electronics

Article
Operation and Coordinated Energy Management in
Multi-Microgrids for Improved and Resilient Distributed Energy
Resource Integration in Power Systems
Ahmed Aghmadi and Osama A. Mohammed *

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Multi-microgrids (MMGs) revolutionize integrating and managing diverse distributed

energy resources (DERs), significantly enhancing the overall efficiency of energy systems. Unlike
traditional power systems, MMGs comprise interconnected microgrids that operate independently or
collaboratively. This innovative concept adeptly addresses challenges posed by pulsed load effects,
capitalizing on the cooperative nature of interconnected microgrids. A coordinated MMG system
effectively redistributes and shares the impact of pulsed loads, mitigating voltage fluctuations and
ensuring sustained system stability. The proposed cooperative MMG scheme optimizes power distri-
bution and load prioritization, facilitating the seamless allocation of surplus energy from neighboring
microgrids to meet sudden surges in demand. This study focuses on DC standalone multi-microgrid
systems, showcasing their inherent adaptability, resilience, and operational efficiency in managing
pulse, variable, and unpredictable generation deficits. Several experiments on a laboratory-scale DC
multi-microgrid validate the system’s robust performance. Notably, transient current fluctuations
during pulse loads are promptly stabilized through the effective collaboration of microgrids. Variable
load experiments reveal distinct behaviors, shedding light on the profound influence of control strate-
gies. This research reveals the transformative potential of MMGs in addressing energy challenges,
with a particular focus on DC standalone multi-microgrid systems. The findings underscore the
Citation: Aghmadi, A.; Mohammed,
adaptability and resilience of the proposed cooperative scheme, marking a significant stride in the
O.A. Operation and Coordinated
Energy Management in Multi-
evolution of modern power systems.
Microgrids for Improved and
Resilient Distributed Energy Resource Keywords: multi-microgrid system; microgrid; renewable energy; pulsed load; distributed energy
Integration in Power Systems. resources; sustainability
Electronics 2024, 13, 358. https://
doi.org/10.3390/electronics13020358

Academic Editor: Luis M.

1. Introduction
Fernández-Ramírez
The introduction of distributed energy resources and the deployment of advanced meter-
Received: 6 November 2023 ing, communication, and control technology at the distribution level has resulted in significant
Revised: 11 January 2024
changes to the structure of traditional distribution networks in recent decades [1,2]. This
Accepted: 13 January 2024
progress has resulted in the birth of multi-microgrid systems, distinguished by incredible
Published: 15 January 2024
speed and more controllability and dependability. These multi-microgrid systems support a
wide range of energy resources, from fixed and dispatchable power sources to probabilistic
and intermittent distributed generators (DGs), and serve a wide range of energy consumers,
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
including fixed, non-controllable loads as well as hourly and probabilistic variable loads.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This dynamic composition has highlighted the critical importance of good energy manage-
This article is an open access article ment tactics in multi-microgrid systems [3]. A microgrid is a localized, small-scale power
distributed under the terms and system integrating several energy generation, storage, and load control techniques. It pro-
conditions of the Creative Commons vides a dependable, cost-effective, and long-lasting energy supply to a specific consumer,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// building, or industry and operates attached to or apart from the electrical grid. Because
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of the need to reduce dependency on centralized power networks and growing concerns
4.0/). about energy security, microgrids are becoming more and more popular. Microgrids may

Electronics 2024, 13, 358. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13020358 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2024, 13, 358 2 of 16

provide a renewable energy balance by combining various renewable energy sources [4].
Microgrids can be AC, DC, or hybrid AC/DC systems, making the appropriate architecture
very prominent depending on the needs and requirements requested [5]. However, the
use of microgrids faces several challenges, such as the unpredictable nature of renewable
resource generation, disruptions in the transmission lines, interruptions in the equipment
connecting microgrids (MGs) and the distribution system, and the risk of accidental power
failures arising from specific load demand [6–8]. For instance, a heavy pulse load or load
with a large startup current can cause a significant issue regarding the instability of a
microgrid [9]. The high short-time current behavior not only requires the use of higher-
rated power components but also has the potential to cause voltage and frequency shifts
throughout the whole microgrid. These weak points can be very harmful in the case of
the DC Microgrid because of the lack of the system’s infinite bus (grid), which generally
acts as a stabilizing reference point for voltage and frequency regulation. The concept of
a multi-microgrid system offers several benefits and solutions, emphasizing improving
the robustness and dependability of the more significant power infrastructure. A MMG
system ensures that cases of power outages or imbalances inside one microgrid due to
any of the previously outlined reasons are handled with prompt assistance from other
microgrids, utilizing its capacity to provide smooth power distribution and equilibrium
maintenance across the linked microgrids. This collaborative approach successfully reduces
interruptions and ensures a constant and reliable power supply, assuring the uninterrupted
delivery of electricity to end customers.
Numerous studies have been conducted on the operation scheduling approaches of
MMGs. In [10], a cooperative energy and reserve scheduling paradigm for multi-microgrid
operation has been presented. The suggested technique enhances operational efficiency and
saves costs by coordinating energy generation and storage across linked microgrids. In [11],
the authors present real-time energy management of many microgrids. The study provides
a stochastic spatiotemporal decomposition method in which uncertainty has been resolved
via maximizing resource allocation through considering geographical and temporal aspects.
Another study [12] proposes a secure, decentralized transactive energy management system
that accounts for probable misbehaviors for numerous interconnected microgrids. The
authors conclude that the suggested plan reduces the risks of hostile or unauthorized
activity by implementing robust, strong security measures and monitoring systems. A
separate study [13] focuses on the coordinated management of energy across networked
microgrids inside distribution systems. The study examines strategies for enhancing
energy production, consumption, and storage across numerous interconnected microgrids.
It attempts to improve overall system efficiency, dependability, and grid resilience by
applying a coordinated energy management method. Further research [14] offers a unique
distributed economic model predictive control strategy for the collaborative management
of multi-microgrids, successfully managing supply and demand uncertainties, lowering
operating costs, and assuring supply-demand balance. Several studies have analyzed the
resilience of a distribution network with multi-microgrids (MMGs) [15–21].
A key challenge for DC standalone systems (e.g., microgrids) is effectively managing
specific types of loads, particularly high-demand loads. This challenge is compounded by
the fact that these systems rely primarily on renewable energy sources, which are inherently
unreliable due to their intermittent nature.
Several scholars have investigated the effects of integrating pulsed loads in standalone
power systems. This research can be categorized into three main categories: (1) using energy
storage systems, (2) analyzing how pulsed loads affect power systems, and (3) minimizing
the adverse effects of pulsed loads. The works in the first category state that there are
multiple types of energy storage, such as batteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels. However,
the characteristics of each one pose a challenge to accommodating pulse loads; batteries
have high energy density but need more power density. In contrast, ultracapacitors and
flywheels have opposite characteristics [22]. Combining both categories of ESS has been an
area of study—for instance, hybrid battery-ultracapacitor systems [23].
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 3 of 16

In the second category, the impacts of pulsed load power and interval time on system
frequency and voltage have been investigated in [24]. In addition, several studies have
investigated pulsed loads’ effects on shipboards, such as [25], in which the authors highlight
the importance of energy storage systems in preserving stability. Multiple studies have
compared the impact of pulsed loads in power systems [25–27].
The objective of research studies is to minimize the impact of pulsed loads on power
systems. In theory, research such as [28] analyzes the dynamics of pulse loads in marine
integrated power systems (IPSs) by employing a novel approach known as the millisecond-
time-scale-based state-space averaging mode (MTS-SSAM). This approach acknowledges
the variability and irregularity in the switching periods of pulsed loads and adapts to them
by operating on a millisecond time scale. Another paper [29] analyzes the challenge of
meeting the peak power demands of pulsed power loads such as radar and beam weapons,
which often exceed the generator’s capacity. This paper proposes a sizing process for
hybrid energy storage systems based on Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm and a
decision-making method to achieve the most suitable result.
These research papers have primarily focused on integrating energy storage systems
to manage the high demand of pulse load, microgrid operations, and optimizing economic
aspects. However, numerous issues affect battery-based energy storage systems, most
notably their inability to withstand fluctuating peak power demands, frequently decreasing
battery life. The size of the battery bank can be increased as a standard solution, but doing
so presents challenges like higher costs, thermal issues, and cell imbalances. Hybrid energy
storage systems (battery-supercapacitor systems) can provide viable solutions, especially
for enhancing efficiency and power quality. Furthermore, those systems prove highly prac-
tical for various contexts, including shipboard power systems, aircraft systems, and electric
vehicles. However, there are many issues with hybrid energy storage implementation.
Implementing a hybrid energy storage system that includes batteries and supercapacitors
might require more work regarding control and management. The necessity for additional
control circuitry and switching methods for managing the two energy storage technologies
can increase system complexity and cost, which may only sometimes be justified by the
benefits achieved in some applications.
A networked microgrid system is an excellent option for providing reliable power
with high efficiency in various power systems that use sustainable energy sources. Unlike a
single microgrid with limited capabilities or a conventional power grid with centralized vul-
nerabilities, the networked microgrid excels in decentralized, resilient power distribution
across linked microgrids, ensuring uninterrupted supply despite pulse load-induced out-
ages. These systems (i.e., multi-microgrids) may distribute pulse load demands effectively
across linked microgrids, eliminating overloads and ensuring an uninterrupted power
supply. Microgrid energy storage devices store extra energy during periods of low demand
and swiftly release it when pulse loads evolve. Table 1 shows a comparison between the
proposed approach and other similar power systems.

Table 1. Comparison of multi-microgrid, single microgrid, and conventional power grid’s key aspects
and performance metrics.

Aspect Conventional Power Grid Single Microgrid Multi-Microgrid

Efficient across
Power Distribution Centralized to a large region Localized to a specific area
linked microgrids
Robust but vulnerable
Resilience Susceptible to single failures Resilient to local disturbances
to outages
Centralized control and Balances loads
Flexibility Limited flexibility
limited adaptability across microgrids
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 4 of 16

Table 1. Cont.

Aspect Conventional Power Grid Single Microgrid Multi-Microgrid

Centralized control with Requires comprehensive
Control and Monitoring Essential for stability
extensive infrastructure monitoring
May experiences stability
May face challenges due to Adapts well to
Handling Pulse Loads issues with high-intensity
sudden load changes dynamic changes
pulse loads
May have higher
Potentially lower impact due
environmental impact, Impact depends on
Environmental Impact to efficient use of
especially with local resources
local renewables
non-renewable sources

Furthermore, comprehensive control and monitoring capabilities allow real-time

load balancing and planned management, which reduces stress on individual microgrids.
Networked microgrids’ resilience enables continuous power supply even in the face of
pulse load-induced outages, making them an excellent option for various applications,
from industrial facilities to military applications.
The main research contributions of this paper are as follows:
• The networked microgrid was studied and tested under different scenarios in both
simulation and experiment.
• The development and experimental testing of an energy management system to
maintain a networked microgrid’s continuous operation under various renewable
energy and load conditions, depending on which energy devices are available and
how much power the load needs.
• The proposed system architecture provides high performance against pulse loads and
variable loads.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the system architec-
ture and component modeling; Section 3 shows the simulation and operation results under
different scenarios; Section 4 describes the hardware setup and discusses the experimental
test results; and finally, conclusions are given in Section 5.

2. System Architecture and Modeling

This section explains the structure of MMGs, general concepts of the energy manage-
ment technique, and details of microgrid components.

2.1. Proposed Multi-Microgrid System Structure

The system addressed in this research comprises two DC microgrids supplying differ-
ent load profiles, as shown in Figure 1. Each microgrid has several components, including
a renewable energy source (RES) unit, energy storage (ES) unit, and multiple resistive
load units connected. The RES and ES units are connected to the microgrid bus through a
bidirectional DC/DC converter (BDC), and the loads are connected directly to Microgrid
buses 1 and 2. A microgrid central controller (MCC) is responsible for the operation and
coordination of the various components. The primary objective of the MCC is to ensure the
optimal utilization of available resources, mainly managing the flow of energy between the
RES unit, ES unit, and loads. These two microgrids are also connected, allowing for power
exchange as necessary. A DC link facilitates this interconnection, allowing for smooth power
transfer from one microgrid to the other. The DC link also allows for synchronization and
voltage management, ensuring dependable and efficient power exchange.
In addition to their load profiles, both microgrids collaborate to solve an essential com-
ponent: a pulse load coupled to the DC link. This pulse load poses a distinct problem due
to its sudden and intermittent energy consumption. When such high-demand situations
occur, the microgrids collaborate to provide a reliable, quick response. The coordinated
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 5 of 16

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

effort 5 of of
includes effectively combining excess energy resources and maximizing the usage 17
energy storage devices to address any supply-demand imbalances.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Proposed
Proposed Multi-Microgrid
Multi-Microgrid System.
System.
In addition to their load profiles, both microgrids collaborate to solve an essential
A centralized energy management system coordinates the collaboration between
component: a pulse load coupled to the DC link. This pulse load poses a distinct problem
the two microgrids. It directs resource allocation, monitors energy flow, and manages
due to its sudden and intermittent energy consumption. When such high-demand situa-
responses to pulse load events. This coordination enhances system adaptability and
tions occur, the microgrids collaborate to provide a reliable, quick response. The coordi-
reliability, ensuring efficient power delivery to meet diverse load requirements.
nated effort includes effectively combining excess energy resources and maximizing the
usage of energy
2.2. Microgrid storage devices to address any supply-demand imbalances.
System
2.2.1.APVcentralized energy management system coordinates the collaboration between the
System Model
two microgrids. It directs resource allocation, monitors energy flow, and manages re-
The photovoltaic system regulates its output current depending on sun irradiation
sponses to pulse load events. This coordination enhances system adaptability and relia-
and module temperature. Panel temperature, Tp , is determined using a dynamic equation
bility, ensuring efficient power delivery to meet diverse load requirements.
based on the energy balance [30].
2.2. Microgrid System dT p (t) 1
= ( G (t) − Qrad (t) − Pel (t)) (1)
2.2.1. PV System Model dt HP
The photovoltaic system regulates its output current depending on sun irradiation
HP (with HP > 0) represents the heat capacity, whereas G represents the amount of
and module temperature. Panel temperature, 𝑇 , is determined using a dynamic equation
absorbed radiation. Additionally, Qrad indicates the radiation heat transfer, and Pel refers
based on the energy balance [30].
to the electric power established. To compute the voltage of the PV module, we apply a
one-diode model as described in [31].
𝐺 𝑡 𝑄 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 (1)
Vpv (t) = Vd (t) − I pv (t) ∗ Rs (2)
𝐻 (with 𝐻 > 0) represents the heat capacity, whereas G represents the amount of
The current I pv is calculated as follows, taking into consideration the voltage across
absorbed radiation. Additionally, 𝑄 indicates the radiation heat transfer, and 𝑃 re-
the diode:
fers to the electric power established. To compute V the voltage of the
VdPV
(t) module, we apply
     
d (t)
a one-diode model = I ph (t)in−[31].
(t)described
I pvas I0 (t) ∗ exp −1 − (3)
Vt (t) sh R
𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 ∗𝑅 (2)
The current 𝐼 is calculated as follows, taking into consideration the voltage across
the diode:
 𝑉 stands for the terminal voltage, 𝐼 for the diode reverse saturation current, 𝑅 for
the shunt resistance, and 𝐼 for the current under irradiation.
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 6 of 16
2.2.2. Battery System Model
The battery model discussed here is based on a general concept first presented in [32]
It is V
shown here as a perfect DC source connected in series with a controlled internal re
t stands for the terminal voltage, I0 for the diode reverse saturation current, Rsh for
sistance called 𝑅 . and
the shunt resistance, TheIstate-of-charge
ph for the current(SOC) of the battery is a crucial element in a non
under irradiation.
linear equation used to calculate the battery’s no-load voltage, abbreviated as 𝐸 . The fol
2.2.2.
lowing Battery
is theSystem Model
equation:
The battery model discussed here is based on1 a general concept first presented in [32].
𝐸
It is shown here as a perfect DC source 𝐸 connected
𝐾 in𝐴 series with a controlled internal (4
𝑆𝑂𝐶
resistance called R B . The state-of-charge (SOC) of the battery is a crucial element in a
In this
nonlinear equation used𝐸to stands
context, calculatefor
thethe battery’s
battery’s constant
no-load voltage,
voltage, 𝐾 for
abbreviated as its
EB . polarization
The
voltage, Q
following is for
the its ampere-hour capacity, and A and B for its charge and discharge charac
equation:
teristics. This model may be customized by changing the parameters A, B, and K to match
1
EB =ofEa0 −
the discharge characteristics particular
K A− BQ(1−type.
+ battery SOC )
(4)
SOC
this context, EDC-DC
2.2.3.InBidirectional for the battery’s constant voltage, K for its polarization volt-
0 stands Converter
age, Q for its ampere-hour capacity, and A and B for its charge and discharge characteristics.
The converter presented in Figure 2 offers two distinct operational modes: boost and
This model may be customized by changing the parameters A, B, and K to match the
buck. Thecharacteristics
discharge boost modeof enables controlled
a particular batteryenergy
type. transfer from the low-voltage (LV) ter
minal to the high-voltage (HV) terminal by activating IGBT S2. When IGBT S2 is in the
2.2.3.
“on” Bidirectional
state duringDC-DC Converter
the boost mode, it initiates a precise sequence of operations. This in
cludesThecharging
converterinductor
presentedL and directing
in Figure energy
2 offers discharge
two distinct from capacitor
operational modes: Cboost
through the
and
HV buck. The boost mode enables controlled energy transfer from the low-voltage (LV)
terminal.
terminal
On to
thethe high-voltage
other hand, when (HV) terminal
IGBT by activating
S2 transitions IGBT
to the S2.state,
“off” Whenit IGBT S2 isthe
redirects in curren
the “on” state during the boost mode, it initiates a precise sequence of operations.
path through inductor L and the freewheeling diode D1. This redirection efficiently This
includes charging inductor L and directing energy discharge from capacitor C through the
charges capacitor C and facilitates energy transfer to the HV terminal.
HV terminal.

Figure2. 2Configuration
Figure of the
. Configuration of bidirectional DC-DC
the bidirectional converter.
DC-DC converter.

On the other hand, when IGBT S2 transitions to the “off” state, it redirects the current
In the buck mode of operation, energy transfer occurs from the high-voltage (HV
path through inductor L and the freewheeling diode D1. This redirection efficiently charges
capacitor Ctoand
terminal thefacilitates
low-voltage
energy (LV) terminal
transfer to thethrough the controlled activation of IGBT S1
HV terminal.
modulated
In the buckvia mode
a specific duty cycle.
of operation, When
energy IGBToccurs
transfer S1 is in thethe
from “on” state during
high-voltage (HV)the buck
mode, it initiates a regulated process. In this phase, the input current
terminal to the low-voltage (LV) terminal through the controlled activation of IGBT from the HVS1,termina
is directedvia
modulated through theduty
a specific filtercycle.
inductor
WhenL,IGBT
effectively
S1 is in facilitating energy
the “on” state duringtransfer to the LV
the buck
mode, it initiates a regulated process. In this phase, the input current from the HV terminal
terminal.
is directed through
A strategic the filter inductor
occurrence transpiresL, effectively facilitating of
upon the transition energy
IGBTtransfer to the
S1 to the “off” state
LV terminal.
The stored energy in the inductor triggers the conduction of freewheeling diode D2. Con
A strategic occurrence transpires upon the transition of IGBT S1 to the “off” state. The
sequently, the inductor’s current continues to flow through both inductor L and diode D2
stored energy in the inductor triggers the conduction of freewheeling diode D2. Conse-
quently, the inductor’s current continues to flow through both inductor L and diode D2.
During this phase, the inductor’s current gradually diminishes until IGBT S1 is activated
again in the subsequent cycle.
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 7 of 16

2.2.4. Microgrid Energy Management System

Algorithm 1 initiates by assessing the available power generation (Pres) and the load
demand (PLoad) within a microgrid. It calculates the energy surplus or deficit (NetExtra)
by subtracting the load demand from the available power generation. If there is a surplus,
the algorithm computes the amount of surplus energy that can be effectively stored in the
energy storage system (ESS) and proceeds to charge the ESS. Conversely, in the case of a
deficit, it calculates the necessary energy discharge from the ESS to meet the load demand,
ensuring that the ESS discharges only up to its capacity. The algorithm then recalculates
the available power (PAvail) while considering the ESS’s charge or discharge, optimizing
energy management, and effectively balancing energy supply and demand within the
microgrid before concluding its execution.

Algorithm 1: Microgrid EMS

Initialize Pres (Power Gen), Pload (Load Demand)
Calculate NetExtra = Pres − Pload
If NetExtra > 0:
Calculate Charge = min(NetExtra, ESS Capacity)
Charge ESS with Calculated energy
If NetExtra < 0
Calculate Discharge = min(-NetExtra, ESS Capacity)
Discharge ESS to meet load demand
Calculate Pavai considering ESS charge or discharge
End

2.3. Multi-Microgrid Operation

The energy management system in the multi-microgrid system is structured into two
distinct parts, each comprising two modes to address varying operational scenarios:
External Load Disconnected:
• Mode 1: When the generated power from the microgrids’ PV systems surpasses the
local load demand of the two microgrids, resulting in a positive net generation, the
system initiates Mode 1. Within this mode, it delves into each microgrid’s internal
generation and load profiles. A positive balance within a microgrid ensures that each
load receives the required power, and any remaining surplus is sent into the energy
storage system (ESS). If there is still an excess of power after ESS charging, the PV
systems transition into a Proportional-Integral (PI) control mode instead of Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT).
• Mode 2: When the generated power from the microgrids’ PV systems falls short of
meeting the local load demand of the two microgrids, resulting in a negative net
generation, Mode 2 is activated. Within this mode, the system carefully evaluates
Microgrid 1 and Microgrid 2. If one microgrid experiences a positive balance of
generation and load, it shares power resources with the other microgrid, helping it
meet its demand. However, if both microgrids are in deficit, the system initiates the
disconnection of a secondary load in Microgrid 2 to restore power balance and ensure
system stability.
External Load connected:
• Mode 3: In this mode, when the generated power from the microgrids’ PV systems
exceeds the local load demand plus the external load of the two microgrids, the system
optimally allocates power resources. It first evaluates the power generation and
local load within each microgrid, ensuring that excess power, if any, is appropriately
distributed to meet local load requirements. Any surplus energy beyond local needs
is then directed to supply the external load. The power source in this mode is a
combination of PV and energy storage systems (ESSs), allowing for efficient energy
sharing and utilization.
 is then directed to supply the external load. The power source in this mode is a com-
bination of PV and energy storage systems (ESSs), allowing for efficient energy shar-
ing and utilization.
• Mode 4: When the generated power from the microgrids’ PV systems falls short of
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 8 of 16
meeting the local load and external load demands for the two microgrids, the system
employs a strategy to balance the power deficit. It assesses each microgrid’s genera-
tion and load• profiles,
Mode 4:identifying which has
When the generated a surplus
power from theand which faces
microgrids’ a deficit.
PV systems fallsIfshort of
meeting the
one microgrid generates localpower,
excess load anditexternal
shares itload
withdemands
the otherfor microgrid
the two microgrids, the system
to support
employs a strategy to balance the power deficit. It assesses each
its load demands, including the external load. In cases where both microgrids expe- microgrid’s generation
and load profiles, identifying which has a surplus and which faces a deficit. If one
rience power deficits, the system initiates the disconnection of a secondary load in
microgrid generates excess power, it shares it with the other microgrid to support its
Microgrid 2 to ensure that theincluding
load demands, power supply remains
the external load. stable.
In cases where both microgrids experience
power deficits, the system initiates the disconnection of a secondary load in Microgrid
3. Simulation and Operation
2 to ensureResults
that the power supply remains stable.
Simulation Results
3. Simulation and Operation Results
In order to test the performance
Simulation Results of the proposed system for managing power transfer
between interconnected DC microgrids,
In order several case
to test the performance scenarios
of the proposedwere adopted:
system for managing power transfer
 between
External Pulse interconnected DC microgrids, several case scenarios were adopted:
load connected:
➢ External Pulse load connected:
In this scenario, an effective DC multi-microgrid system composed of two distinct
microgrids coupled via In this
a DCscenario, an effective
connection DC multi-microgrid
and governed systemcentral
by a microgrid composed of two distinct
controller
microgrids coupled via a DC connection and governed by a microgrid central controller
(MCC) reacts to an external pulse demand ranging from 50 W to 180 W, as shown in Figure
(MCC) reacts to an external pulse demand ranging from 50 W to 180 W, as shown in Figure 3.
3. For instance, when the pulse
For instance, load
when thespikes
pulse at t =spikes
load 3 s, both
at t =microgrids quickly respond
3 s, both microgrids by
quickly respond by
increasing their power production
increasing viaproduction
their power renewablevia energy sources
renewable energyand energy
sources andstorage
energy units
storage units
to satisfy the increased demand.
to satisfy In addition,
the increased demand.aIn transient
addition,voltage fluctuation
a transient in the DC
voltage fluctuation in bus
the DC bus
indicates the dynamic reaction
indicates the dynamic reaction of the system. of the system.

Pulse Load Increase Pulse Load Decrease

Figure 3. Simulation result—pulsed load connected.

Figure 3. Simulation result—pulsed load connected.
This scenario demonstrates the efficacy of the microgrids’ combined effort, coordi-
This scenario demonstrates the efficacy of the microgrids’ combined effort, coordinated
nated by the MCC, in delivering a dependable, quick response to intermittent high-de-
by the MCC, in delivering a dependable, quick response to intermittent high-demand
mand conditions,conditions,
assuring assuring
a powera supply that accommodates
power supply that accommodates various
variousloads.
loads.Both mi-
Both microgrids
crogrids have a local
have aload
local that needs
load that totobebesupplied
needs supplied andand then
then delivered
delivered the power
the power re-from the
requested
quested from the external
externalload
load based
based on the
on the power
power statusstatus of the microgrid.
of the microgrid. Battery
Battery current current
graphs in Figure 4
graphs in Figure show rapid
4 show surges
rapid in Microgrid
surges 1 and Microgrid
in Microgrid 2 at every load
1 and Microgrid increase
2 at everyinload
response
in- to the
external pulse load, indicating instantaneous energy discharge to meet the demand. At the
crease in response to the external pulse load, indicating instantaneous energy discharge
same time, the DC bus voltage at both microgrids remains constant at the desired level.
to meet the demand. At the same time, the DC bus voltage at both microgrids remains
constant at the desired level.
4, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
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Electronics 2024, 13, 358 9 of 16

(a) (b)
(a) for external pulsed profile. (a) Microgrid
Figure 4. Microgrids’ simulation results (b)1—DC Voltage
and Battery Current; (b) Microgrid
Figure
Figure 4. 2—DC
4.Microgrids’
Microgrids’ Voltage
simulation
simulation and
results Battery
for
results Current.
external pulsedpulsed
for external profile. profile.
(a) Microgrid 1—DC Voltage
(a) Microgrid 1—DCandVoltage
Battery
and Current;
Battery (b) Microgrid
Current; 2—DC2—DC
(b) Microgrid VoltageVoltage
and Battery
andCurrent.
Battery Current.
 External variable load connected
➢ External variable load connected
The systemadjusts
External
to a variable load connected
more constant load pattern when changing from the prior
pulse load scenario TheThe system
to a system adjusts
load to
variableadjusts a moreMicrogrids
profile. constant load pattern whenenergy
changing from the prior
to a more constant of renewable
load pattern when sources
changing from the prior
pulse load scenario to a variable load profile. Microgrids of renewable energy sources
(RES) and energy storage
pulse load (ES) unitstosynchronize
scenario a variable their profile.
load power generation
Microgrids with
of changing energy sources
renewable
(RES) and energy storage (ES) units synchronize their power generation with changing load
load needs while considering
(RES)
needsand
while
eachstorage
energy microgrid’s
considering (ES)
each
available
units
microgrid’s
power after
synchronize their
available power
meeting
power
after
its local
generation
meeting
de- demand.
its local with changing
mand. Microgrids
loadmay
needsprioritize
while stored energy
considering and
each optimize
microgrid’s RES generation
available power during
after
Microgrids may prioritize stored energy and optimize RES generation during low-demand low-
meeting its local de-
demand times. mand.
When the load
times. Microgrids rises,
When the load may they respond
prioritize
rises, by increasing
storedbyenergy
they respond andRES
increasing RES generation
optimize while
RES generation
generation during low-
while successfully
successfully managing
demand
managingenergy
times. storage,
energyWhen as illustrated
the
storage, asload rises,inthey
illustrated Figure
in 5.5.This
respond
Figure This coordinated
by increasingreaction
coordinated RES generation
reaction provides while
provides balanced and efficient
balanced
successfully power
andmanaging
efficient distribution,
power
energy showing
distribution,
storage, showing
as the
theflexibility
illustrated flexibility
in Figureand
and coordina-
5.coordination
This between
coordinated reaction
the microgrids
tion between theprovides
microgrids in tolerating
in tolerating
balanced fluctuating
fluctuating
and efficient poweryetyet predictable load
predictableshowing
distribution, situations
load situations while considering
while and coordina-
the flexibility
considering theirtheir
locallocal
loadload needs.
needs.
tion between the microgrids in tolerating fluctuating yet predictable load situations while
considering their local load needs.

Load change

Load change
Figure 5. Simulation result—variable load connected.
Figure 5. Simulation result—variable load connected.
Figure 5. Simulation
The fluctuations observed result—variable load connected.
in the load change figure can be attributed to the dynamic
The fluctuations observed in the load change figure can be attributed to the dynamic
nature of the multi-microgrid system.observed
The fluctuations As the system
in the adapts to varying
load change figureload profiles,
can be RES to the dynamic
attributed
nature of the multi-microgrid system. As the system adapts to varying load profiles, RES
units adjust their power
nature ofoutput,
thetheir
units adjust
and ES units discharge
multi-microgrid
power output,system. Asorthe
and ES units
store energy
system
discharge
to meet
adapts
or
changing
to varying
store energy load
to meet profiles, RES
changing
demands as demonstrated
units
demands asin
adjust Figure
their 6, introducing
power
demonstrated output, and
in Figure 6,temporary power
ES units discharge
introducing variations.
temporary orpower
store variations.
energy to meet changing
The coordinated
demands responses between microgrids
as demonstrated in Figure 6,and the system’s
introducing centralpower
temporary controller
variations.
led to these fluctuations,
The demonstrating the system’s
coordinated responses ability
between to adapt toand
microgrids dynamic load con-
the system’s central controller
ditions while optimizing
led to theseresource utilization
fluctuations, efficiently,the
demonstrating ultimately
system’sensuring
ability to reliable
adapt toand
dynamic load con-
cost-effective power supply.
ditions while optimizing resource utilization efficiently, ultimately ensuring reliable and
cost-effective power supply.
 Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 10 of 16

024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.
6. Microgrids’ simulation
Microgrids’ simulation results
results for external
for external variable
variable profile.profile. (a) Microgrid
(a) Microgrid 1—DC
1—DC Voltage
Voltage and Battery Current; (b) Microgrid 2—DC Voltage
and Battery Current; (b) Microgrid 2—DC Voltage and Battery Current. and Battery Current.
 Generation
(a) deficitresponses between microgrids
The coordinated (b) and the system’s central controller
led This
Figure 6. Microgrids’ distinctive
tosimulation
these situation
results
fluctuations, for is aptly variable
external
demonstrating depicted in Figure
profile.
the system’s (a)7,Microgrid
which
ability illustrates
to adapt1—DC the unfolding
to dynamic load
conditions
vital
Voltage and Battery events.
Current; whilet =optimizing
At(b) resource
3.5 s, a critical
Microgrid 2—DC momentutilization
Voltage and efficiently,
occurs ultimately
as Microgrid
Battery Current. ensuring
2 grapples withreliable
an issue
andseverely
that cost-effective
impacts power supply.
its ability to generate power. In response, the loads within Microgrid
 Generation deficit
2➢depend entirely deficit
Generation on Microgrid 1 to meet their power demands. Furthermore, during this
This distinctive
period, situation
an externalis aptly depicted
microgrid in Figure
input 7, which36illustrates
of a constant the unfolding
W is introduced into the system. This
vital events. Atadded
t = 3.5This distinctive situationoccurs
is aptlyasdepicted in Figure 7, which illustrates the unfolding
source acts as a critical lifeline to Microgrid 2, bridgingwith
s, a critical moment Microgrid 2 grapples an issue
the gap created by the def-
vital
that severely impacts events.
its power At
ability tot = 3.5 s, a critical
generate power. moment occurs as Microgrid 2 grapples with an issue
icit in severely
that its generation.
impacts At to
its ability 7Ins,response,
t =generateanother the loads within
significant
power.
Microgrid
development
In response, unfolds
the loads within as a load
Microgrid
2 depend entirely on Microgrid
change occurs 1 to meet
within their power
Microgrid 2. Thisdemands.
change Furthermore,
involves the during this of its second
disconnection
2 depend entirely on Microgrid 1 to meet their power demands. Furthermore, during this
period, an external
load, microgrid
leading toinput of a constant
observable shifts in36ofW power
the is introduced into the system. This
period, an external microgrid input a constantdynamics.
36 W is introduced into the system. This
added source acts as a critical lifeline to Microgrid 2, bridging the gap created by the def-
added source acts as a critical lifeline to Microgrid 2, bridging the gap created by the deficit
icit in its power in
generation.
its power At t = 7 s, another
generation. At t = significant
7 s, anotherdevelopment unfolds as aunfolds
significant development load as a load
change occurs within
changeMicrogrid
occurs within2. This change2.involves
Microgrid This changethe disconnection of its secondof its second
involves the disconnection
load, leading to observable shifts in the power dynamics.
load, leading to observable shifts in the power dynamics.

Figure 7. Simulation result—Microgrid 2 generation deficit.

Upon closer examination, it becomes evident that the disconnection of the load
within Microgrid 2 results in a decrease in power generation from Microgrid 1. Simulta-
neously,
Figure 7. Simulation
Figure 7. Microgrid 2 2experiences
Simulation result—Microgrid
result—Microgrid a2 notable
generation
generation deficit. increase
deficit. in available power, although it re-
mains in the negative range. This negative value signifies that Microgrid 2 is still receiving
Upon closer examination,
power, Upon
evencloser
thoughit becomes
examination,
it must relyevident
it becomes that
on external the
evident disconnection
that to
sources themeet itsof
disconnectionthe of
energy load
the load within
requirements. Fig-
within Microgridure 2 results
Microgrid in a decrease
2 results
8 illustrates in power
in a decrease
ES units discharge generation
inor
power from
storegeneration Microgrid 1.
from Microgrid
energy to meet Simulta-
1. Simultaneously,
changing demands as demon-
neously, Microgrid 2 experiences
Microgrid
strated. a notable
2 experiences increase
a notable in available
increase in availablepower, although
power, althoughititre-remains in the
negative
mains in the negative range.
range. ThisThis negative
negative value
value signifiesthat
signifies thatMicrogrid
Microgrid22isisstill
stillreceiving
receiving power, even
power, even thoughthough it must
it must rely
rely onon externalsources
external sourcesto tomeet
meet its
its energy
energy requirements.
requirements.FigureFig- 8 illustrates
ES units discharge or store energy to meet changing demands
ure 8 illustrates ES units discharge or store energy to meet changing demands as demon- as demonstrated.
strated.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
Electronics 2024, 13, 358
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16 11

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Microgrids’
Microgrids’ simulation
simulation results for
for generation
generationdeficit
deficitcase.
case.(a)
(a)Microgrid
Microgrid1—DC
1—DCVoltage
Voltage
and
Figure 8. Microgrids’ simulation results for generation deficit case. (a) Microgrid 1—DC Vo
and Battery
Battery Current;
Current; (b)
(b)
and Microgrid
Microgrid
Battery 2—DC
2—DC
Current; Voltage
Voltage
(b) andand
Microgrid Battery
Battery
2—DC Current.Done.
Current.Done.
Voltage and Battery Current.Done.

This
This scenario
scenario underscores
underscores thethe
This scenario importance
importance
underscores of of
thethethe interconnected
interconnected
importance multi-microgrid
of the multi-microgrid
interconnected sys-
sys-
multi-microgrid
tem in ensuring
tem in ensuring the the continuity
temcontinuity of
in ensuringofthe power
power supply,
supply,
continuity even
of even
powerin the face
in supply, of unexpected
the faceeven
of unexpected disruptions
in the face disrup-
of unexpected dis
andand
tions deficits in tions
deficitslocalized
in localizedpower
powergeneration.
generation.It showcases
It showcases the system’s
the
and deficits in localized power generation. It showcasessystem’s ability
theto
ability balance
to bal- ability to
system’s
power
ance distribution
power seamlessly
distribution seamlesslyand to
and adapt
to swiftly
adapt to
swiftly maintain
to stable
maintain and
stable efficient
and opera-
efficient
ance power distribution seamlessly and to adapt swiftly to maintain stable and effic
tions, emphasizing
operations, emphasizingits intrinsic
operations, resilience
its emphasizing
intrinsic andintrinsic
resilience
its capacity to manage
and capacity
resiliencetoandcomplex
manage energy
complex
capacity scenarios
energy
to manage complex ene
effectively.
scenarios effectively.
scenarios effectively.

4. 4. Hardware
Hardware andand Experimental
4.Experimental
Hardware and
TestResults
Test Results
Experimental Test Results
4.1. Experimental Setup
4.1. Experimental Setup
4.1. Experimental Setup
The proposed system was evaluated using a laboratory-scale DC multi-microgrid
The proposed system was evaluated
The proposed system using a laboratory-scale
was evaluated DC multi-microgrid
using a laboratory-scale DC multi-micro
testbed. As depicted in Figures 9 and 10, the testbed comprises two microgrids intercon-
testbed. As testbed.
depicted in As depicted
Figures 9 and in Figures
10, the 9 andcomprises
testbed 10, the testbed
two comprises two
microgrids microgrids inter
intercon-
nected through a common DC bus, and an external programmable load has been introduced
nected through anected
for a comprehensive common through
evaluation.
a common
DC bus, an DC
andmicrogrid
Each
bus, and
external an external programmable
programmable
(MG) load has been
contains photovoltaic
load has been in
intro-
(PV) systems
duced for a duced for aevaluation.
comprehensive comprehensiveEach evaluation.
microgrid Each
(MG) microgrid
contains (MG) contains(PV)
photovoltaic photovoltaic (
and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for energy storage. Through using DC boost converters to
systems and systemsbatteries
lithium-ion and lithium-ion
(LIBs) batteries
for energy (LIBs) for energy
storage. Through storage.
using Through
DC boost using
con- DC boost
implement Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for each PV control, the PV systems
verters verters
to implement to implement
Maximum PowerMaximum
Point Tracking (MPPT) for each PV control, the control
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for each PV
are fine-tuned for efficient power generation.
PV systems are fine-tuned
PV systems are fine-tuned for efficient power forgeneration.
efficient power generation.

Figure 9. General Overview of Multi-Microgrid Testbed.

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Electronics 2024, 13, 358 12 of 16

Figure 9. General Overview of Multi-Microgrid Testbed.

(b)

(a)

(c)
Figure 10. Experimental setup of a DC microgrid. (a) Control desk and monitoring system of the
Figure 10. Experimental
multi-microgrid setup of a DC
system; (b) Microgrid microgrid.
1 hardware (a) Control
setup; desk and
(c) Microgrid monitoring
2 hardware system of the
setup.
multi-microgrid system; (b) Microgrid 1 hardware setup; (c) Microgrid 2 hardware setup.
4.2. Scenario 1: External Pulse Load
4.2. Scenario 1: External Pulse Load
The control system for the hybrid DC microgrid has been developed using the
The control
Matlab/Simulink system
R2022a for the hybrid
software platformDCand
microgrid has been
is operated withdeveloped
the dSPACE using the
1104 Mat-
real-
lab/Simulink R2022a software platform and is operated with the dSPACE 1104
time interface. Furthermore, the duty ratio, magnitude, and frequency of the pulsed load real-time
are interface. Furthermore,
precisely regulated the duty ratio,the
by implementing magnitude,
dSPACE and
1104frequency of thethis
board. Within pulsed loadthe
section, are
precisely regulated by implementing the dSPACE 1104 board. Within this section, the
investigation focuses on analyzing the influence of the pulsed power load and its specific
investigation focuses on analyzing the influence of the pulsed power load and its specific
characteristics on the overall performance of the multi-microgrid system. Microgrid 1 lo-
characteristics on the overall performance of the multi-microgrid system. Microgrid 1 local
cal load drew 180 watts of power during this experimental setup, while Microgrid 2 loads
load drew 180 watts of power during this experimental setup, while Microgrid 2 loads 1
1 and 2 consistently drew 110 watts and 120 watts of power, respectively. Simultaneously,
and 2 consistently drew 110 watts and 120 watts of power, respectively. Simultaneously, a
a pulsed load with a magnitude of 360 watts, a 50% duty ratio, and a frequency of 0.1 Hz
pulsed load with a magnitude of 360 watts, a 50% duty ratio, and a frequency of 0.1 Hz
waswasapplied. Figure
applied. 11 illustrates
Figure thethe
11 illustrates DCDCbusbus
voltage and
voltage thethe
and current drawn
current drawn bybythe pulsed
the pulsed
load from
load each
from microgrid.
each microgrid.
Observable from the results, the voltage of the shared DC bus was initially at 60 V
before the pulsed load was initiated. After the pulse load, the bus voltage experienced a
decline to 58.5 V. The current injected from Microgrid 1 is 2.48 A, while the current from
Microgrid 2 is 0.52 A. It can be noticed that a slight fluctuation in the current of MG1 during
the pulse load occurrence is attributed to the dynamic response of the microgrid system.
This is justified by the fact that when a sudden pulsed load is applied, MG1 and MG2
prioritize their local loads, affecting power distribution during load fluctuations. Load
prioritization can result in divergent responses to pulse loads.
Electronics 2024,13,
Electronics2024, 13,358
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
13 of 17

Figure11.
Figure 11.The
The operation
operation test
test result
result ofof multi-microgrid
multi-microgrid system—pulsed
system—pulsed load
load scenario.
scenario.
Observable
4.3. Scenario from the
2: External results,
Variable Loadthe voltage of the shared DC bus was initially at 60 V
before the pulsed load was initiated. After the pulse load, the bus voltage experienced a
Another scenario was tested in this setup, which is a variable load where power
decline to 58.5 V. The current injected from Microgrid 1 is 2.48 A, while the current from
demand changes gradually over an extended period. The objective of this scenario was
Microgrid 2 is 0.52 A. It can be noticed that a slight fluctuation in the current of MG1
to evaluate the ability of the multi-microgrid system to respond to changing load cir-
during the pulse
cumstances withoutload occurrence
causing suddenis attributed to theeffects
and disruptive dynamic response
on the of the
system’s microgrid
stability and
system. This is justified by the fact that when a sudden pulsed load is applied,
performance. The variable load scenario contributes to a more thorough examination MG1 and of
MG2
the prioritize adaptability
microgrid’s their local loads, affecting
to various load power distribution during
types, complementing load fluctuations.
the findings obtained
Load prioritization
through can result in divergent responses to pulse loads.
the pulse load.
The external
4.3. Scenario load demand
2: External Variable in this scenario starts from 360 watts, which is the highest
Load
value. It can reach 80 watts as the lowest value with successive changes to investigate and
Another scenario was tested in this setup, which is a variable load where power de-
evaluate the multi-microgrid response. We notice clearly from Figure 12 that the DC bus
mand changes gradually over an extended period. The objective of this scenario was to
voltage fluctuates, especially during significant changes. At high resistance values, we see
evaluate the ability of the multi-microgrid system to respond to changing load circum-
a slight decrease from the desired value to a lower value of 58.5 V. The currents from the
stances without causing sudden and disruptive effects on the system’s stability and per-
two microgrids show that the first responds strongly due to the significant energy power it
formance. The variable load scenario contributes to a more thorough examination of the
has from the PV solar system. The current in the second microgrid changes from positive
microgrid’s adaptability to various load types, complementing the findings obtained
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
to negative if the power is insufficient for the local load. The first microgrid can contribute
through the pulse load.
to meeting the load of the second.
The external load demand in this scenario starts from 360 watts, which is the highest
value. It can reach 80 watts as the lowest value with successive changes to investigate and
evaluate the multi-microgrid response. We notice clearly from Figure 12 that the DC bus
voltage fluctuates, especially during significant changes. At high resistance values, we see
a slight decrease from the desired value to a lower value of 58.5 V. The currents from the
two microgrids show that the first responds strongly due to the significant energy power
it has from the PV solar system. The current in the second microgrid changes from positive
to negative if the power is insufficient for the local load. The first microgrid can contribute
to meeting the load of the second.

Figure12.12.
Figure TheThe operation
operation test
test result
result of of multi-microgrid
multi-microgrid system—variable
system—variable load
load scenario.
scenario.
4.4. Scenario 3: Generation Deficit
In this scenario, a critical event is introduced to test the robustness of the multi-mi-
crogrid system when faced with a sudden power generation deficit. The system initially
operates under normal conditions, with both Microgrid 1 and Microgrid 2 functioning
correctly. However, at a specific time during the experiment, the power generation of Mi-
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 14 of 16

4.4. Scenario 3: Generation Deficit

In this scenario, a critical event is introduced to test the robustness of the multi-
microgrid system when faced with a sudden power generation deficit. The system initially
operates under normal conditions, with both Microgrid 1 and Microgrid 2 functioning
correctly. However, at a specific time during the experiment, the power generation of
Microgrid 2 experienced a complete shutdown, creating an immediate generation deficit.
The Investigation aims to analyze ”ow M’crogrid 1 responds to this deficit and whether
it can effectively handle the additional load to maintain system stability. This scenario
is significant because it simulates a real-world situation where a microgrid may need
to compensate for an unexpected loss of power generation. Microgrid 1’s local load
draws 180 watts of power during this setup, while Microgrid 2’s loads 1 and 2 remain at
110 watts and 120 watts, respectively. At t = 8.2 s, Microgrid 2’s power generation is
abruptly disconnected. Figure 13 illustrates the DC microgrid bus voltage changes and
the currents drawn from Microgrid 1 and 2 in response to the generation deficit. From
the results, as Microgrid 2’s generation abruptly shuts down, Microgrid 1 experiences an
increase in its local load from 180 to 450 watts due to the additional load from Microgrid
2 and the external load. The DC microgrid bus voltage initially drops but stabilizes as
Microgrid 1’s control system responds to the increased load demand by adjusting its power
output. The current injected from Microgrid 1 significantly increases to provide the required
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
power, demonstrating the ability of the microgrid to adapt to changing conditions 15 and
of 17
handle a generation deficit without compromising system stability.

Figure13.13.
Figure TheThe operation
operation testtest result
result of multi-microgrid
of multi-microgrid system–power
system–power generation
generation deficitdeficit in Mi-
in Microgrid
crogrid 2 at t = 8.2 s then a load disconnects at
2 at t = 8.2 s then a load disconnects at t = 33 s. t = 33 s.

This scenario highlights the multi-microgrid system’s resilience and capacity to man-
This scenario highlights the multi-microgrid system’s resilience and capacity to man-
age unexpected events, ensuring uninterrupted power supply to critical loads during a
age unexpected events, ensuring uninterrupted power supply to critical loads during a
power generation deficit. It underscores the importance of a well-designed control system
power generation deficit. It underscores the importance of a well-designed control sys-
that that
tem can respond effectively
can respond to dynamic
effectively changes
to dynamic and maintain
changes the reliability
and maintain and function-
the reliability and
ality of the microgrid.
functionality of the microgrid.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This paper
This paper presented
presentedan anintensive
intensive study
study on
on DCDCstandalone
standalonemulti-microgrid
multi-microgrid systems
systems
and their characteristics
and characteristics and
andoperational
operationaldynamics.
dynamics.Several scenarios
Several scenarioswere
wereconducted,
conducted,in-
cluding a aprogrammable
including programmablepulse
pulseload,
load,variable
variable load,
load, and
and generation deficit.
deficit. The
The proposed
proposed
systemarchitecture,
system architecture, consisting
consisting of interconnected
of interconnected DC microgrids,
DC microgrids, renewablerenewable energy
energy sources,
sources,
and andstorage
energy energyunits,
storage units, demonstrates
demonstrates its adaptability,
its adaptability, resilience,
resilience, and efficiency
and efficiency in man-
in managing
aging variousvarious load scenarios.
load scenarios. The experiments
The experiments on a laboratory-scale
on a laboratory-scale DC multi-mi-
DC multi-microgrid
crogrid testbed validate the system’s performance in responding to external pulse loads,
variable loads, and unexpected generation deficits.
The results show that MG1 exhibited some fluctuations in its current during pulsed
load conditions, especially at the onset of the pulse load. This behavior can be attributed
to the system’s dynamic response to the sudden application of a pulse load. Pulsed loads
Electronics 2024, 13, 358 15 of 16

testbed validate the system’s performance in responding to external pulse loads, variable
loads, and unexpected generation deficits.
The results show that MG1 exhibited some fluctuations in its current during pulsed
load conditions, especially at the onset of the pulse load. This behavior can be attributed to
the system’s dynamic response to the sudden application of a pulse load. Pulsed loads are
characterized by their rapid power demand changes, which require a quick adaptation of
the microgrid system. MG1 exhibited these transient current fluctuations when faced with
the initial impact of the pulse load. However, MG1 and MG2 effectively collaborated to
supply the external pulse load and maintain overall system stability.
Moreover, the microgrids’ responses were scrutinized in a separate experiment involv-
ing variable load conditions. MG1 and MG2 showcased contrasting behaviors, highlighting
the influence of control strategies, component specifications, and load distribution in shap-
ing system dynamics. Other than this, these systems play a critical role in the case of a
generation deficit. Microgrid 1 successfully adapts to handle the additional load, stabilizing
the system. This highlights the system’s robustness in managing unexpected events and
underscores the importance of effective control systems in maintaining reliability.
Overall, this research contributes significantly to the advancement of cooperative
multi-microgrid networks, offering an efficient and sustainable solution for managing the
growing penetration of DERs and enhancing the resilience of modern power systems. These
findings provide valuable insights into the practical implementation of multi-microgrid
systems, particularly in addressing pulsed loads and generation deficits. Future studies
could explore optimizing control strategies, enhancing system efficiency, and investigating
scalability for broader applications in diverse energy management scenarios.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A. and O.A.M.; methodology, A.A. and O.A.M.; soft-
ware, A.A.; validation, A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.; writing—review and editing,
A.A. and O.M; visualization, A.A.; supervision, O.A.M.; project administration, O.A.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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