ABSTRACT

The lab aims to analyze DC operating points of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) biasing circuits
through design, simulation, and implementation. Fixed-bias and self-bias configurations are
constructed for BJTs with varying β values, and voltages and currents are determined
mathematically. The experiment emphasizes setting the operating point in the active region,
demonstrating BJT biasing principles and their effect on amplifier performance. Key insights
into BJT operation modes, biasing methods, and the common emitter configuration are provided.

THEORY

The experiment is a very good practical realization of the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
biasing circuit. A BJT biasing circuit will be designed and simulated to find a DC operating point
using a circuit simulation tool. Then a fixed-biasing and a self-biasing BJT circuits will be
implemented on the trainer board to find a DC operating point for two different β of the
transistor. The DC analysis is done to determine the mode of operation of the BJT and to
determine the voltages at all nodes and currents in all branches. The operating point of a
transistor circuit can be determined by mathematical or graphical (using transistor characteristic
curves) means. Here, we will describe only the mathematical solution.

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 (a) Original circuit (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit
Figure 1: Circuit diagram for biasing of an npn transistors.
Note: It is a good idea to set the bias for a single stage amplifier to half the supply voltage, as this
allows maximum output voltage swing in both directions of an output waveform. For maximum
symmetrical swing, it is clear from the figure that the collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE should
be equal to the half of the collector supply voltage, VCC that is, VCE = VCC/2.
Circuit Configuration:
Figure 2 shows the symbol for the npn transistor and pnp transistor. The emitter of the BJT is
always marked by an arrow, which indicates whether the transistor is an npn or a pnp transistor

Figure 2: Emitter, collector, and base of transistors and the connection modes
There are three basic ways in which a BJT can be configured as shown in Fig. 2. In each case,
one terminal is common to both the input and output circuits shown in the figure above. The
common emitter configuration is used for voltage and current amplification and is the most
common configuration for transistor amplifiers. The common collector configuration is often
called an emitter follower since its output is taken from the emitter resistor. It is useful as an
impedancematching device since its input impedance is much higher than its output impedance.
The common base configuration is used for high-frequency applications because the base
separates the input and output, minimizing oscillations at high frequencies. It has a high voltage
gain, relatively low input impedance, and high output impedance compared to the common
collector.
Biasing of Bipolar Junction Transistors:
In most cases, the BJT is used as an amplifier or switch. To perform these functions, the transistor
must be correctly biased. Depending on the bias condition (forward or reverse) of each of the
BJT junctions, different modes of operation of the BJT are obtained.

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The three modes are defined as follows:
Active Mode: The emitter junction is forward-biased, and the collector junction is reverse-
biased. If the BJT is operated in active mode, then the BJT can be used as an amplifier.
Saturation Mode: Both the emitter and collector junctions are forward-biased. If the BJT is used
as a switch, the saturation mode corresponds to the on-state of the BJT.
Cut-off Mode: Both the emitter and collector junction are reverse-biased. If the BJT is used as a
switch, the cut-off mode corresponds to the off state of the BJT.
In this experiment, we will learn how to set the transistor in the active mode, that is the operating
point should be set in the active region of operation (blue shaded portion) in the output
characteristics of the transistor as shown in Fig. 3. To do this, we need to set a constant base
current by adjusting the base bias resistor values.
Output Characteristics:
The output characteristics curves for a common emitter configured BJT are plotted between the
collector current, IC, and the collector-to-emitter voltage drop by keeping the base current, IB
constant as shown in Fig. 3. These curves are almost horizontal. The output dynamic resistance
again can be calculated from the ratio of the small change of emitter-to-collector voltage drop to
the small change of the collector current.

Figure 3: BJT Common Emitter Output Characteristics

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 APPARATUS

SL# Apparatus Quantity

1 BJT (2N2222, C828, BD135) 1 each

Resistance (RB,POT = 0-500 k RC = 470  RE
2 1 each
= 560  R = 22 k RB2 = 10 k)
4 Project Board 1
7 DC milliammeter (0-50 mA) 1
8 DC microammeter (0-500 A) 1
9 Multimeter 1
10 Connecting Leads 10

PRECAUTION

Some special safety precautions to be considered when working with transistors -

1. Transistors must not be removed or inserted into a circuit while voltage is applied.
2. Replacement transistors should be oriented correctly during installation.
3. Transistors are susceptible to damage from electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation.
Such damage may result from incorrect polarity applied to the collector circuit or excessive
voltage to the input circuit.
4. Electrostatic discharge from handling can frequently damage transistors.
5. Voltage and current applied to transistors must remain within their maximum specified
ratings.
6. Components or their properties should only be altered after powering down the circuit or
stopping the simulation.

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 PROCEDURE

1. The actual values of the base and collector resistors should be measured.
2. The terminals of the transistor should be identified, and the value of Beta (β) should be
recorded.
3. The circuit should be connected, along with the microammeter and milliammeter, as shown in
Fig. 4 (a).
4. The multimeter (in voltmeter mode) should be connected to measure the base resistance
voltage (VB) and the input voltage (VBE).
5. The DC power supply should be turned on with the voltage control knob set to 0 V, and the
collector supply voltage, VCC, should be set to 15 V.
6. The 500 kΩ potentiometer should be adjusted until the collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE, is
approximately equal to half of the collector supply voltage, VCC, i.e., VCE = VCC/2.
7. The collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE), base-to-emitter voltage (VBE), base current (IB), and
collector current (IC) should be measured. The base current (IB) should be calculated from
the collector current (IC) and recorded in Table 1.
8. The first transistor should then be replaced with a second one (having a different value of β),
and steps 6-7 should be repeated.
9. The self-bias circuit shown in Fig. 4 (b) should be constructed.
10. The actual values of the base, emitter, and collector resistors should be measured, and steps
28 should be repeated. In step 7, the emitter current (IE) should also be measured.
11. Images of the hardware circuit diagrams should be recorded.
12. The DC power supply should be turned off.
13. For the voltage divider circuit the procedure will be same from 1 to 6.
14. The collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE), base-to-emitter voltage (VBE), base current (IB),
emitter current (IE), and collector current (IC) should be measured. The base current (IB)
should be calculated from the collector current (IC) using the value of β and recorded in Table
2.
15. The first transistor should be replaced with the second one (having a different value of β), and
steps 6-7 should be repeated.

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16. Images of the hardware circuit diagrams should be recorded.
17. The DC power supply should be turned off.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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 RB
RB 500kΩ 50 %
500kΩ 50 % Key=A
Key=A
RC
RC

R
R
Q3 VCC
Q2

VCC

(a) Fixed-Bias Circuit; (b) Self-Bias Circuit

Figure 4: Circuit diagram for the study of CE transistor bias circuits

Figure 5: Circuit diagram for the study of CE transistor Voltage Divider bias circuit

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Table 1 Data for the measurement of various bias circuit and transistor parameters

Transistor β VCE VBE IB IC IE VR VRC

232 7.5 0.628 0.55mA 1.41mA 1.465mA 1.2 6.5
Fig. 4 (a)
312 5.8 0.671 0.06 2.04 2.10 1.33 9.42
% of Change 22.6% 6.8% 44.6% 10.8%
232 7.5 0.64 0.02 0.54 0.56 0.49 2.4
Fig. 4 (b)
312 5.9 0.68 0.027 0.891 0.918 0.60 4.1
% of Change 21.3% 5.88% 65.1% 38.99%

Table 2 Data for the measurement of voltage divider bias circuit and transistor parameters

Transistor β VCE VBE IB IC IE VRE VRC

232 7.8 0.63 7.48 0.7 8.18 4.5 3.25
Fig. 4 Data
312 7.8 0.63 7.81 0.69 8.5 4.7 3.2

% of 0% 0% 1.47% 3.76%
Change

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 SIMULATIONS

Figure 6: Simulated data Fixed bias(a)

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Figure 7: Simulated data Fixed bias(b)

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Figure 8: Simulated data Self bias(a).

Figure 9: Simulated data Self bias(b).

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Figure 10: Simulated data Voltage Divider bias(a)

Figure 11: Simulated data Voltage Divider bias(b)

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 SIMULATED DATA

Table 1 Data for the measurement of various bias circuit and transistor parameters

Transistor β VCE VBE IB IC IE VR VRC

7.4 0.808 4.3 mA 0.016 0.0203 2.05 7.53
Fig. 4 (a)
7.1 0.681 4.4mA 0.016 0.0204 2.07 7.81
% of Change 4.05% 15.7% 2.2% 0% 0.49%
8.2 8.9 0.012 0.014 0.026 6.02 6.71
Fig. 4 (b)
8.31 8.8 0.013 0.014 0.027 6.19 6.68
% of Change 1.3% 1.1% 7.6% 0% 3.7%

Table 2 Data for the measurement of voltage divider bias circuit and transistor parameters

Transistor β VCE VBE IB IC IE VRE VRC

11.95 4.42 0.03 mA 6.47 mA 6.5 mA 3.64 3.042
Fig. 4 Data
11.83 4.44 0.03 mA 6.72 mA 6.75 mA 3.78 3.162

% of 1.00% 0.45% 0% 3.72% 3.70%

Change

DISCUSSION

The experimental and simulated data highlight the consistency and variations in transistor
parameters across different bias circuits. For the various bias circuits (Table 1), the percentage
change in simulated data was generally low, indicating stable circuit performance, whereas
experimental data showed greater deviations, particularly in base current (I B) and collector current
(IC), with changes as high as 65.1% and 44.6%, respectively. For the voltage divider bias circuit
(Table 2), both simulated and experimental data showed minimal variation, with percentage
changes below 4%. These results confirm that while simulations provide a reliable baseline,
experimental outcomes can vary due to practical factors such as resistor tolerances, transistor
variations, and measurement inaccuracies. Overall, the lab demonstrated the critical importance
of accurate measurements and circuit adjustments in achieving consistent transistor operation.

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 CONCLUSION

The lab highlighted performance variations in transistor parameters across different biasing
circuits and β-values. Higher β values increased I C and IE, showcasing the transistor's
amplification capability. Experimental data showed larger percentage changes than simulated data
due to realworld factors like component tolerances. The voltage-divider bias circuit demonstrated
greater stability with minimal parameter changes, emphasizing the importance of precise
measurement and the advantages of this biasing method for stable transistor operation.

REFERENCES

[1] Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 th
Edition, 2007-2008
[2] Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, 3rd ed., ISBN: 0-03- 051648-X, 1991.
[3] American International University–Bangladesh (AIUB) Electronic Devices Lab Manual.
[4] David J. Comer, Donald T. Comer, Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design, John
Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd., ISBN: 0471410160, 2002.
[5] J. Keown, ORCAD PSpice and Circuit Analysis, Prentice Hall Press (2001) Resistor
values: https://www.eleccircuit.com/how-to-basic-use-resistor/, accessed on 20
September 2023.

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