TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.

(E&EE)

MODULE-1

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

REVIEW:

Introduction
The main advantage of alternating currents over direct current is that, the alternating currents
can be easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage or high voltage to low. Alternating
voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network
as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device
called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It transfers an
electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection between the two
circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below:

Key point: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power
is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage
and current, without any change in the frequency.

The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Use of transformer in transmission system

Necessity of Transformer:
Transformer is a device used to transform voltage from one level to other without change in
frequency.

In general transformers are of 2 types. 1. Step up, 2. Step down.

In step up transformer, output voltage is greater than input voltage and in step down transformer,
output voltage is less than input voltage.

Power is product of voltage and current, therefore if voltage is decreased, current increases so that
product remains same. Power station generate huge amount of power. To transmit power to a long
distance, thick wire is required to conduct huge current. It is economically not possible to use
thick wire to long distance. As well as huge power loss will occur to transmit large power to long
distance. To overcome this, current is step down so voltage is stepped up to 440 kV, 220 kV etc.
This requires considerably less thick wire so that economy is achieved as well as power loss is
Prof. H.A Umachagi, EEE Dept., BLDEA’s C.E.T, Vijayapur 2024-25
 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)
reduced. When power is to be distributed to city, using step down transformer, voltage is stepped
down to required level and power is transmitted to comparatively smaller distances using
distribution cables.

Transformers are used in many other applications than power transmission such as in domestic
inverters, to step up voltage from battery (12 V) to 230 V, to charge inverter battery etc. In many
other power applications transformers are integral part of the system. However, efficiency of
transformers is not 100% due to many losses in transformers.

Principle of working:
The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if
current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f
can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same
principle. In its elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual
inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig 1.2.
One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in which
electrical energy is fed with the help of source called primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.

Fig.1.2 Basic transformer

Fig 1.3 Symbolic representation

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N1number of turns while
the secondary winding has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as
shown in the Fig 1.3.
When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating
current. This current produces an alternating flux (Φ)which completes its path through common
magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig 1.2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary
winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction,
mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to the
secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy
gets transferred from primary to the secondary.

Key point : The frequency of the mutual induced e.m.f. is same as that of the alternating source
which is supplying energy to the primary winding.

Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformer?

The d.c. supply cannot be used for the transformers.
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil must
change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply and
transformer will not work.
Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance XL is zero as
d.c. has no frequency. So total impedance of the winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will
draw very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due
to extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer.
There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from
the supply when connected to d.c. Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the
transformers.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)
Types and Construction of Transformer:

Construction details of shell type and core type Single Phase Transformer
The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are,
1. Core type 2. Shell type 3. Berry type

1. Core Type Transformer

It has a single magnetic circuit. The core rectangular is having two limbs. The winding
encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are
wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both
the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed inside near the core while
high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin
laminations.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more
effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for
maintenance.
The Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig
1(b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer.

Fig. 1 Core type transformer

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

2. Shell Type Transformer

It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on
the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally
multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between
two low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all
the joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right
through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joint.
Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the
windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist. For removing any
winding for maintenance, large numbers of laminations are required to be removed.
The Fig. 2(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 2(b) shows the outaway
view of the construction of the shell type transformer.

Fig 2 Shell type transformer

3. Berry Type Transformer

This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more
than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell
type.
Diagrammatically it can be shown as in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Berry type transformer

The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are
constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures.
All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of
oil, disclosing even the minute leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. Oil serves two functions: i) Keeps the coil
cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an additional insulation.
The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture.
Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance
badly. Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and
moisture. In large transformers, the chambers called breather are provided. The breathers prevent
the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the oil. The breathers contain the silica gel crystals which
immediately absorb the atmospheric moisture. Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is
formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil. Hence to keep such sludge separate from the oil
in main tank, an air tight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the top of tank. This is
called conservator.
Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers

E.M.F Equation of a Transformer:

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it circulates alternating
current, producing an alternating flux Φ. The primary winding has N1number of turns. The
alternating flux Φ linking with the primary winding itself induces an e.m.f in it denoted as E1.
The flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It produces induced
e.m.f. E2 in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced e.m.f. Let us derive the equations
for E1 and E2.
The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of Φm as show in the Fig. 1.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 1 Sinusoidal flux

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are:
Φ = Flux
Φm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
... Average e.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
.
.. Average e.m.f. per turn = dΦ/dt
Now dΦ/dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4 th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig.1. Complete cycle gets completed in
1/f seconds. In 1/4 th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to Φm.
... dΦ/dt = (Φm - 0)/(1/4f) as dt for 1/4 th time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4 f Φm Wb/sec
. . Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 f Φm volts
.

As is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in
nature. For sinusoidal quantity,
From factor = R.M.S. value/Average value = 1.11
.
. . R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f Φm = 4.44 f Φm
There are number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f. of primary
denoted as is E1,
E1 = N1 x 4.44 f Φm volts
While as there are number of secondary turns the R.M.S values of induced e.m.f. of
secondary denoted is E2 is,
E2 = N2 x 4.44 f Φm volts

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

The expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equation of a transformer.

Thus e.m.f. equations are,
E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 volts ......................... (1)
E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts .......................... (2)

Losses in a Transformer
In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.
1. Core or Iron Losses
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this
process which is called hysteresis loss.
It is given by, hysteresis loss = Kh Bm1.67 f v watts
where Kh = Hysteresis constant depends on material.
Bm = Maximum flux density.
f = Frequency.
v = Volume of the core.
The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible
for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = Ke Bm2 f2 t2 watts/ unit volume
where Ke = Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V1 at rated
frequency f is always constant. Hence the flux density Bm in the core and hence both hysteresis
and eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called
constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as Pi.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very
low hysteresis loop by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
2. Copper Losses
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistances
of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the
currents flowing through the windings.
Total Cu loss = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 (R1 + R2' )= I22 ( R2 +R1' )
= I12 R1e = I22 R2e
The copper looses are denoted as. If the current through the windings is full load current, we
get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at half
load which are less than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses are called variable losses.
For transformer VA rating is or. As is constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional to
the square of the KVA rating.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

So, Pcu α I2 α (KVA)2

Thus for a transformer,
Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
= Pi + Pcu
Key point: It is seen that the iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the copper losses
depend on the current. The losses are not dependent on the phase angle between voltage and
current. Hence the rating of the transformer is expressed as a product of voltage and current and
called VA rating of transformer. It is not expressed in watts or kilo watts. Most of the times,
rating is expressed in KVA.

Efficiency of a Transformer
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input
power supplied.
... Power output = Power input - Total losses
.
.. Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output + Pi + Pcu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input. So
for a transformer the efficiency can be expresses as,
η = Power output/power input
.
.. η = Power output/(power output + Pi + Pcu )
Now power output = V2 I2 cos Φ
where cos Φ = Load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I2 and with terminal voltage V2.
Pcu = Copper losses on full load = I22 R2e
... η = (V2 I2 cos Φ2 )/(V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I22 R2e)
But V2 I2 = VA rating of a transformer
.
.. η = (VA rating x cos Φ) / (VA rating x cos Φ + Pi + I 22R2e)

This is full load percentage efficiency with,

I2 = Full load secondary current
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of
various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
Let n =Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load/Full load
For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then,
n = Half load/Full load = (1/2)/2 = 0.5
when load changes, the load current changes by same proportion.
.
. . new I2 = n (I2) F.L.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Similarly the output V2 I2 cosΦ2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA
rating is available at the output.
Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then,
new Pcu = n2 (Pcu ) F.L.
Key Point : So copper losses get reduced by n2.
In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,

where n = Fraction by which load power factor lagging, leading and unity the efficiency
expression does not change, and remains same.
Example: A 4 KVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent resistance
referred to primary as 0.15 Ω Calculate,
i) The total copper losses on full load.
ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging.
iii) The efficiency while supplying half load at 0.8 p.f. leading.
Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W.

Solution : The given values are,

V1 = 200 V, V2 = 400 V, S = 4 KVA, R1e= 0.15 Ω , Pi = 60 W
K = 400/200 = 2
.
.. R2e = K2 R1e = (2)2 x 0.15 = 0.6 Ω
(I2)F.L. = KVA/V2 = 4 x 103/400 = 10 A
(i) Total copper losses on full load,
(Pcu)F.L. = {(I2) F.L.}2 R2e = (10)2 x 0.6 = 60 W
(ii) cos Φ = 0.9 lagging and full load

(iii) cos Φ = 0.8 leading, half load

As half load, n = 0.5

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies
with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a
maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph
of efficiency against load current I2 is shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I2mand
maximum efficiency is denoted as ηmax.
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.
2. Load current at which ηmax occurs.
3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency.
The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I2 assuming cos Φ constant. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency,
dη /d I2 = 0
Now η = (V2 I2 cos Φ2 )/(V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I22 R2e)

... (V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I22 R2e)(V2 cos Φ2) - (V2 I2 cos Φ2)(V2 cos Φ2 + 2I2 R2e) = 0
Cancelling (V2 cos Φ2) from both the terms we get,
V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi +I22 R2e - V2 I2 Φ2 - 2I22 R2e = 0
... Pi - I22 R2e= 0
... Pi = I22 R2e = Pcu
So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Copper losses = Iron losses

1. Load Current I2m at Maximum Efficiency
For ηmax, 2 I 2 R2e = Pi
but I2 = I2m
I 2R = P
2m 2e i
I2m = √(Pi / R2e)
This is the load current at ηmax,
Let (I2)F.L. = Full load current
.
.. I2m /(I2) F.L.= (1/(I2) F.L.)√(Pi / R2e)
.
.. I2m /(I2) F.L.= √(Pi )/({(I2) F.L.}2 R2e)
= √(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
.
.. I2m = (I2 )F.L.√(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
This is the load current at ηmax interms of full load current.

2. KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency

For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of.
KVA at ηmax = I2m V2= V2 (I2) F.L. x √(Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
KVA at ηmax = (KVA rating) x √(Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
Substituting condition for in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression for ηmax as,

Example: A 250 KVA single phase transformer has iron loss of 1.8 KW. The full load copper
loss is 2000 watts. Calculate
i) Efficiency at full load, 0.8 lagging p.f.
ii) KVA supplied at maximum efficiency
iii) Maximum efficiency at 0.8 lagging p.f.
Solution: The given values are,
Pi = 1800 W , (Pcu)F.L. = 2000 W
i)

= 98.135%

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)
ii) KVA at = KVA rating x √(Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

= 250 x √(1800/2000)
= 237.1708 KVA
iii)

where Pcu = Pi =1800W

= 98.137%
Salient Features of Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has no copper losses (no winding
resistance),no iron loss in core, no leakage flux.
In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power.
The efficiency of an idea transformer is 100%. Actually, it is impossible to have such
a transformer in practice, but ideal transformer model makes problems easier.

Characteristics of Ideal Transformer

▪ Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as secondary
winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are purely inductive in
nature.
▪ Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required for flux
establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less magnetizing current is required to
magnetize the transformer core.
▪ No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked with
secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of flux get
linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).
▪ 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis loss, eddy
current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal transformer is exactly equal to the input
power. Hence, 100% efficiency.

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Now, if an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding of an ideal transformer,

counter emf E1 will be induced in the primary winding. As windings are purely inductive, this
induced emf E1 will be exactly equal to the apply voltage but in 180 degree phase opposition.
Current drawn from the source produces required magnetic flux. Due to primary winding being
purely inductive, this current lags 90° behind induced emf E1. This current is called magnetizing
current of the transformer Iμ. This magnetizing current Iμ produces alternating magnetic flux Φ.
This flux Φ gets linked with the secondary winding and emf E2 gets induced by mutual
induction. This mutually induced emf E2 is in phase with E2. If closed circuit is provided at
secondary winding,E2 causes current I2 to flow in the circuit.
For an ideal transformer, E1I1 = E2I2.

Ideal Transformer on No Load

Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 3. The supply voltage is and as
it is V1 an no load the secondary current I2 = 0.
The primary draws a current I1 which is just necessary to produce flux in the core. As it
magnetizing the core, it is called magnetizing current denoted as Im. As the transformer is ideal,
the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetizing current is Im is
very small and lags V1 by 30o as the winding is purely inductive. This Im produces an alternating
flux Φ which is in phase with Im.

Fig. 1 Ideal transformer on no load

The flux links with both the winding producing the induced e.m.f.s E1 and E2 , in the primary
and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f. opposes the
cause producing it which is supply voltage V1. Hence E1 is in antiphase with V1 but equal in
magnitude. The induced E2 also opposes V1hence in antiphase with V1 but its magnitude depends
on N2. Thus E1 and E2 are in phase.
The phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig.2.
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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load

It can be seen that flux Φ is reference. Im produces Φ hence in phase with Φ. V1leads Im by
90 as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90o.
o

E1 and E2 are in phase and both opposing supply voltage .

The power input to the transformer is V1 I1 cos (V1 ^ I1 ) i.e. V1 Im cos(90o) i.e. zero. This is
because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses hence input
power is also zero. Ideal no load p.f. of transformer is zero lagging.

Operation of Practical Transformer on No Load

Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is
subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these
losses minimum by,
1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss.
2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin lamination to reduce eddy
current loss.
Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding
has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e. hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as
Io.
Now the no load input current Io has two components:
1. A purely reactive component Im called magnetizing component of no load current required to
produce the flux. This is also called wattless component.
2. An active component Ic which supplies total losses under no load condition called power
component of no load current. This also called wattful component or core loss component of Io.
The total no load current Io is the vector addition of Im and Ic.

In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current Io is no longer at

90o with respect to V1. But it lags V1 by angle Φo which is less than 90o . Thus cos Φo is called no
load power factor of practical transformer.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig 1. Practical transformer on no load

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. It can be seen that the two components Io are,

This is magnetizing component lagging V1 exactly by 90o .

This is core loss component which is in phase withV1.

The magnitude of the no load current is given by,

While Φo = no load primary power factor angle

The total power input on no load is denoted as Wo and is given by,

It may be denoted that the current is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated current.
Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence Ic is called core loss or iron loss
component. Hence power input Wo on no load always represent the iron losses, as copper loss is
negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as Pi and are constant for all load conditions.

Example 1 : The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor 0f 0.25 lagging, when
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate,
a) Magnetizing component of the no load current
b) Iron loss and c) Maximum value of flux in the core.
Assume primary winding turns as 500.
Solution : The given value are, = 10 A, cos = 0.25, = 400 V and f = 50 Hz
a) Im = Io sin Φo = magnetizing component

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Φo = cos-1(0.25) = 75.522o
... Im = 10 x sin (75.522o ) = 9.6824 A
b) Pi = iron loss = power input on no load
= Wo = V1 Io cos Φo = 400 x 10 x 0.25
= 1000 W
c) On no load, E1 = V1 = 400 V and N1 = 500
Now E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1
... 400 = 4.44 x 50 x Φm x 500
... Φm = 3.6036 mWb

Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load

Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The various transformer parameters are,
R1 = Primary winding resistance
X1 = Primary leakage reactance
R2 = Secondary winding resistance
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
ZL = Load impedance
I1= Primary current
I2 = Secondary current = IL = Load current
now Ī1 = Īo + Ī2'
where Io = No load current
I2'= Load component of current decided by the load
= K I2 where K is transformer component
The primary voltage V1 has now three components,
1. -E1, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V1
2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1
3. I1 X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 90o

The secondary induced e.m.f. has also three components,

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1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load

2. I2 R2, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2
3. I2 X2, the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 90o

The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power
factor. Let us consider the various cases of the load power factor.

Unity power factor load, cosΦ2 = 1

As load power factor is unity, the voltage V2 and I2 are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor
diagram are,
1. Consider flux Φ as reference
2. E1 lags Φ by 90o. Reverse E1 to get -E1.
3. E1 and E2 are inphase
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I2'.
8. Add Io and I2' to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and to -E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1 and cosΦ1 is primary power factor. Remember that I1X1 leads
I1 direction by 90o and I2 X2 leads I2 by 90o as current through inductance lags voltage across
inductance by 90o. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.2

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for unity power factor load

Lagging Power Factor Load, cos Φ2

As load power factor is lagging cosΦ2, the current I2 lags V2 by angle Φ2. So only changes in
drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I2 lagging V2 by Φ2 in step 5 discussed earlier.
Accordingly direction of I2 R2, I2 X2, I2', I1, I1 R1 and I1X1 will change. Remember that whatever
may be the power factor of load, I2X2 leads I2 by 90o and I1X1 leads I1 by 90o.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Phasor diagram for lagging power factor

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Leading Power Factor Load, cos Φ2

As load power factor is leading, the current I2 leads V2 by angle Φ2. So change is to draw
I2 leading I2 by angle Φ2. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is
shown in the Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Phasor diagram for leading power factor

Equivalent circuit of Transformer

The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable resistances
and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine.

For a transformer, no load primary current has two components,

Im = Io sinΦo = Magnetizing component
Ic = Io cosΦo = Active component
Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance Xo called no load reactance
while Ic is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to flow through the
reactance Ro. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 1. This circuit
consisting of Ro and Xo in parallel is called exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can
write,
Ro = V1/Ic
and Xo= V1/Im

Fig. 1 No load equivalent circuit

When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I2 flows. This causes
voltage drop across R2 and R2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current

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I2' = I2/ K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of Io and I2'. This I1 causes the voltage drop across
primary resistance R1 and reactance X1.
Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by
transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculation
much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,
2 2
R2'= R2/K2 , X2' = X2/K ' , Z2' = Z2/K
While E2' = E2/K' I2' = K I2
Where K = N2 /N1
While transferring the values remember the rule that
Low voltage winding High current Low impedance
High voltage winding Low current High impedance
Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent
circuit referred to secondary.
R1 ' = K2 R1 , X1' = K2 X1, Z1' = K2 Z1
E1'= K E1, Io' = I1 /K' Io' = Io /K

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Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as Ro'and Xo '.
The circuit is shown in the Fig.4.

Fig. 4 Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z1 and Z2', the impedances
cannot be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing Ro and Xo to the
left of R1 and X1. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R1 and X1due to Io is
neglected. Hence such an equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

In this circuit now R1 and R2' can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to
primary R1e as discussed earlier. Similarly X1and X1' can be combined to get X1e. And equivalent
circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 6.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 6

We know that, R1e = R1 + R2'= R1 + R2/K2

X1e = X1 + X2' = X1 + X2/K2
Z1e = R1e + j X1e
Ro = V1 /Ic and Xo = V1 /Im
Ic = Io cosΦo and Im = Io sinΦo
In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be
obtained.

Open Circuit (O.C) and Short Circuit (S.C) Tests

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor
condition can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not
used on transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by
conducting two tests on a transformer which are,
1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)
2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)
The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation
and efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading
the transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be
performed and results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and
how to use the results to calculate equivalent circuit parameters.

1. Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig. 1.

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Fig 1. Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac.
The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high
voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C test.
The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac.
The wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltmeter gives
the value of rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage
which is V2 = E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very
high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current
is always negligibly small.
When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of
ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded.
The observation table is as follows

Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no
load current Io. The two components of this no load current are,
Im = Io sin Φo
Ic = Io cos Φo
where cos Φo = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.
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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 2

As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have
primary current I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of
its full load value. As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence
copper losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are
negligibly small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density
in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is
zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This
power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses
which remain constant for all the loads.
... Wo = Pi = Iron losses
Calculations : We know that,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φ
cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor
Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,
Ic = Io cos Φo
and Im = Io sin Φo
Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,
Ro = Vo /Ic Ω
and Xo = Vo /Im Ω
Key Point : The no load power factor cos Φo is very low hence wattmeter used must be low
power factor type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on
secondary and primary is kept open then from O.C. test we get Ro'and Xo' with which we can
obtain Ro and Xo knowing the transformation ratio K.

2. Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as
shown in the Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3 Experimental circuit for S.C. test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high
voltage side is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply
and shorting the low voltage side.
As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw
very large current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To
limit this short circuit current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause
rated current to flow through primary which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage
can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced
voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter, ammeter readings are recorded. The
observation table is as follows,

Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is
full load copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated
voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test
are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper
losses as iron losses are very low.
... Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss
Calculations: From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc
.
.. cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R1e = copper loss
... R1e =Wsc /Isc2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R 2 + X 2)
1e 1e
.
.. X1e = √(Z1e2 -R 2
1e)

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation
ratio K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.

Important Note: If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while secondary is
H.V. winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V is shorted. In such case we
connect meters on H.V. side which is transformer secondary through for S.C. test purpose H.V
side acts as primary. In such case the parameters calculated from S.C. test readings are referred
to secondary which are R2e, Z2e and X2e. So before doing calculations it is necessary to find out
where the readings are recorded on transformer primary or secondary and accordingly the
parameters are to be determined. In step down transformer, primary is high voltage itself to
which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such case test results give us parameters referred to
primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.
Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test, calculations
give us R1e and Z1e if meters are connected to secondary of transformer in S.C. test calculations
give us R2e and Z2e.
Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests
We know that,
From O.C. test, Wo = Pi
From S.C. test, Wsc = (Pcu) F.L.

Thus for any p.f. cos Φ2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any load which is
fraction of full load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

where n = fraction of full load

where I2= n (I2) F.L.

1.4 Calculation of Regulation

From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.
The rated voltages V1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the given
transformer. Hence the regulation can be determined as,

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where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.

For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.
.
. . I1, I2 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.
Key Point : Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without
actually loading the transformer.

Example 1 : A 5 KVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the following readings,
O.C. Test : 500 V, 1 A, 50 W (L.V. side open)
S.C. Test : 25 V, 10 A, 60 W (L.V. side shorted)
Determine : i) The efficiency on full load, 0.8 lagging p.f.
ii) The voltage regulation on full load, 0.8 leading p.f.
iii) The efficiency on 60% of full load, 0.8 leading p.f.
iv) Draw the equivalent circuit referred to primary and insert all the values in it.
Solution : In both the tests, meters are on H.V. side which is primary of the transformer. Hence
the parameters obtained from test results will be referred to primary.
From O.C. test, Vo = 500 V, Io = 1 A, Wo= 50 W
... cos Φo = Wo/Vo Io = 50/(500x1) = 0.1
... Ic = Io cos = 1 x 0.1 = 0.1 A
and Im = Io sin Φo = 1 x 0.9949 = 0.9949 A
.
.. Ro =Vo /Ic = 500/0.1 = 5000 Ω
and Xo = Vo/Im = 500/0.9949 = 502.52 Ω
and Wo = Pi= iron losses = 50 W
From S.C. test, Vsc = 25 V, Isc = 10 A, Wsc = 60 W
.
.. R1e = Wsc /Isc2 = 60/(10)2 = 0.6 Ω
Z1e = Vsc /Isc = 25/10 = 2.5 Ω
.
.. X1e= √(2.52 - 0.62) = 2.4269 Ω
(I1) F.L. = VA rating/V1
= (5 x 103 )/500 = 10 A
and Isc = (I1) F.L.
.
.. Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = 60 W
i) η on full load, cos = 0.8 lagging

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

ii) Regulation on full load, cos Φ2 = 0.8 leading

= - 1.95 %
iii) For 60% of full load, n = 0.6 and cos Φ2 = 0.8 leading]
... Pcu = copper loss on new load = n2 x (Pcu) F.L.
= (0.6)2 x 60 = 21.6 W
= 97.103 %
iv) The equivalent circuit referred to primary is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Example 2 : The open circuit and short circuit tests on a 10 KVA, 125/250 V, 50 Hz, single
phase transformer gave the following results :
O.C. test : 125 V, 0.6 A, 50 W (on L.V. side)
S.C. test : 15 V, 30 A. 100 W (on H.V. side)
Calculate : i) copper loss on full load
ii) full load efficiency at 0.8 leading p.f.
iii) half load efficiency at 0.8 leading p.f.
iv) regulation at full load, 0.9 leading p.f.
Solution : From O.C. test we can weite,
Wo = Pi = 50 W = Iron loss

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

From S.C. test we can find the parameters of equivalent circuit. Now S.C. test is conducted
on H.V. side i.e. meters are on H.V. side which is transformer secondary. Hence parameters from
S.C. test results will be referred to secondary.
Vsc = 15 V, Isc = 30 A, Wsc = 100 W
.
.. R2e = Wsc/(Isc)2 =10/(30)2 = 0.111Ω
Z1e = Vsc /Isc = 15/30 = 0.5 Ω
.
.. X2e = √(Z 2e2 - R 2e2) = 0.4875 Ω
i) Copper loss on full load
(I2) F.L. = VA rating/V2 = (10 x 103)/250 = 40 A
In short circuit test, Isc = 30 A and not equal to full load value 40 A.
Hence Wsc does not give copper loss on full load
.
.. Wsc = Pcu at 30 A = 100 W
Now Pcu α I2
( Pcu at 30 A)/( Pcu at 40 A) = (30/40) 2
100/( Pcu at 40 A) = 900/1600
Pcu at 40 A = 177.78 W
.
.. (Pcu) F.L. = 177.78 W
ii) Full load η , cos Φ2 = 0.8

iii) Half load η , cos Φ2 = 0.8

n = 0.5 as half load, (I2) H.L. = 0.5 x 40 = 20

= 97.69%

iv) Regulation at full load, cos Φ = 0.9 leading

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= -1.8015%
Approximate Voltage Drop in Transformer
Consider the equivalent circuit referred to secondary as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
From the Fig. 1 we can write,

As primary parameters are referred to secondary, there are no voltage drops in primary.
When there is no load, I2 = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage V20 as E2.
.
.. V20 = E2 = No load terminal voltage
while V2 = Terminal voltage on load
Consider the phasor diagram for lagging p.f. load. The current I2 lags V2 by angle Φ2. Take
V2 as reference phasor. I2 R2e is in phase with I2 while I2 X2e leads I2 by 90o. The phasor diagram
is shown in the Fig.2.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Fig. 2
To derive the expression for approximate voltage drop, draw the circle with O as centre and
OC as redius, cutting extended OA at M. As OA = V2 and now OM = E2, the total voltage drop
is AM = I2 Z2e.
But approximating this voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM where N is intersection of
perpendicular drawn from C on AM. This is because angle is practically very very small and in
practice M and N are very close to each other.
Approximate voltage drop = AN
Draw perpendicular from B on AM intersecting it at D and draw parallel to DN from B to
the point L shown in the Fig. 2.
... AD = AB cos Φ2= I2 R2e cos Φ2
and DN = BL = BC sin Φ2 = I2 X2e sin Φ2
.
.. AN = AD + DN = I2 R2e cos Φ2 + I2 X2e sin Φ2
Assuming Φ2= Φ1= Φ
. . Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ + I2 X2e sin Φ
.

If all the parameters are referred to primary then we get,

Approximate voltage drop = I1 R1e cos Φ + I1 X1e sin Φ
If the load has leading p.f. then we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3. The
I2 leads V2 by angle Φ2 .

Fig. 3
In this case, the expression for approximate voltage drop remains same but the sign of
I2 X2e sin Φ reverses.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ - I2 X2e sin Φ............ Using referred to secondary values
= I1 R1e cos Φ - I1 X1e sin Φ ..............Using referred to primary values
It can be noticed that for leading power factor E2 < V2.
For the unity power factor, the phasor diagram is simple and is shown in the Fig. 4. For this
case, as cos Φ = 1 and sin Φ = 0, the approximate voltage drop is I2 R2e or I1R1e.

Fig. 4
Thus the general expression for the total approximate voltage drop is,
Approximate voltage drop = E2 - V2
= I2e R2e cosΦ I2e X2e sin Φ ............ Using referred to secondary values
= I1e R1e cos Φ I1e X1e sin Φ ............ Using referred to primary values
+ sign for lagging power factor while - sign for leading power factor loads.

All Day Efficiency of a Transformer

For a transformer, the efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. This
is its efficiency. But power efficiency is not the true measure of the performance of some special
types of transformers such as distribution transformers.
Distribution transformer serve residential and commercial loads. The load on such
transformers vary considerably during the period of the day. For most period of the day these
transformers are working at 30 to 40 % of full load only or even less than that. But the primary
of such transformers is energised at its rated voltage for 24 hours, to provide continuous supply
to the consumer. The core loss which depends on voltage, takes place continuously for all the
loads. But copper loss depends on the load condition. For no load, copper loss is negligibly small
while on full load it is at its rated value. Hence power efficiency can not give the measure of true
efficiency of such transformers. in such transformers, the energy output is calculated in kilo watt
hour (kWh). Then ratio of total energy output to total energy input (output + losses) is calculated.
Such ratio is called energy efficiency or All Day Efficiency of a transformer. Based on this
efficiency, the performance of various distribution transformers is compared. All day efficiency
is defined as,

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

While calculating energies, all energies can be expressed in watt hour (Wh) instead of kilo
watt hour (kWh).
Such distribution transformers are designed to have very low core losses. This is achieved
by limiting the core flux density to lower value by using a relative higher core cross-section i.e.
larger iron to copper weight ratio. The maximum efficiency in such transformers occurs at about
60-70 % of the full load. So by proper designing, high energy efficiencies can be achieved for
distribution transformers.
The calculation of all day efficiency for a transformer are illustrated in the Ex. 1.

Example 1 : A 400 KVA, distribution transformer has full load iron loss of 2.5 kW and copper
loss of 3.5 kW. During a day, its load cycle for 24 hours is,
6 hours 300 kW at 0.8 p.f.
10 hours 200 kW at 0.7 p.f.
4 hours 100 kW at 0.9 p.f.
Determining its all day efficiency.
Solution : Given values are,
Pi = 2.5 kW, (Pcu ) F.L. = 3.5 kW, 400 KVA
Iron losses is constant for 24 hours. So energy spent due to iron losses for 24 hours is,
Pi = 2.5 x 24 hours = 60 kWh
Total energy output in a day from given load cycle is,
Energy output = 300 x 6 hours + 200 x 10 hours + 100 x 4 hours
= 4200 kWh
To calculate energy spent due to copper loss,
i) Load 1 of 300 kW at cos Φ = 0.8
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 300/0.8 = 375 KVA
.
.. n = load KVA/ KVA rating = 375/400 = 0.9375
Copper losses are proportional to square of KVA ratio i.e. n2.
... Load 1 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.9375)2 x 3.5
= 3.076 kW
.
.. Energy spent = 3.076 x 6 hours = 18.457 kWh
ii) Load 2 of 200 kW at cos Φ = 0.7
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 200/0.7 = 285.7142 KVA
.
.. n = Load KVA/KVA rating = 285.7142/400 = 07142
.
.. Load 2 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.7142)2 x 3.5
= 1.7857 kW
.
.. Energy spent = 1.7857 x 10 = 17.857 kWH
iii) Load 3 of 100 kW at cos Φ = 0.9
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 100/0.9 = 111.111 KVA
.
.. n = 111.111/400 = 0.2778
.
.. Load 3 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.2778)2 x 3.5 = 0.2701 kW

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

... Energy spent = 0.2701 x 4 = 1.0804 kWh

iv) No load hence negligible copper losses.
... Total energy spent = Energy spent due to (Iron loss + Total copper loss)
= 60 + 18.457 + 17.857 + 1.0804 = 97.3994 kWh
and Total output = 4200 kWh

Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that
the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load value (V2) as load and
load current increases.
This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load
secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer.
The regulation is defined as change in the magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage,
when full load i.e. rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no
load, with primary voltage maintained constant expressed as the percentage of the rated terminal
voltage.
Let E2 = Secondary terminal voltage on no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on given load
then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,

The ratio (E2 - V2 / V2 ) is called per unit regulation.

The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current
but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V2 is determined for full load and
specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation.
As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase V2 and drops more and more. In
case of lagging power factor V2 < E2 and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading
power factor E2 < V2 and we get negative voltage regulation.
The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the
performance of a transformer.
Expression for Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation is defined as,
%R = (E2 - V2 /V2 ) x 100 = (Total voltage drop/V2) x 100
The expression for the total approximate voltage drop is already derived.

Prof. H.A Umachagi, EEE Dept., BLDEA’s C.E.T, Vijayapur 2024-25

 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Total voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ ± I2 X2e sin Φ

Hence the regulation can be expressed as,

'+' sing for lagging power factor while '-' sing for leading power factor loads.
The regulation van be further expressed interms of I1 , V1, R1e and X1e.
V2 /V1 =I1 /I2 = K
.
.. V2 = KV1 , I2 = I1/K
while R1e =R2e/K2, X1e = X2e /K2
Substituting in the regulation expression we get,

Zero Voltage Regulation

We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V2 < E2 and we
get positive regulation. But as load becomes capacitive, V2 starts increasing as load increase. At a
certain leading power factor we get E2 = V2 and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is
increased further, E2 becomes less than V2and we get negative regulation.
... for zero voltage regulation,
E2 = V2
.
.. E2 - V2 = 0
or VR cos Φ - Vx sin Φ = 0 ............... -ve sing as leading power factor
where VR = I2 R2e /V2 = I1 R1e /V1 and Vx = I2 X2e /V2 = I1 X1e /V1
.
.. VR cos Φ = Vx sin Φ
.
.. tan Φ = VR /Vx
... cos Φ = cos {tan-1(VR /Vx)}
This is the leading p.f. at which voltage regulation becomes zero while supplying the load.
Constants of a Transformer
From the regulation expression we can define constants of a transformer.
%R= (( I2 R2e cos Φ ± I2 X2e sin Φ )/ E2) x 100
= {(I2 R2e /E2) cos Φ ± (I2 X2e/E2 ) sin Φ} x 100
The ratio (I2 R2e /E2) or (I1 R1e /E1) is called per unit resistive drop and denoted as VR.
The ratio (I2 X2e/E2) or (I1 X1e/E1) is called per unit reactive drop and is denoted as Vx.
The terms VR and Vx are called constants of a transformer because for the rated output I2,
E2, R1e, X1e, R2e , X2e are constants. The regulation can be expressed interms of VR and Vx as,
%R = (VR cos Φ ± Vx sin Φ) x 100
on load condition, E2 = V2 and E1= V1
where V1 and V2 are the given voltage ratings of a transformer. Hence VR and Vx can be

Prof. H.A Umachagi, EEE Dept., BLDEA’s C.E.T, Vijayapur 2024-25

 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

expressed as,
VR = I2 R2e/ V2 = I1 R1e/ V1
and
Vx =I2 R2e/ V2 = I1 X1e/ V1
where V1and V2 are no load primary and secondary voltages,
VR and Vx can be expressed on percentage basis as,
Percentage resistive drop = VR x 100, Percentage reactive drop = Vx x 100
Key Point : Note that and are also called per unit resistance and reactance respectively.
Example 1: 250/125 V, 5 KVA single phase transformer has primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and
reactance of 0.75Ω. The secondary resistance is 0.05 Ω and reactance of 0.2Ω
i) Determine its regulation while supplying full load on 0.8 leading p.f.
ii) The secondary terminal voltage on full load 0.8 and leading p.f.
Solution : The given values are,
R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.75 Ω, R2 = 0.05 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω, cos Φ = 0.8 leading
K= E2 /E1 = 125/250 = 1/2 = 0.5
(I2) F.L.= KVA/V2 = 5x103 /125 = 40 A .............. full load
R2e = R2 + K2 R1 = 0.05 + (0.5)2 x 0.2 = 0.1 Ω
X2e = X2 + K2 X1 = 0.2 + (0.5)2 x 0.75 = 0.3875 Ω
i) Regulation on full load, cos Φ = 0.8 leading
sin Φ = 0.6
.
.. %R = ((I2 R2e cos Φ - I2 X2e sin Φ )/E2 ) x 100
where I2 = Full load current
... % R = ((40 x 0.1 x 0.8 - 40 x 0.3875 x 0.6)/125) x 100 = -4.88%
ii) For secondary terminal voltage, use basic expression of regulation
% R = ((E2 - V2 )/E2 ) x 100
.
.. -4.88 = ((125- V2) /125) x 100
.
.. -6.1 = 125 - V2
... V2 = 131.1 V
It can be seen that for leading p.f. E2 <V2.

Example 2: Calculate the regulation of a transformer in which the copper loss is 1% of output
and the percentage reactance drop is 5% when load power factor is
i) 0.9 lagging and ii) 0.9 leading.
Solution : Given values are,
%X = 5%
Now copper loss is, Pcu = I22 R2e
and output is, Pout = V2 I2
.
.. % Copper loss = (Pcu/Pout) x100 = (I22 R2e /V2 I2 ) x 100
% VR = (I2 R2e / V2)x 100
= (I2 R2e /V2 ) x (I2 /I2 ) x 100 = (I22 R2e /V2 I2 ) x 100

Prof. H.A Umachagi, EEE Dept., BLDEA’s C.E.T, Vijayapur 2024-25

 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

= % copper loss
.
.. VR = 1% = 0.01 and Vx = 5% = 0.05
i) cos Φ = 0.9 lagging
... sin Φ = 0.4358
... % R = (VR cos Φ + Vx sin Φ ) x 100 = (0.01 x 0.9 + 0.05 x 0.4358) x 100
= + 3.08%
ii) cos Φ = 0.9 leading
... % R = (VR cos Φ - Vx sin Φ ) x 100 = (0.01 x 0.9 - 0.05 x 0.4358) x 100
= -1.28%

Prof. H.A Umachagi, EEE Dept., BLDEA’s C.E.T, Vijayapur 2024-25

 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

MODULE-2

TESTS
POLARITY TEST:
When the primary winding of a transformer is excited with suitable rated voltage then e.m.f.
gets induced in both the windings. The polarities of these e.m.f.s depend on how the windings
are wound on the core. It is usual practice to determine which ends of the two windings acquire
simultaneously positive or negative polarity. This polarity determination is carried out by
conducting the polarity test on a transformer.
Consider a transformer shown in the Fig. 1. Usually the ends of the L.V. winding are
labelled with small letters as a1, a2 while the ends of the H.V. windings are labelled with capital
letters as A1, A2.
In determining the relative polarity of the two windings of a transformer using polarity test,
the two windings are connected in series across a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across
a1 - A1.
One of the windings is excited by suitable voltage source. So a1 - a2 is excited by voltage V1.
Let E1 and E2 are the induced e.m.f.s.

Fig. 1 Polarity test

Key Point : if the voltmeter reads E1 - E2, thus voltmeter reading is less than V1, then the
polarities are called subtractive in nature.
The net voltage acting around the local circuit consisting the voltmeter is E1 - E2. In such
case the ends a2, A2 are simultaneously positive or negative. This is indicated by dots, as shown
in the Fig. 1.
Key Point : But if the windings are wound in such a way that the voltmeter reads E1 + E2. The
polarities are said to be additive.
In such case the voltmeter is more than V1. This confirms that if a2 is positive, terminal A2 is
negative and vice-versa. In such case, the polarity markings of one of the windings must be
interchanged.
Key Point : In practice the transformer windings are wound in such a way that the relative
polarities are subtractive which is indicated by dots, as per the dot convention.

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

SUMPNER'S TEST (BACK TO BACK TEST):

The Sumpner's test is another method of determining efficiency, regulation and heating
under load conditions. The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the equivalent circuit parameters but ca
not give heating information under various load conditions. The Sumpner's test gives heating
information also. In O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C. circuit test also
only fractional load gets applied. In all in O.C. and S.C. tests, the loading conditions are absent.
Hence the results are inaccurate. In Sumpner's test, actual loading conditions are simulated hence
the results obtained are much more accurate. Thus Sumpner’s test is much improved method of
predetermining regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
The Sumpner's test requires two identical transformers. Both the transformers are connected
to the supply such that one transformer is loaded on the other. Thus power taken from the supply
is that much necessary for supplying the losses of both the transformers and there is very small
loss in the control circuit.
While conducting this test, the primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in
parallel across the supply V1. While the secondaries are connected in series opposition so that
induced e.m.f.s in the two secondaries oppose each other. The secondaries are supplied from
another low voltage supply are connected in each circuit to get the readings. The connection
diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig 1 Connection diagram for Sumpner's test

T1 and T2 are two identical transformers. The secondaries of T1 and T2 are connected in series
opposition. So EEF = EGH i.e. induced in two secondaries are equal but the secondaries are
connected such that E is connected to G and F is connected to H. Due to such series opposition,
two e.m.f.s act in opposite direction to each other and cancel each other. So net voltage ion the
local circuit of secondaries is zero, when primaries are excited by supply 1 of rated voltage and

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

frequency. So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by two secondaries. The series
opposition can be checked by another voltmeter connected in the secondary circuit as per
polarity test. If it reads zero, the secondaries are in series opposition and if it reads double the
induced e.m.f. in each secondary, it is necessary to reverse the connections of one of the
secondaries.
As per superposition theorem, if V2 is assumed zero then due to phase opposition to current
flows through secondary and both the transformers T1, T2 are as good as on no load. So O.C. test
gets simulated. The current drawn from source V1 in such case is 2 Io where Io is no load current
of each transformer. The input power as measured by wattmeter W1 thus reads the iron losses of
both the transformers.
... Pi per transformer =W1 /2 as T1, T2 are identical
Then a small voltage V2 is injected into the secondary with the help of low voltage
transformer, by closing the switch S. With regulation mechanism, the voltage V2 is adjusted so
that the rated secondary current I2 flows through the secondaries as shown. I2 flows from E to F
and then from H to G. The flow of I1 is restricted to the loop B A I J C D L K B and it does not
pass through W1. Hence W1 continues to read core losses. Both primaries and secondaries carry
rated current so S.C. test condition gets simulated. Thus the wattmeter W2 reads the total full load
copper losses of both the transformers.
... (Pcu) F.L.per transformer = W2 /2
Key Point : Thus in the sumpner's test without supplying the load, full iron loss occurs in the
core while full copper loss occurs in the windings simultaneously. Hence heat run test can be
conducted on the two transformers. In O.C. and S.C. test, both the losses do not occur
simultaneously hence heat run test can not be conducted. This is the advantage of Sumpner's test.
From the test results the full load efficiency of each transformer can be calculated as,

where output = VA rating x cos Φ2

Key Point : As all the voltage, currents and powers are measured during the test, the equivalent
circuit parameters also can be determined. Hence the regulation at any load and load power
factor condition can be predetermined.
The only limitation is that two identical transformers are required. In practice exact identical
transformers can not be obtained. As two transformers are required, the test is not economical.

Example 1 : Two similar 200 KVA, single phase transformers gave the following results when
tested by Sumpner's test :
Mains wattmeter W1 = 4 kW
Series wattmeter W2 = 6 kW at full load current

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Find out individual transformer efficiencies at,

i) Full load at unity p.f. ii) Half load at 0.8 p.f. lead.
Solution : The given values are,
Rating = 200 KVA, W1 = 4 kW, W2 = 6 kW
W1 = Iron loss of the both transformers
.
.. Pi = W1/2 = 4/2 = 2 kw for individual transformer
W2 = Full load copper loss for both the transformer
.
.. (Pcu)F.L. = W2 /2= 6/2 = 3 kW for individual transformer
i) At full load,

ii) At half load, cos Φ2 = 0.8 and n = 1/2 = 0.5

= 96.67%
Separation of Core Losses Test:
It is seen that the core losses of transformer includes,
1. Hysteresis loss
2. Eddy current loss
For a given volume and thickness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating
frequency, maximum flux density in the core and the voltage.
The hysteresis loss is given by Steinmet'z relation,
Ph = Kh Bm1.67 f v watts
i.e. Ph = A Bm1.67 f watts ......................................................................... (1)
where A = constant assuming constant voltage
The eddy current loss is given by,
Pe = Ke Bm2 f2 t2 watts
i.e. Pe = B Bm2 f2 watts ............................................................................... (2)
where B = constant for given thickness t of core
Thus the total core loss becomes,
Pi = Ph + Pe = A Bm1.67 f +B Bm2 f2 .................................................................(3)

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 TRANSFORMERS & GENERATORS (BEE304) 3rd Sem B.E.(E&EE)

Practically conduct two tests on transformers at two different frequencies f1 and f2, keeping
maximum flux density in the core same. The results are to be used in the equations (1), (2) and
(3) to obtain the constants A and B. Thus the core losses i.e. iron losses can be separated into
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Example 1 : A single phase transformer shows 63 W core losses at 40 Hz while 110 W at 60
Hz. Both the tests are performed at same value of maximum flux density in the core. Find
hysteresis and eddy current losses at 50 Hz frequency.
Solution : Pi1 = 63 W, f1 = 40 Hz, Pi2 = 110 W, f2 = 60 Hz, Bm is same.
As Bm is same, it can be absorbed in the constants A and B. Thus we can write,
Ph = Af while Pe = B f2
... Pi = Ph + Pe = Af + B f2
... 63 = A x 40 + B x (40)2 ...........(1)
and 110 = A x 60 + B x (60)2 ............(2)
Solving (1) and (2) we get,
A = 1.0584, B = 0.0129
Thus two losses at 50 Hz are,
Ph = Af = 1.0584 x 50 = 52.92 W
Pe = B f2 = 0.0129 x 502 = 32.25 W

PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS:

Necessity of Parallel Operation:

The transformers are connected in parallel when the load on them is more than the rating of
the individual transformers. Several smaller units are operated in parallel which share a common
load. Thus it is avoided that the total load is supplied by single unit due to use of parallel
operation. The parallel operation is advantageous in the sense that the spare parts can be used
interchangeably and their storage is easy.
From the Fig. 1. it can be seen that the primary windings are connected to the supply bus
bars while the secondary windings are connected to load bus bars.

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