain the techniques in Domain Analysis

Refer here

7)Brief about Structured Analysis vs Object Oriented

Analysis

Structured analysis is a traditional approach to software design that focuses on

breaking a system down into smaller, well-defined units of functionality called modules.
These modules are then connected and coordinated through a series of control and
data flows. Structured analysis is based on the principles of modular design and
structured programming, and is well-suited to systems with a high degree of procedural
or algorithmic processing.

Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is a more modern approach to software design that is

based on the principles of object-oriented programming (OOP). OOA involves modeling
a system as a set of interacting objects, each of which represents a real-world entity or
concept and encapsulates its properties and behaviors. OOA is well-suited to systems
with a high degree of complexity or reuse, and allows developers to easily model and
manipulate complex data structures and relationships.

Difference Between Structured and Object-oriented analysis :

Structured Analysis Object-Oriented Analysis

The main focus is on data structure

The main focus is on the process
and real-world objects that are
and procedures of the system.
important.

It uses System Development Life

Cycle (SDLC) methodology for
It uses Incremental or Iterative
different purposes like planning,
methodology to refine and extend
analyzing, designing,
our design.
implementing, and supporting an
information system.

It is suitable for well-defined

It is suitable for large projects with
projects with stable user
changing user requirements.
requirements.

Risk while using this analysis Risk while using this analysis
technique is high and reusability technique is low and reusability is
is also low. also high.
Structuring requirements include Requirement engineering includes
DFDs (Data Flow Diagram), the Use case model (find Use cases,
Structured Analysis, ER (Entity Flow of events, Activity Diagram),
Relationship) diagram, CFD the Object model (find Classes and
(Control Flow Diagram), Data class relations, Object interaction,
Dictionary, Decision table/tree, Object to ER mapping), Statechart
and the State transition diagram. Diagram, and deployment diagram.

This technique is old and is not This technique is new and is mostly
preferred usually. preferred.

8)Explain in detail about Object Design Process(doubt)

Object design is the process of designing the structure and behavior of objects in an
object-oriented software system. It involves identifying the objects that are needed to
represent the entities and concepts in the system, and defining their properties and
behaviors.

The object design process typically involves the following steps:

1.​ Identify the objects in the system: The first step in object design is to identify the
objects that are needed to represent the entities and concepts in the system.
This may involve creating a domain model to represent the relationships and
concepts in the problem domain.
2.​ Define the properties and behaviors of the objects: Once the objects have been
identified, the next step is to define their properties and behaviors. This may
involve specifying the data that the objects need to store and the operations that
they need to perform.
3.​ Define the relationships between objects: The objects in a system will often have
relationships with each other, such as inheritance, aggregation, or association. It
is important to identify and define these relationships in the object design.
 4.​ Define the interfaces of the objects: The interfaces of the objects define how
they can be used and interacted with by other parts of the system. It is important
to define these interfaces carefully, as they will determine the flexibility and
maintainability of the system.
5.​ Implement the objects: Once the object design is complete, the next step is to
implement the objects according to the design. This may involve writing code to
define the properties and behaviors of the objects and to implement the
interfaces.

By following these steps, developers can create well-designed objects that are flexible,
maintainable, and easy to understand and modify.

9)Explain in detail about Design Patterns

Design patterns are reusable solutions to common design problems in software

engineering. They provide a way to structure and organize code in a way that is
effective, flexible, and maintainable.

There are several types of design patterns, including creational, structural, and
behavioral patterns. Creational patterns focus on the creation and initialization of
objects, structural patterns focus on the composition of objects and classes, and
behavioral patterns focus on the communication and interaction between objects.

Some examples of popular design patterns include:

1.​ Singleton pattern: This pattern ensures that a class has only one instance, and
provides a global point of access to it.
2.​ Factory pattern: This pattern defines an interface for creating an object, but
allows subclasses to alter the type of objects that will be created.
3.​ Observer pattern: This pattern defines a one-to-many dependency between
objects, such that when one object changes state, all of its dependents are
notified and updated automatically.
4.​ Adapter pattern: This pattern allows two incompatible interfaces to work
together by adapting one interface to the other.
 5.​ Decorator pattern: This pattern allows new behavior to be added to an existing
object dynamically, by wrapping the object in a decorator object that adds the
new behavior.

Design patterns are useful because they provide a common language and set of best
practices for designing and structuring code. They can also help to improve the reuse
and maintainability of code, as they provide proven solutions to common design
problems.

10)Write about importance of data dictionary in classical

analysis

A data dictionary is a collection of information about the data used in a software

system. In classical analysis, a data dictionary is an important tool for documenting and
organizing the data requirements of a system.

There are several reasons why a data dictionary is important in classical analysis:

1.​ It provides a central repository for information about the data used in a system,
including the names, definitions, and relationships of the data elements.
2.​ It helps to ensure that the data used in a system is consistent and accurate, as it
provides a single source of truth for the definitions and meanings of the data.
3.​ It helps to improve communication between members of the development team,
as it provides a common understanding of the data used in the system.
4.​ It facilitates the maintenance and evolution of the system, as it provides a clear
and concise record of the data requirements and relationships.

Overall, a data dictionary is an essential tool for classical analysis, as it helps to ensure
that the data used in a system is well-organized, consistent, and accurate.
11)Why are control components necessary in traditional
software and generally not required in object-oriented
software

Control components, such as loops and conditional statements, are necessary in

traditional software to control the flow of execution through a program. They are used to
specify the order in which different parts of the program should be executed, and to
make decisions based on the values of variables or other conditions.

In object-oriented software, control components are generally not required because the
behavior of the system is determined by the interactions between objects. Objects
communicate with each other through messages, and the flow of control is determined
by the way in which these messages are passed between objects.

There are several reasons why control components are generally not required in
object-oriented software:

1.​ Objects are self-contained units of functionality that encapsulate their own data
and behavior. This means that the flow of control within an object is determined
by the methods and operations that are defined within the object.
2.​ The relationships between objects are dynamic and flexible, and can be changed
at runtime. This allows objects to be composed and reconfigured in different
ways to achieve different behaviors.
3.​ Objects are designed to be reusable, and can be easily integrated into different
contexts and systems. This reduces the need for control components, as the
behavior of the system is determined by the interactions between objects rather
than by the flow of control through a program.

Overall, control components are necessary in traditional software to control the flow of
execution through a program, but are generally not required in object-oriented software
because the behavior of the system is determined by the interactions between objects.

12)Disadvantages of Object Oriented Analysis

In lecture notes:(just given about Object Oriented Analysis
but no info about adv and disadv)

Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is a widely-used approach to software design that is

based on the principles of object-oriented programming (OOP). While OOA has many
advantages, there are also some potential disadvantages to consider:

1.​ Complexity: OOA can be more complex than other approaches to software
design, as it involves modeling a system as a set of interacting objects with
complex relationships and behaviors. This can make it more difficult to
understand and modify the system, especially for developers who are new to
OOP.
 2.​ Rigidity: Once the objects in a system have been defined, it can be difficult to
make changes to their properties and behaviors. This can make the system less
flexible and adaptable, and can make it harder to modify and evolve the system
over time.
3.​ Overhead: OOA involves a lot of upfront design and modeling work, which can be
time-consuming and may not be necessary for simple or straightforward
systems. This can add overhead to the development process, and may not be
cost-effective for smaller or simpler projects.
4.​ Limited reuse: While OOA can facilitate the reuse of objects within a system, it
can be more difficult to reuse objects across different systems or contexts. This
can limit the benefits of object-oriented design, especially in environments where
reuse is a key concern.

Overall, while OOA has many advantages, it is important to carefully consider the
potential disadvantages and decide whether it is the right approach for a given project.

13)Advantages of Object Oriented Analysis

Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is a widely-used approach to software design that is

based on the principles of object-oriented programming (OOP). OOA has several
advantages over other approaches to software design:

1.​ Modularity: OOA allows developers to create modular, self-contained objects that
encapsulate their own data and behavior. This makes it easier to understand and
modify the system, as the behavior of each object is clearly defined and isolated
from the rest of the system.
2.​ Reusability: OOA facilitates the reuse of objects within a system, as well as
across different systems. This can save development time and improve the
maintainability of the system.
3.​ Extensibility: OOA allows developers to easily extend and modify the system by
adding or modifying the objects in the system. This can make it easier to evolve
the system over time to meet changing requirements.
4.​ Maintainability: OOA helps to improve the maintainability of a system by making
it easier to understand and modify the system. The modular structure of objects
 and the clear separation of responsibilities can make it easier to fix bugs and
implement new features.
5.​ Flexibility: OOA allows developers to model real-world entities and concepts in a
more flexible and intuitive way. This can make it easier to understand and work
with complex systems, and can improve the usability of the system.

Overall, OOA is a powerful approach to software design that offers many advantages,
including modularity, reusability, extensibility, maintainability, and flexibility.

14)Disadvantages of Structured Analysis

In lecture notes:(just given about Structured Analysis but no

info about adv and disadv)
15)Advantages of Structured Analysis

1)Greater Efficiency

Much like with building information modelling, structural analysis improves

project efficiency. Following the steps means there’s little room to miss the
important things. You cover every base, from the issues with an existing
model through to the alternatives to the model you come up with.

You have a plan in place and establish feasibility at an early stage.

Furthermore, you create a structure that all stakeholders can work within.
Everybody understands their role within your projects and works as per the
system’s design.

2) It Takes Client Needs into Account

In most cases, your clients have come to you with a problem. They may
need you to redesign an existing model. Or, they have certain
specifications your model must meet.

One of the benefits of using structural analysis is that the technique takes
the client’s needs into account from the beginning. The process of
analysing and modelling the current system helps. It allows you to ask
questions of the client, and gives them time to tell you about specific
issues.

This continues throughout the process. Modelling the physical environment

offers a real-world interpretation of your model. You also consider the
alternatives, which gives your client something else to think about.

3)Better Risk Analysis

One of the benefits of using structural analysis is that it challenges you to

look at all aspects of a project. As a result, you analyse risks constantly. The
data points out areas of contention, so you can adapt the model to them.

This benefit also comes back to the client-focus. You have a better
understanding of what the client wants. As a result, you take on less risk
when designing the model. In some cases, you may even get feedback from
the clients’ customers. For example, you could expect more feedback when
replacing an older model. The clients’ customers may have raised complaints,
which you can use to shape your own efforts.

4)It Makes Projects More Manageable

You confront the issue of feasibility during the early stages of the process.
You collect data, consider the problem, and come up with a solution. As a
result, the project grows from a solid foundation. You understand how you’ll
manage every stage of the project, and who you must involve.

Using structural analysis when developing models helps you to determine

the workload your team takes on. You can assign tasks confidently, and
ensure you have the correct people in place.

It comes down to the planning. The data you have available shows you
exactly what you need to do. Your models build on this information. As the
process continues, you identify problem areas and tasks. For example,
you’ll know when to invite contributions from electricians. Plus, you can
tackle potential structural issues early in the process.

Structural analysis gives you control of the project from start to finish.

5)Create Updateable Models

Structural analysis doesn’t just take the client’s present needs into
account. It also considers future issues. It allows for the creation of
models you can modify and update as time goes on.
This is particularly useful during the pre-construction stage. Your
models may face last minute changes. An uncaught design flaw could
cause issues, or the client may change their requirements.

Each demands modification of the existing model. Sometimes, you

may need to add to your model based on the client’s new
requirements. Combine the structural analysis approach with the right
building information modelling software. This helps in several ways.

For example, you can code new data sets into the model to reflect the
changes. The building information modelling structure also allows you
to share these changes with your team. Everybody can contribute to
the ongoing maintenance and updating of the model during
development. As a result, new client demands don’t set the project
back too far. Your model can adapt to them, in preparation for the
construction phase.

16)Advantages of object relational model

17)Disadvantages of object relational model

18)Identifying Events with the Use Case(doubt)

In software engineering, a use case is a description of a system's behavior as it

responds to a request from a user or another system. Identifying events is an important
part of the use case process, as it helps to define the trigger points for the system's
behavior.

There are several ways to identify events in the use case process:

1.​ Identify the external triggers: Events are often triggered by external actions or
requests, such as a user input or a request from another system. It is important
 to identify these external triggers and describe how the system responds to
them.
2.​ Identify the internal triggers: Events can also be triggered by internal conditions
or states, such as the completion of a task or the expiration of a timer. It is
important to identify these internal triggers and describe how the system
responds to them.
3.​ Identify the event flow: The sequence of events in a use case is called the event
flow. It is important to identify the event flow and describe the sequence of
actions and decisions that the system takes in response to each event.
4.​ Identify the exception conditions: It is also important to identify any exception
conditions that may arise during the event flow, and describe how the system
handles these conditions.

By identifying the events in a use case, developers can better understand the behavior
of the system and how it responds to different requests and conditions. This can help to
ensure that the system is reliable, flexible, and easy to understand and modify.

19)What are system requirements? Explain in detail.

In software engineering, system requirements are the specifications that define the
capabilities, constraints, and characteristics of a software system. System requirements
are used to define the functionality and performance of a system, and to guide the
design and development process.

There are several types of system requirements that may be defined for a software
system, including:

1.​ Functional requirements: These are the requirements that define what the
system is supposed to do. They may include specific features or capabilities that
the system must have, as well as the requirements for input, output, and
processing.
2.​ Non-functional requirements: These are the requirements that define how the
system is supposed to behave. They may include requirements for performance,
reliability, security, usability, and other qualities of the system.
 3.​ Constraints: These are the requirements that define the boundaries or limits
within which the system must operate. They may include requirements for
hardware, software, or other resources that the system must be compatible with.
4.​ Assumptions: These are the requirements that define the conditions that are
assumed to be true when the system is being designed or developed. They may
include assumptions about the environment in which the system will be used, the
users of the system, or other factors.

It is important to define and document the system requirements carefully, as they will
serve as the foundation for the design and development of the system. Clearly defined
system requirements can help to ensure that the system is reliable, flexible, and easy to
understand and modify.

20)What is requirement? Explain about user requirements

with an example

In software engineering, a requirement is a specification that defines a capability,

constraint, or characteristic that a software system must have. Requirements are used
to define the functionality and performance of a system, and to guide the design and
development process.

User requirements are the requirements that are defined by the users of a software
system. They represent the needs and expectations of the users, and they are used to
guide the design and development of the system.

For example, consider a software system that is being developed for a bank. The user
requirements for this system might include:

1.​ The ability to create and manage customer accounts: Users (e.g., bank
employees) must be able to create new customer accounts, view and update
account information, and perform other account-related tasks.
2.​ The ability to process transactions: Users must be able to process deposits,
withdrawals, and other transactions on customer accounts.
3.​ The ability to generate reports: Users must be able to generate reports on
customer accounts and transactions, such as account balance reports and
transaction history reports.
4.​ Security: The system must be secure, with measures in place to prevent
unauthorized access and protect sensitive customer data.