MORAL vs NON-MORAL ● Moral standards deal with

STANDARD matters that can seriously harm

or benefit human beings.
What is Morality? ● The validity of moral standards
The Difference Between Ethics and depends on the sufficiency of the
Morality reasons that support and justify
Ethics - “character” or “moral nature” them.
- It is the systematic study of the - The value and authority of
rightness and wrongness of an moral standards are not
action merely based on the
Morality - “manner” or “custom” decision of the majority or
- Rightness and wrongness of an of the authorities, but
action rather on their soundness.
● Moral standards are to be
MORAL PRINCIPLES: preferred over other values, even
Benefiance self-interest.
Non-maleficence ● Moral standards are based on
Truthfulness and confidentiality impartial or unbiased
Autonomy and informed consent considerations (“universalizable”)
Respect for persons ● Moral standards are special—
Justice usually strong— emotions (guilt,
shame, remorse, praise, etc.)
- For ethics, killing is wrong To Summarize:
because it violates the basic ● Moral standards are rules that
moral principle of respect for tell us which actions are morally
persons or that of non- good and which ones are bad.
maleficence. ● They deal with more serious
- For morality, killing is wrong cases; are sound, authoritative,
because it is a morally wrong significant and impartial; and
action- it has the elements of a have strong emotional
morally bad action consequences compared to non-
moral rules.
Ethics is the science of morals.
Morality is the practice of ethics. Non-Moral Standard
- are use to judge an action in non-
Moral Standard moral way
- A norm which a society (or an Ex. law, aesthetics, etiquette
individual) has regarding which - are a matter of taste and
actions are morally right and preference
which actions are morally wrong. Ex. Your favorite food, car, brand, color
Moral Standards: Minimum Requirements
 of Morality Morality requires impartiality with
regard to those moral agents affected
What can we learn from all this about by a violation of a moral rule.
the nature of morality?
Note two points: Impartiality (fair-mindedness) is a
First, moral judgments must be backed principle of justice holding that
by good reasons; and second, morality decisions should be based on objective
requires the impartial consideration of criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
each individual’s interests. self-interest, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for
The Greek philosopher Aristotle improper reasons. Other elements of
regarded that human beings have a impartiality are accuracy, fairness,
rational soul that makes us different balance, context, and no conflicts or
with that of animals and plants. prejudgments.

Rationality is the capability for logical

thought with the ability to reason
towards sound conclusions based on
facts and evidence, draw inferences
from situations and circumstances, and
make sound well-reasoned judgments
based on factual information.

Plants and animals are incapable of

complex reasoning and introspection,
much more so in distinguishing good
from bad and right from wrong.

The two minimum requirements of

morality:
REASON and IMPARTIALITY

Moral judgments must be backed by the

best arguments or reasons out there,
not only good reasons or better
judgments. Our decisions must
be guided as much as possible by
reason.
 CHAPTER 2 - moral obligations of moral
Moral Agent agents is to use their power with
care and never intentionally
Moral Agent cause unjustified harm.
● A moral agent is someone who
has the ability to discern what is - by doing unjustified harm you
right from wrong and to be held are not a moral agent.
accountable for his or her own
actions. Man As The Fully Functioning Person
● a person as a rational, free moral ● According to Carl Rogers, a fully
agent functioning person is someone
● moral agent have a moral who is in touch with his/her
responsibility not to cause deepest and innermost feelings
unjustified harm. and desires.

Moral Subject ● He also believes that a fully

● Humans functioning person is an
● Animals individual who is continually
● Environment working towards becoming
● Art himself actualized.

Moral Community Characteristics of a Fully Functioning

● includes all people from birth to Person:
death. 1. Open to Experience
● theoretically, every person in the ● positive and negative emotions
moral community has equal are accepted
natural rights and moral ● takes constructive criticisms
protection. ● it does not resort to ego, defense
mechanisms etc.
● However, it does not mean a 2. Existential Living
community of people who act ● in touch with different
morally or ethically. experiences as they occur in life
● fully appreciate the present; does
● one's moral community consists not dwell on the past
of all those beings that one holds ● avoids prejudice and
in moral regard. preconceptions
3. Trust Feelings
"NEVER INTENTIONALLY CAUSE ● trust ourselves to make our own
UNJUSTIFIED HARM" decisions, make the right choices
- Aristotle ● Self-actualization
● trust our instincts, gut reactions
4. Creativity Cultural Relativism
● the ability to adjust, change and
seek new experiences in life Darius - a king of ancient Persia
● does not play safe all the time (present-day Iran), was intrigued by the
● risk taker variety of cultures he met in his travels.
5. Fulfilled Life - he had encountered a group of
● happy and satisfied in life people known as the Callatians
● contented in life - A group of people in India who
● trust his/her decisions cooked and ate the bodies of
their dead fathers.
Moral Agent The Greeks, on the other hand,practiced
● moral agents are those agents cremation and regarded the funeral
expected to meet the demands pyre as the proper way to dispose of
of morality. the dead.
● not all agents are moral agents.
● agents can obey moral laws such Darius thought that an enlightened
as "Murder is wrong" or "Stealing outlook should appreciate such
is wrong", then they are moral differences. One day, to teach this
agents, even if they respond only lesson, he summoned some Greeks who
to prudential reasons such as were at his court and asked them what
fear of punishment and even if it would take for them to eat their dead
they are incapable of acting for fathers’ bodies. The Greeks were
the sake of moral considerations. shocked, as Darius knew they would be.
Virtue No amount of money, they said, could
● is a trait or quality that is possibly get them to do such a thing.
deemed to be morally good and Then Darius called in some Callatians
thus is valued as a foundation of and, while the Greeks listened, asked if
principle and good moral being. they would be willing to burn their dead
● doing what is right and avoiding fathers’ bodies. The Callatians were
what is wrong is a practice, horrified and told Darius not to speak of
behavior, or habit generally such things.
considered immoral, sinful,
criminal, rude, taboo, depraved, This story, recounted by Herodotus in
or degrading in the associated his History, illustrates a recurring theme
society. in the literature of social science:
● Are all vices bad or immoral? Different cultures have different moral
codes. What is thought to be right
within one group may horrify another
group, and vice versa.
Cultural Relativism says, in effect, that What Follows from Cultural
there is no such thing as universal truth Relativism?
in ethics; there are only the various William Graham Sumner states the
cultural codes. Cultural Relativism essence of Cultural Relativism that the
challenges our belief in the objectivity only measure of right and wrong is the
and legitimacy of moral judgments. standards of one’s society: “The notion
of right is in the folkways. It is not
The following claims have all been outside of them, of independent origin,
emphasized by cultural relativists: and brought to test them. In the
1. Different societies have different folkways, whatever is, is right.” Suppose
moral codes. we took this seriously. What would be
2. The moral code of a society some of the consequences?
determines what is right within that
society; so, if a society says that a 1. We could no longer say that the
certain action is right, then that action customs of other societies are morally
is right, at least in that society. inferior to our own.
3. There is no objective standard that 2. We could no longer criticize the code
can be used to judge one society’s code of our own society.
as better than another’s. There are no 3. The idea of moral progress is called
moral truths that hold for all people at into doubt.
all times.
4. The moral code of our own society When he tells the story of the Greeks
has no special status; it is but one and Callatians, Herodotus adds,
among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other For if anyone, no matter who, were
cultures. We should always be tolerant given the opportunity of choosing from
of them. amongst all the nations of the world the
set of beliefs which he thought best, he
Cultural Relativism holds that the norms would inevitably, after careful
of a culture reign supreme within the consideration of their relative merits,
bounds of the culture itself. choose that of his own country.
Everyone without exception believes his
Cultural Differences Argument own native customs, and the religion he
was brought up in, to be the best.
(1) Different cultures have different
moral codes.
(2) Therefore, there is no objective truth
in morality. Right and wrong are only
matters
 Moral Dilemmas 2. There must be different courses of
action to choose from.
Dilemma ● Mary has at least two options: (a)
● a situation in which a person is to continue her pregnancy or (b)
forced to choose between two (or to have an abortion
more) conflicting options, neither 3. No matter what course of action is
of which it is acceptable to taken, some moral principles are always
him/her. compromised.
● a situation in which a person ● There are no perfect solutions for
(also called a "moral agent" in moral dilemmas.
ethics) is forced to choose ● Whether Mary chooses to
between two or more conflicting continue her pregnancy or to
options, neither of which solves have an abortion, the basic
the situation in a morally moral principles of protecting life
acceptable way. (her's and/or her baby's) will be
compromised.
Moral Dilemma Example:
Mary is a religious and morally upright 3 Levels of Moral Dilemma
person. She considers killing human 1. Personal Dilemmas
beings absolutely wrong. One day, her ● Those experienced and resolved
obstetrician gave her a devastating on a personal level.
news that she was having an Ectopic ● Experienced and solved on a
Pregnancy (fetus develops outside the personal level.
uterus, usually in one of the fallopian ● You can solve it on your own
tube). without asking help from other
Mary's Moral Dilemmas people.
Should Mary: 2. Organizational Moral Dilemmas
● Continue her pregnancy and put ● Refers to ethical cases
her and her baby's life in danger, encountered and resolved by
or social organizations
● Have an abortion and destroy ● Business, Medical, and Public
her religious and moral integrity sectors
3. Structural Dilemmas
3 Conditions That Make a Moral ● Refers to cases involving network
Dilemma: institutions and operative
1. The person or the agent of a moral theoretical paradigms;
action is obliged to make a decision ● Encompass multi-sectoral
about which course of action is best. institutions and organizations.
In Mary's case, having an abortion is
perhaps the best course of action.
Frameworks in Solving Ethical
Dilemma:

● Establish the facts surrounding

the ethical dilemma;

● Determine your legal obligations

and duties;

● Establish the interested

participants involved;

● Determine the ethical values of

each participant;

● Consider the normative ethical

theories as an aide to determine
a course of action;

● Consider options that would be

ethically sound;

● Consideration of the possible

negative and positive outcomes
of each possible