Unit-4 Basic Electronics

# PN Junction Diode
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device used for amplification and
switching applications. It is a current-controlled device, meaning its output current is
controlled by the input current. The term "bipolar" refers to the involvement of both types of
charge carriers, electrons (negative) and holes (positive), in its operation.

A BJT consists of three regions and two p-n junctions. These regions are:

1. Emitter (E): Heavily doped to inject a large number of charge carriers into the base.

2. Base (B): Thin and lightly doped, situated between the emitter and collector.

3. Collector (C): Moderately doped and larger than the emitter to collect charge carriers.

There are two types of BJTs based on the arrangement of the p-n junctions:

1. NPN transistor: Consists of two n-type regions (emitter and collector) separated by a
p-type base.

2. PNP transistor: Consists of two p-type regions (emitter and collector) separated by an
n-type base.
Different BJT Configurations:

As mentioned earlier, when BJT is used for the amplification of the signal, it is operated
in the active region. And there are different ways to configure it.

 Common Emitter (CE)

 Common Base (CB)
 Common Collector (CC)
Depending on the requirement and the application, the BJT can be configured in any of
the three configurations.

Working of BJT:

The figure shown below shows the operation of the BJT in the active region, where the
base-emitter junction is forward biased, while the collector-base junction is reverse
biased.

When the base-emitter junction is forward biased, the potential barrier at this junction is
reduced, allowing majority charge carriers (electrons in an NPN transistor and holes in a
PNP transistor) to flow across the junction.

In an NPN transistor, the electrons from the emitter (heavily doped) are injected into the
base (lightly doped and thin region).

However, because the base is thin and lightly doped, only a small fraction of these
electrons combines with holes in the base. The majority of the electrons move toward the
collector.
 The collector-base junction is reverse biased, meaning it has a high potential barrier that
attracts the electrons injected into the base.

This reverse-biased junction creates an electric field that sweeps the electrons (or holes in
a PNP transistor) from the base into the collector region.

The collector is typically made larger than the base to capture most of the charge carriers.

In this region, the collector current is primarily controlled by the base current.

 Input and Output V-I characteristics

1. Input Characteristics

 The input characteristic shows the relationship between the input current (IB) and the
input voltage (VBE), with the output voltage (VCE) held constant.

 As VBE increases (forward bias), IB rises exponentially because the base-emitter

junction is a diode.
 The characteristic resembles a typical diode's forward-biased curve.
 For higher values of VCE, IB slightly decreases due to the Early effect, but this is
usually negligible in most cases.
2. Output Characteristics

 The output characteristic shows the relationship between the output current (IC) and
the output voltage (VCE), for different constant values of the input current (IB).

 The curve is plotted for different values of IB.

 Regions in the Output Characteristics:

a) Cut-off Region:

o When VBE < 0.7 V, IB = 0, and IC ≈ 0.

o The transistor is OFF, and no current flows through the collector-emitter path.

b) Active Region:

o VBE > 0.7 V (base-emitter forward-biased) and VCE is sufficiently large.

o In this region, the transistor acts as an amplifier.

c) Saturation Region:

o When VCE is very small (typically less than 0.2 V), IC no longer depends on IB,
and the transistor is fully ON.

o Both the base-emitter and collector-base junctions are forward biased.

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 MOSFET Types, Construction, Working and Characteristics
 MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
 It is a type of Field Effect Transistor and it is voltage-controlled device.
 It is used for switching or amplifying electronic signals in the electronic
devices.
 It is the most commonly used transistor and it can be used in both analog and
digital circuits.

 Types of MOSFET:

 Symbol of MOSFET:

In the Enhancement MOSFET the source and the drain are not connected physically so
in the symbol lines are broken and in the Depletion mode line is continuous. In the N
type the arrow points inside and in the P type arrow points outside.
 Construction of MOSFET:
The metallic gate terminal in the MOSFET is insulated from the semiconductor layer
by a SiO2 layer or dielectric layer. The MOSFET consists of four terminals, they are
source(S), Gate (G), Drain (D) and the body (B) which is called as substrate. The
substrate is connected to the source internally.

 The gate is insulated from the semiconductor (channel) by a thin silicon dioxide
(SiO2) layer.

 The channel is formed between the source and drain.

 N-type or P-type semiconductor regions are used for creating channels.

N-Channel MOSFET Construction:

 P-type substrate with two heavily doped N+ regions (Drain and Source).

 Gate oxide separates the gate electrode from the substrate.

 Majority charge carriers are electrons.

P-Channel MOSFET Construction:

 N-type substrate with two heavily doped P+ regions (Drain and Source).

 Majority charge carriers are holes.

Figure: Construction of N channel and P channel Enhancement MOSFET

Figure: Construction of N channel and P channel Depletion MOSFET

 Working of Enhancement MOSFET:

In the enhancement mode the applied Gate voltage is always positive. When it crosses
the threshold voltage it turns ON. The current is generated due to the movement of
majority carriers. In N channel majority carriers are electrons and in P channel
majority carriers are holes. The source is connected to the negative terminal. When the
electrons move from source to drain the positive charges formed below the dielectric
because of the repulsive force from gate combine with each other.

When the applied gate voltage is increased the number of majority carriers becomes
more than the minority carriers below the dielectric medium. So the majority carriers
overcomes the recombination of holes and electrons and the majority carrier move
from source to drain in the channel, which forms the current. Thus the gate voltage
controls the concentration of the majority carriers which is responsible for the
formation of the channel.

 Working of Depletion MOSFET:

The depletion MOSFET is ON by default. The source and drain terminals are
physically connected. When the gate terminal is connected to the negative terminal
and source to the positive terminal, the electrons gets repelled below the dielectric
layer. The positive charged carrier from the source gets combined with the majority
carrier the electrons in the N type and thus depletion layer is formed and the channel
resistance increases and the current flow decreases. Thus the increase in gate voltage
decreases the drain current. They are inversely proportional. When the negative
voltage is further increased it reaches the pinch off mode.

When the gate is connected to the positive terminal and the source terminal it operates
in the enhancement mode.

 V-I Characteristics of MOSFET:

Cut off region:

No current flows through it and the MOSFET is off.

Ohmic region:

Drain current increases when the drain source voltage increases. Used as amplifier in
this region.

Saturation region:

Drain current is constant for drain source voltage. Used as switch in this region. This
occurs when the drain source voltage reaches pinch off voltage.

Depletion mode:

The MOSFET is ON by default. When negative voltage is applied to the gate terminal
it operates in the depletion mode and when positive voltage is applied, it operates in
the enhancement mode.
Enhancement mode:

When positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it starts conducting and the
current starts to flow.
 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)
 The op amp is an electronic device consisting of a complex arrangement of
resistors, transistors, capacitors, and diodes.
 An op amp is an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation, and
integration.
 Op amps are commercially available in integrated circuit (IC) packages in
several forms. A typical one is the eight-pin dual in-line package (or DIP),
shown in Figure(a). Pin or terminal 8 is unused, and terminals 1 and 5 are of
little concern to us. The five important terminals are:

1. The inverting input, pin 2.

2. The noninverting input, pin 3.

3. The output, pin 6.

4. The positive power supply V+, pin 7.

5. The negative power supply V−, pin 4.

 The circuit symbol for the op amp is the triangle in Figure (b) as shown, the op
amp has two inputs and one output.
 The inputs are marked with minus (−) and plus (+) to specify inverting and
noninverting inputs, respectively.
 An input applied to the noninverting terminal will appear with the same
polarity at the output, while an input applied to the inverting terminal will
appear inverted at the output.

Figure (a): pin configuration of a typical op amp

 Figure (b): circuit symbol of a typical op amp

 As an active element, the op amp must be powered by a voltage supply as

typically shown in Figure (c). Although the power supplies are often ignored in
op amp circuit diagrams for the sake of simplicity, the power supply currents
must not be overlooked.

Figure (c): Powering the op amp.

 By KCL,

i o = i 1 + i 2 + i + + i−
 The equivalent circuit model of an op amp is shown in Figure (d). The output
section consists of a voltage-controlled source in series with the output
resistance Ro.
 It is evident from Figure (d) that the input resistance Ri is the Thevenin
equivalent resistance seen at the input terminals, while the output resistance Ro
is the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the output.
 The differential input voltage vd is given by

vd = v2 − v1
 Figure (d): The equivalent circuit of the non-ideal op amp.

 Where, v1 is the voltage between the inverting terminal and ground and v2 is the
voltage between the non-inverting terminal and ground.
 The op amp senses the difference between the two inputs, multiplies it by the
gain A, and causes the resulting voltage to appear at the output.
 Thus, the output vo is given by

vo = Avd = A(v2 − v1)

 A is called the open-loop voltage gain because it is the gain of the op amp
without any external feedback from output to input.
 The concept of feedback is crucial to our understanding of op amp circuits.
Negative feedback is achieved when the output is fed back to the inverting
terminal of the op amp.
 When there is a feedback path from output to input, the ratio of the output
voltage to the input voltage is called the closed-loop gain.
 As a result of the negative feedback, it can be shown that the closed-loop gain
is almost insensitive to the open-loop gain A of the op amp. For this reason, op
amps are used in circuits with feedback paths.
 A practical limitation of the op amp is that the magnitude of its output voltage
cannot exceed |VCC |. In other words, the output voltage is dependent on and is
limited by the power supply voltage.
 Figure (e) illustrates that the op amp can operate in three modes, depending on
the differential input voltage vd :
 Figure (e): Op amp output voltage vo as a function of the differential input
voltage vd .

1. Positive saturation, vo = VCC.

2. Linear region, −VCC ≤ vo = Avd ≤ VCC.

3. Negative saturation, vo = −VCC.

 This means that the output voltage is restricted by: −VCC ≤ vo ≤ VCC

 IDEAL OP AMP

 To facilitate the understanding of op amp circuits, we will assume ideal op

amps. An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics:

1. Infinite open-loop gain, A ≃ ∞

2. Infinite input resistance, Ri ≃ ∞

3. Zero output resistance, Ro ≃ 0

 An ideal op amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain, infinite input

resistance, and zero output resistance.
 For circuit analysis, the ideal op amp is illustrated in Figure (f), which is
derived from the non-ideal model. Two important characteristics of the ideal op
amp are:

1. The currents into both input terminals are zero:

i1 = 0, i2 = 0
  This is due to infinite input resistance. An infinite resistance between the input
terminals implies that an open circuit exists there and current cannot enter the
op amp. But the output current is not necessarily zero.

Figure (f): Ideal op amp model

2. The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small

i.e., vd = v2 − v1 ≃ 0

or v1 = v2

 Thus, an ideal op amp has zero current into its two input terminals and
negligibly small voltage between the two input terminals.

Applications of Op-Amps

1. Amplifiers

2. Signal Processing

3. Mathematical Operations

4. Voltage Comparators

5. Oscillators

6. Instrumentation

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 Digital Electronics:
Digital electronics deals with circuits and systems that process digital signals. These
signals are represented in binary form (0s and 1s). The primary components of digital
electronics are Boolean algebra, the binary number system, and logic gates, which
work together to perform various logical and arithmetic operations.

 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with binary variables (0 and 1)
and logical operations such as AND, OR, and NOT. It is the foundation of digital
circuits.

 Basic Operations

1. AND (·): Output is 1 only if all inputs are 1.

Expression: A⋅B or AB
Truth Table:

Input Output
A B A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

2. OR (+): Output is 1 if at least one input is 1.

Expression: A+B
Truth Table:

Input Output
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

3. NOT (¬): Inverts the input.

Expression: A‾ or A’
Truth Table:

A Output
0 1
1 0
 Properties/Laws of Boolean Algebra

1. Identity Laws:

A+ 0 =A
o
o A⋅1 =A
2. Null Laws:

A+1=1
o
o A⋅0=0
3. Idempotent Laws:

A+A=A
o
o A⋅A=A
4. Complement Laws:

A + A′ = 1
o
o A ⋅ A′ = 0
5. Commutative Law:

A+B= B+A
o
o A .B=B.A
6. Associative Law:

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
o
o (A . B) . C = A . (B . C)
7. Distributive Law:

o A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C

Example 1. Reduce the Boolean expression: A = XY + X(Y+Z) + Y(Y+Z)

Solution:

A = XY + X(Y+Z) + Y(Y+Z)

A = XY + XY + XZ + YY + YZ

A = XY + XY + XZ + Y + YZ (Using Idempotent law, Y.Y = Y)

A = XY + XZ + Y + YZ (Using Idempotent law, XY + XY = XY)

A = XY + XZ + Y(1+Z)

A = XY + XZ + Y.1 (Using null law, 1+A = 1)

A = XY + XZ + Y (Using Identity law, 1.Y = Y)

A = Y(1+X) + XZ (Using null law, 1+X = 1)

A = Y.1 + XZ (Using Identity law, 1.Y = Y)

A = Y + XZ

Example 2. Write the reduced form for the Boolean expression

X = (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C

Solution:

X = (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C

X = (AB’C + AB’BD +A’B’) C (Using distributive law)

X = (AB’C + 0 + A’B’)C (Using complement laws, BB’ = 0)

X = (AB’C + A’B’)C

X = AB’CC + A’B’C

X = AB’C + A’B’C (Using Idempotent law, C.C = C)

X = B’C (A + A’) (taking B’C as common)

X = B’C (1) (Using complement laws, A+A’ = 1)

X = B’C.

 Binary System

The binary system uses only two digits, 0 and 1. It forms the basis of digital
electronics.

 Binary Arithmetic

1. Addition:

A B Carry Sum
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

Example: Add (11101)2 and (11011)2

 2. Subtraction:

A B Borrow Difference
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0

Example: Subtract (1010)2 from (1100)2

3. Multiplication and Division:

Follow rules similar to decimal arithmetic, focusing on binary digits.

 Binary to Decimal Conversion

The binary number system is a base-2 system that uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
To convert a binary number to a decimal number, each binary digit (bit) is
multiplied by 2 raised to the power of its position index (starting from 0, from
right to left). The results are then summed up to get the decimal equivalent.

Example 1: Convert (1011)2 to Decimal

(1011)2 = 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 1×20

=8+0+2+1

= 11

Example 2: Convert (1011.101)2 to Decimal

(1011.101)2 = 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 1×20 + 1×2-1 + 0×2-2 + 1×2-3

= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
 = 11 + 0.625

= 11.625

 Decimal to Binary Conversion

The decimal to binary conversion involves expressing a decimal number in its

binary (base-2) equivalent. This is done by repeatedly dividing the decimal
number by 2 and recording the remainders.

Example 1: Convert (13)10 to Binary

1. Start dividing by 2:

o 13 ÷ 2 = 6, remainder = 1

o 6 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder = 0

o 3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder = 1

o 1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder = 1

2. The remainders from bottom to top:

(13)10 = (1101)2

 Logic Gates and Their Truth Tables

Logic gates are building blocks of digital circuits. They perform logical operations
based on Boolean algebra.

Types of Logic Gates

1. AND Gate:
Symbol: D-shape with a dot (·)

Truth Table: Same as AND operation

Input Output
A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
2. OR Gate:
Symbol: Curved line pointing to output (+)

Truth Table: Same as OR operation

Input Output
A B Y = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

3. NOT Gate:
Symbol: Triangle with a small circle at the output (¬)

Truth Table: Same as NOT operation.

A Y = A’
0 1
1 0

4. NAND Gate (NOT AND):

Inverts the AND output.

Truth Table:

A B Output (Y)
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
5. NOR Gate (NOT OR):
Inverts the OR output.

Truth Table:

A B Output (Y)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

6. XOR Gate (Exclusive OR):

Output is 1 if inputs are different.

Truth Table:

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

7. XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR):

Output is 1 if inputs are the same.

Truth Table:

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
[Prof. Ashok Gehlot]

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