OTHAYA BOYS HIGHSCHOOL

AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

FORM TWO 2023

ASSIGNMENT; FORM III NOTES

INSTRUCTIONS:
1.Write ALL notes on topic 1 and 2

2.Draw all diagrams

3.Soon questions will be sent ensure you answer them and revise well for
exam purpose.

WISH YOU HAPPY HOLIDAY AND REMEMBER;

Success is Not Final, Failure is Not Fatal: it is the Courage to Continue that
Counts.

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 CHAPTER ONE.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION III (SELECTION

AND BREEDING.)

Reproduction.
Process by which offspring are produced. Begin with fertilisation where after successful mating the

female gamete(ovum) unites with the male gamete (sperm) to form a zygote.

In poultry eggs are fertilised internally but development of the chich takes place outside during

incubation.

REPRODUCTION IN CATTLE.

Male reproductive organs produce male gametes, the spermatozoans.

The male reproductive system (bull) Composed

of :

 Testes

 Sperm ducts.

 Epididymis.

 Accessory glands(seminal vesicles and prostate gland)

 Penis.

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 1) Testes.
Enclosed by a loose skin (scrotum). The scrotum regulates the temperature of testes so that sperms
do not die. Testes produce sperms which are stored in the epidymis.

2) Sperm ducts.
Epididymis proceeds to form the sperm ducts. Sperm duct carry sperms to the urethra which expels sperms
and urine through the penis.

3) Seminal vesicles.
Produces a clear sticky fliud called semen.

4) Prostate gland.
Produces fluid that neutralises the acidic effects of urine in urethra hence preventing death of
sperms.semen carries sperms out of the penis.

5) Penis.
Introduces sperms into the vaginaof the cow through the vulva during mating.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

Composed of the following:

 Ovaries.
 Fallopian tubes(oviducts)  Uterus.
 Vagina and vulva.

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Ovaries and the fallopian tubes (oviducts)

Produces the female gametes (ova)

Produces oestrogen under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone. (FSH) Oestrogen is

produced by the graafian follicle and it induces oestrus.

Ovulation. Release and movement of the ovum down the uterus.

Vagina and the vulva.

Vulva. External opening of the cows’ reproductive system. Allows mating to take place so that the
sperms are deposited into the vagina.

PREGNANCY/GESTATION PERIOD.
It is the period between fertilisation of the ova and the expulsion of the foetus.

Animal. Length in days.

Cow. 270-285

Sow. 113-117

Ewe and goat 150

Rabbit 28-32

Progesterone produced by placenta maintains pregnancy.

Parturition.
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Act of giving birth in female animals.
Signs of parturition.

 Distended udder that produces thick milky fluid. (Colostrum)  Swollen vulva
producing a thick mucus-like discharge.
 Loose and slackened pelvic girdle.
 Visible pin bone.
 General restlessness.

Mal-presentation/breech presentation.

Occurs when the front legs and head do not come out first during parturition.

REPRODUCTION IN POULTRY.
The cock has testes within its body. The hen has an elongated oviduct necessary for formation of

an egg. Fertilisation is internal.

Reproductive system of a hen.

 Ovary.
 Funnel/infundibulum.
 Magnum.
 Isthmus.

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  Uterus.
 Vagina.  Cloaca.

1) The ovary.
The hen has two ovaries but only the left one is functional.

Ova (eggs) are formed in the ovary.

Ovum is held firmly by a protective device (follicle) which burst when the yolk is mature.

2) The funnel/infundibulum.
Fertilisation takes place in the funnel and chalazae added to the yolk. The egg stays here for 15
minutes.

3) Magnum.

Thick albumen are added. Stays for 3 hours and is 33cm long. 4)
Isthmus.
It is 10.6 cm long and the egg stays here for 15 min.

Shell membrane is added. This determines the shape of the egg.

Water, mineral salts and vitamin are also added.

5) Uterus (shell gland)

Has calcium deposits. Shell is added here plus addition of albumen is completed.

The egg stays here for 18-22 hours.

6) Vagina. It is 6.9cm long.

Temporal storage of egg before it is laid. 7)

Cloaca.
Egg moves out of the cloaca through the vent.

The cloaca extend out to prevent egg from breaking.

 Sometimes the cloaca may fail to retract after extending to allow for egg laying. This condition is
called cloaca prolapse and it may cause cannibalism.

N/B

Egg laying is not dependent with fertilisation.

The components of an egg are obtained from the body reserve of a hen.

SELECTION.
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Process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generation while culling others.

Animals culled have undesirable characteristics.

Selected males and females makes up the breeding stock.

Selection increases occurrence of the desirable genes and reduces occurrence of undesirable genes.

Heritability.

Likelihood of a particular trait being transmitted to the offspring.

Degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following:

 Heritability of the character.

 Intensity with which selection is done.
 The interval between generations and the kind of selection being practised.

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 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A BREEDING STOCK.

1) Age.
Young animals have a longer productive life. Old animals are low producers and poor
breeders. Production declines with age.

2) Level of production.
Select animals with the highest production.
Good performance is indicted by high milk. Wool and egg production, high growth rate and good
mothering ability.

High prepotency. Ability of the parents to pass good qualities to the offspring.

3) Physical fitness.
Animals selected should be free from any physical defects e.g. mono-eyed, limping, irregular
number of teats, scrotal hernia or defective and weak backline.

4) Health.
Select healthy animals. Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep.

5) Body conformation.
Should have proper body conformation. E.g. wedge-shaped, large udder, thin legs, long neck for
dairy cows.

6) Temperament or behaviour.
Animals with a bad temperament or undesirable behaviour e.g. cannibalism and gg eating,
aggressiveness should be culled.

7) Quality of products.
Select animals that give products of high quality.

8) Mothering ability.
Select animals with a good mothering ability. (Animals with good natural instinct towards their
young ones)

9) Adaptability.
Select animals well adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions in the area.

10) Prolificacy.
Select highly prolific animals. (Ability to give birth to many offspring at a time)
METHODS OF SELECTION.

1) Mass selection.
Consist of choosing animals for breeding on the basis of their own performance and then mating
them randomly.

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Offspring will show higher performance than the previous herd.

2) Progeny testing.
Progeny. Offspring resulting from selected parents.

It is used when the character to be selected is of low heritability.

3) Contemporary comparison.
Involves comparison of the average production of the daughters of each bull with that of the
other heifer.
It assumes that differences between the herds of the same breed are non-genetic in origin.

Advantages of contemporary comparison.

 It is possible to compare animals of different age groups since heifer location

is used.
 Eliminates differences brought about by environment since average
performance of the herd is used.
 Accurate. Can only be used accurately in large herds of animals.
 Possible to make direct comparison of bulls of different artificial
insemination centres.

BREEDING.
Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring of the required
characteristics.

Reasons for breeding.

 To expand inherited potential of the animal.

 To overcome production problems created by the environment.
 To satisfy the consumers’ taste.
 For economic reasons.

INHERITANCE.

Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.

An animal body is made up of two types of cells.

Sex cells (gametes) and somatic cells (body cells)

Inheritance is carried by the gametes controlled by genes found in chromosomes.

Chromosomes.

Carry genes which determine the specific characteristics in an individual animal. Exist in pairs in
the nucleus of body cells and are always constant in number.

Genes.

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Tiny units of inheritance carrying particular qualities found in animals. The specific point of
location of a gene on a chromosome is called gene locus or loci. Alleles are genes found on
corresponding loci of a pair of chromosome. If the allelomorphic genes have the same effect, the
character is known as homozygous. If allelomorphic genes have a different effect that carry
different qualities the resulting character will be heterozygous.

Cell division.
The somatic/body cells divide and reproduce by a process called mitosis. Each parent produces
two daughter cells. The new cells formed have the same number of chromosome pairs as the
parent cell.
Sex cell/gametes divide and reproduce through a process called meiosis. It is reduction division
since the number of chromosome in the sperm and those in the ova are reduced to half the normal
number in the resulting daughter cell. During fertilisation, ovum and sperm joins and the full
number of chromosome pairs is restored.

TERMS USED IN BREEDING.

1. Dominant and Recessive characteristics.

Dominant gene is one that suppresses the other and produces a dominant characteristic.

Recessive gene is one that is suppressed by the other and produces a recessive characteristic.

2. Hybrid and hybrid vigour.

Hybrid is an animal which is a product of crossing animals of two different breeds.

Hybrid vigour/heterosis.

Increased performance resulting from crossing two unrelated superior breeds.

Genes that produce vigour are dominant while those lacking are recessive.

3. Epistasis.
This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic situated on
different t locus.

Breeding systems.

Inbreeding.

Outbreeding.

Inbreeding.

Mating of animals that are closely related.

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Reasons for inbreeding.

 To increase genetic uniformity in the herd through increasing homozygosity.

 Used to fix required characteristics in the new breeds as a final stage in
development of a new breed with permanent characteristics.
 To increase phenotypic uniformity.
 Used to get proven sires. Male animals that have been confirmed and proven
to have very high qualities through backcrossing.

Backcrossing. Mating sires with their daughters.

 Sure method of testing whether an animal has high ability of passing its
desirable characteristics to the offspring.

Disadvantages of inbreeding.

 Can lead to loss of hybrid vigour.

 May lead to decline in fertility leading to species extinction.
 Brings about reduction in performance.
 Leads to high rate of pre-natal mortality.

Systems of inbreeding.

1) Close breeding.
Breeding of very closely related animals. Could be sib-mating (brother and sister) or parent- sib
mating (sons and mother, daughter and father) 2) Line breeding.
Mating distantly related animals that share a common ancestor. Used to preserve
good qualities of superior ancestor. Outbreeding.

Mating between animals which are not related.

Reasons for outbreeding.

 To introduce new genes in an existing herd.

 To exploit heterosis.
 To establish a new breed or a grade animal.
Systems of outbreeding.

 Outcrossing
 Cross breeding.  Upgrading (grading up) 1) Outcrossing.
Mating unrelated animals within the same breed.
It maintains characteristics of pure breeds. It also improves low producing animals within the
same breed.

2) Crossbreeding.
Mating two animals from different breeds.

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Cross bred animals have heterosis.

3) Upgrading. (Grading up)

Crossing where the female of low grade stock is mated with a pure bred sire. Used in
improving local cattle for milk production.

MATING IN LIVESTOCK. Oestrus

(heat period)

Duration from one heat period to the other is called the oestrus cycle.

Signs of heat.

 Restlessness.
 Mounting others and when mounted on, it stands still.
 Slight rise in body temperatures.
 In lactating cows, milk yields drops slightly.
 Vulva swells and becomes reddish.
 Clear or slimy mucus from the vagina.
 Bellowing or mooing frequently.

Mating in pigs.

Signs of heat.

 Restlessness.
 Frequent urination.
 Swelling and reddening of the vulva.
 Clear or slimy mucus discharge from the vulva.
 Frequent mounting others.
 Responds positively to the riding test.

Mating in rabbits.

6-7 months does are ready for mating.

Oestrus cycle is 14 days.

Signs of heat.

 Restlessness.
 Frequent urination.
 Swollen vulva.
 Doe throws itself on its sides.
 Doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object.

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  The doe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peeping through
the cage walls.

METHODS OF SERVICE IN LIVESTOCK.

 Natural mating.
 Artificial insemination.  Embryo transfer.
Natural mating.

Use of male to serve a female.

Advantages of natural mating.

 More accurate as male can detect when the female is on heat thus increases
chances of conception.
 Less laborious as there is is no need of checking the animal for heat signs. 
Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected.

Disadvantages of natural mating.

 Inbreeding is not easily controlled.

 Possible to transmit breeding diseases such as brucellosis or parasites such
as Trichomonas spp.
 Males will need extra pastures to eat.
 Large males can injure small females.
 Wastage of semen as a single ejaculation produce semen that can serve
several cows.
 Cumbersome and expensive to transport bull to hot areas to serve cows.

Artificial insemination.

Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by hand using syringes/tubes.
Procedure of collecting semen.
Restrain the cow (teaser) in a crush. A bull is then brought to the teaser cow and when it mounts
the cow and directs the penis to the vulva, a person grabs the penis immediately and directs it to
the artificial vagina where the bull ejaculate and semen is collected.

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An artificial vagina.

Advantages of artificial insemination.

 Semen from one superior bull can be used to serve many cows. About 3,400
cows while for natural mating only 30-50 cows can be mated per season.
 Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can
produce semen to serve cows.
 Prevents large bulls from injuring small cows.
 Reduces expenses of keeping a bull on pasture and veterinary bills.
 Semen can be stored for a long time even after the death of a bull.
 Easy to control breeding that is it is possible to time when to breed.
 Eliminates dangerous bulls from the farm.
 Useful research tool. Possible to study a very large number of daughters
from a single sire.

Disadvantages of AI.

 Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offspring. 

Requires skilled labour.
 Low chances of conception as semen may die due to storage and transport
problems and wrong timing of heat period.
 More labour demanding in checking for heat signs.

Embryo transplant.
Ova (eggs) are harvested from a high quality cow (donor) fertilised in test tubes and embryos
implanted into foster mothers (recipient)

The donor is injected with hormones to enable multiple ova production.

Advantages of Embryo transplant.

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  Stimulates milk production in a female cow that was not ready to produce
milk.
 A highly productive female can spread over a large area to benefit many
farmers.
 Easier to transport embryos in test-tubes than the whole animal.
 Embryos can be stored for long periods awaiting availability of a recipient
female.

Disadvantages of Embryo transplant.

 Expensive.
 Requires trained personnel to handle administer.
 Requires special equipment for fertilisation and storage of embryos.

Signs of parturition.

Signs of parturition in cattle. (Calving down.)

 Restlessness.
 Enlarged or swollen vulva.
 Clear mucus discharge from the vulva.
 Slackening of pelvic muscles/relaxing of hip muscles.
 Full and distended udder.
 Thick milky fluid from the teats.
 A water bag appears and burst just before calving.

Signs of parturition in sow.

 Restlessness.
 Vulva turns red and swells.
 Udder becomes full with a milky fluid.
 Sow starts to build a nest by collecting some bedding at one corner of the
pen.

Signs of parturition in rabbits.

 Goes off feed.

 Start building nest by plucking off hair from her belly.

CHAPTER TWO.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IV.

(LIVESTOCK REARING PRACTICES.)

ROUTINE LIVESTOCK REARING PRACTICES.

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Routine. Is a fixed way of doing something.

Feeding.

There are certain periods when specialised feeding is required.

a) Flushing.
Involves giving highly nutritious feed around service time.in sheep 2-3 weeks prior to
tupping and 3 weeks after. In pigs, 3-4 weeks before service.

Importance of flushing.

 Increases conception rate. This is due to higher ovulation rate.

 Facilitates implantation of the zygote.
 Increases lambing percentage (15-20%) in Ewes and chances of multiple
birth.

b) Steaming up.
Providing extra feed of high nutritive value to an animal during the last weeks of gestation. This
is when rapid foetal development takes place.

Animal. Time to steam-up.

Cow. 6-8 weeks before calving.

Ewe. 3-4 weeks before lambing.
Dairy goat (Nanny) 3-4 weeks before kidding.
Doe (rabbit) 2 weeks before kindling.
Sow. 6 weeks before farrowing.

Importance of steaming-up.

 Reduces incidences of pregnancy toxaemia (twin lamb disease). This is

where a Ewe carrying twins loses most of the nutrient in body reserve.
 Provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth.
 Helps build up energy for parturition.
 Ensure birth of a healthy animal.
 Promotes good health of the mother.
 Increases and maintains high milk yields after birth.
c) Creep feeding.
Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning.

Piglets.
Weaned at 8 weeks.

Creep pellets are given at 10 days and contains 16-18% DCP.

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At 6 weeks creep pellets are mixed gradually with sow and weaner.

Lambs.

They should suckle colostrum 1-2 hours after birth.

Qualities of colostrum.  It is

highly digestible.

 Contains antibodies inform of gamma-immunoglobulin which are absorbed

through the GIT directly.
 It is highly nutritious. Contains vitamin A, B and E. carotene is responsible
for yellow colour of the colostrum.

At 6 weeks lambs are given succulent soft herbage and small amounts of concentrate.

They are weaned at 4-5 months.

PARASITE AND DISEASE CONTROL.

Vaccination.

Active immunisation.
It is the process of introducing active disease organism reduced in strength or virulent into an
animal’s body.

Routes of vaccination.

 By injections.
 Orally through the mouth.
 By inhalation through the nose.
 Through the cloaca.

Ocular through the eyes.
GROUPS OF VACCINES.

1. Live virulent vaccines.

Living organisms capable of causing diseases to man animal. They cause the diseases thus
stimulating production of antibodies against it.
It is not commonly used.

Virulent means highly infectious.

2. Live attenuated vaccines.

Diseases causing organisms whose ability to cause the disease has been reduced.

Used in anthrax, brucellosis, rinderpest, foot and mouth.

PAGE 17 OF 44.
If stored for long, they mutate to virulent forms.

Stimulate production of high level of antibodies.

3. Killed or dead vaccines.

Diseases organisms that are completely killed by use of phenol or formaldehyde.

4. Toxoids.
Are made from toxins produced by disease causing microorganisms and then treated with
formalin to produce toxoid vaccines.

Properties of a Good vaccine.

 Immunity it produces should be as good as natural immunity.

 Should have a long keeping life.
 Should be easy to administer to the animal.
 Should have no side effects when inoculated.
 Should be compatible with other vaccines given to the animal.
 A single dose should produce lifelong immunity.

Care in handling vaccines.

 Keep under freezing temperatures -20 to -4 degree Celsius.

 Vaccination equipments should be sterilised.
 Correct dosage should be adhered to.
Use the correct route of administration.
Deworming.
Regular deworming with anthelmintics administered orally through the mouth using a dosing
gun, bolus gun or narrow necked bottle.

Hoof trimming.

Cutting back of overgrown hooves.

Overgrown hooves are common in sheep that are on soft pastures.

Overgrown hooves encourage accumulation of dung in the folds that leads to cracking,
bleeding of hooves and rooting of skin.

Tools used are:

Hoof trimming knife, hoof cutter or hoof rasp.

PAGE 18 OF 44.
A. Showing overgrown hoof.

B. showing cracks in the overgrown hoof.

C. hoof trimming in progress.

D. a trimmed hoof.
Reasons for hoof trimming.

 Facilitates easy movement.

 Controls foot rot disease
 Prevents ram from injuring the ewe during tupping.
Docking/tailing.

Removal of tail or dock.

Reasons for docking.

 To facilitate tupping or mating.

 To give a good fat distribution throughout the body.
 Prevent blowfly infestation.

Methods of Docking.

1. Elastrator and rubber ring.

The ring is applied before lambs are 48 hours old.

Leave about one inch of the tail to cover the vulva in female.

2. Burdizzo and knife.

The tail is crushed between vertebrae joints then the tail is cut off. Crushing stops bleeding.

Apply antiseptic to prevent infection. Done when lambs are 2-3 weeks.

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 3. Knife.
Cut between the vertebrae joint and mild antiseptic applied. Done when lambs are 7-10 days old.

4. Hot iron.
There is no bleeding and it has little risk of infection.

Dipping and spraying.

Routine practice done to control external parasites.

Plunge dips are used for large stock while Machakos dip is used for sheep and goats.

Shearing is done in sheep before spraying so that chemicals can penetrate up to the skin.

Dusting.

Chemical powder applied to control external parasites using a duster.

Houses should also be dusted ensuring all cracks and crevices are filled with powder.

BREEDING PRACTICES.

1. Crutching and Ringing.

Crutching. Practice of cutting wool around the external reproductive organs of a female sheep to
facilitate mating and prevent infection.

Ringing. Practice of trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of rams to facilitate mating.

2. Tupping and Serving.

Tupping. Act of mating in sheep and goats.

Serving. Mating in cattle and pigs.

3. Raddling.
Practice of fitting rams with breeding chutes painted in different colours during mating.

Fitted on underside around breast of ram.

It helps to identify Ewe that have been mated by a particular ram.

Colour should be changed after 10 days to detect Ewes with repeated heat or infertile (both males
and females.)

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Identification.

Importance.

Helps in

 Selection and breeding.

 Diseases control and treatment.
 Feeding.
 Record keeping.
 Culling.

Methods of identification.

Branding.
Marking of animals on skin using permanent marks. E.g. use of hot iron with identification marks
inscribed on it.
Disadvantages.

 Causes a lot of pain to the animal.

 Reduces quality of hides and skin if poorly done.
Branding spots. Below hock, side of animals jaw.

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Ear tagging.

Plastic or metal tags bearing numbers or letters are fixed through a hole perforated on the ear.
Tags are convenient as they are flexible and can twist out easily when held by twig. Ear
Notching.

The ears of the animal is perforated to make different shapes. (Notches)

Tattooing.

These are shapes, numbers or letters made on the skin with a permanent ink or dye.
Made using tattooing machine.

Suitable for pigs and rabbits.

Light coloured parts of the animals body are tattooed e.g. muzzle, udder and ear.
Neck strap or chain.

Easy and does not injure the animals skin but plates can get lost easily when animals are grazing.

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Debeaking.

Done to control vices such as cannibalism and egg eating.

1/3 of upper beak is cut. (Knife or scissors are used.)

Hot iron cauterises the wound.

Tooth clipping.

Removal of canine teeth in piglets 24 hours after farrowing. Uses a tooth clipper.

Reasons for tooth clipping.

 Prevent the piglet from injuring the sow during suckling.

 Prevent the piglets from inflicting injuries to other piglets.
 Prevent injuries to the farmer during handling of piglets.

Culling.
Removal of unproductive animals from a breeding herd so as to leave high quality and
productive animals.

Male animals are culled by castrating and fattening for sale.

Basis for culling.

 Poor health.
 Poor production.
 Old age.
 Presence of physical deformities.
 Infertility.
 Poor mothering ability.
 To avoid inbreeding.

CULLING IN POULTRY.

Poor layers.

 Skin colour changes from white to yellow pigment in vent, legs and beaks.
 Combs, wattles and vent become shrivelled.

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  Width between pelvic bone becomes narrow. (Good layers 2-3 fingers can fit
between the pelvic bones, non-layers only one finger.)

Good layer. Bad layer.

 Eyes become dull.

 Breast become hard. Dehorning.
Reasons for dehorning.

 To prevent cattle from inflicting injuries on each other.

 Make animals docile and easy to handle.
 For easy transportation and feeding as polled animals occupy a small space.
 Prevent destruction of farm structures.

Methods of Dehorning.

Dehorning. Removal of horns.

Disbudding. Removal of horn buds (before becoming hard cartilages)

1. Use of caustic potash stick (potassium hydroxide) Used for disbudding.

Procedure.

 Restrain the animal.

 Clip hair around the horn bud.
 Rub the bud with caustic potash paste.
 Restrain the animal for about 30 minutes to prevent paste from getting into
eyes or rubbing off.
 Release the animal.

2. Use of disbudding iron.

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Involves use of hot iron.

3. Use of dehorning saw or wire.

After dehorning, a fly repellent should be used to repel off flies from the wound.

4. Use of rubber ring and elastrator.

Applied on the base of the horn when horns are young and have soft tissues.

5. Use of dehorning collodion.

Chemical method. Collodion is applied onto the horn bud and it eats away the horn.

Shearing.

Cutting wool from wool sheep breed. Done at 8 months of age and thereafter once a year.

Care should be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva or penis.

Castration,

Rendering unserviceable the testicles of male animals thus depriving its reproductive power.

This inhibits secondary sexual characteristic, growth and functions.

Reasons for castration.

 To control breeding diseases such as brucellosis, vaginitis, and

trichomoniasis transmitted through natural mating.
 To control breeding.
 For faster growth rates.
 Increases quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell in goats.

PAGE 25 OF 44.
Methods of castration.

Birds. Caponisation.

Open method.

Closed method/ bloodless method.

1) Closed castration methods.

There is no cutting of the skin and bleeding does not occur. Includes.

a) Use of elastrator and rubber ring. Applied above the scrotum and the

spermatic cords and blocks the spermatic cords.

b) Use of a Burdizzo.
The jaw of the Burdizzo is placed on the spermatic cords of one testicle and crushed and this is
repeated on the second testicle and this operation is repeated on two sections to avoid re- joining
of spermatic cords.

2) Open castration method.

Surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits that have reproductive organs
internally. Artery –off forceps are used to close up open blood vessels to stop excessive bleeding.

3) Caponisation.

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Act of making male birds lose their male characteristics.
Uses a hormone stilbestorl injected into birds at one day old. Capons are male birds that have
been castrated.
Can also be done by implanting pellets of female sex hormone underneath skin of the neck of the
bird. Can be done surgically through open method.

MANAGEMENT DURING PARTURITION.

Parturition. The act of giving birth in females.

Animal. Parturition term used.

Cattle. Calving/calving down.

Pigs. Farrowing/farrowing down.
Sheep. Lambing/lambing down.
Goats. Kidding/kidding down.
Rabbits. Kindling/kindling down.

Parturition in sheep (lambing.) Gestation

period is 150 days.

Lambing management.

1. Drift lambing.
All pregnant Ewes are put together in one paddock and then separated as they lamb-down.

They are removed on a daily basis.

2. Pen lambing.
Ewes separated from others after showing signs of lambing and put on their own individual pen
to lamb down.

Signs of lambing.

 Udder becomes full and teats bright red in colour.

 Restlessness and bleating.
 Slackening of hip muscles.
 Water bag appears and burst signalling the start of lambing.

The mother is allowed to lick the lamb to ensure coat is dry to avoid death due to cold.

Parturition in Goats. (Kidding)

Nannies carrying twins kid a few days earlier.

Signs of kidding.

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  Udder become firm and teats enlarge.
 Muscles at either side of tail slacken.
 Restlessness is shown by pawing the ground, rising up and lying down
frequently.
 Separating itself from the rest of the herd.  A clear discharge from the
vulva.
The nanny should be kept with another female to avoid nervousness.
Parturition in cattle. (Calving) Calving

management.

 Separate the cow from the rest when it start showing signs of calving.
 Put the cow in a clean disinfected individual pen.
 Keep constant watch for any complications during calving but do not disturb
the cow.
 In case of mal-presentation/breech birth seek help of a qualified
stockman/veterinary doctor.
 Ensure the calf is breathing/wipe mucus on the mouth and nose of the calf.
 Let the mother lick the calf dry to avoid death due to chilliness.
 Ensure the calf suck colostrum during the first 2 hours of life.
 Ensure the afterbirth is removed and dispose it.
 In case the after birth is retained for more than 72 hours seek help from a
veterinary doctor.
 Transfer the calf to a clean, dry and warm pen.

Parturition in pigs. (Farrowing)

Clean and disinfect the farrowing pens.

Clean the sow skin with water and soap to remove all external parasites.

The sow is put in the farrowing pen 3 days to farrowing in order to:

 Familiarise with the new environment to reduce nervousness.

 Avoid inconveniences of transferring piglets in case of early parturition.
Signs of farrowing.

 Sow becomes restless.

 Enlargement of vulva.
 Muscles on each side of tail slacken.
 Loss of appetite.
 Udder and teat become enlarged.
 Sow collects bedding material at one corner to build a nest.
 Milk is present in teats 24 hours before farrowing.

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Attendant should be present to ensure the following:

3. Piglets are breathing.

4. Piglets are warm.
5. Piglet suck colostrum.
6. To cut and disinfect naval cord to avoid naval illness.
7. Ensure removal of after birth to prevent the sow from eating it and sows which
eat afterbirth are known to eat even their piglet. It also prevent it from
decomposing in the house and becoming source of infection.

Parturition in rabbits. (Kindling)

Gestation period is 28-32 days.

Provide a nest box with dry soft bedding.

Signs of kindling.

The doe plucks off fur from her body.

Uses the fur to build a nest.

BEE KEEPING. (APICULTURE)

Importance of keeping Bees.

1. Production of honey which is:  A high energy feed.  Sweetener for beverage
and soft drinks.  Medicinal- used to dress fresh wounds.
2. Honey and bee wax are sold to earn income.
3. Bees are good pollinators for many crops.

Types of Bees.

1. African wild Bee (Apis mellifera adansonii)

2. European Bee.
Characteristics of African wild Bee.

 Well adapted to local weather conditions e.g. high temperatures.  Has high
flying power thus can fly for long distances.
 More active in search of food and water and protecting the hive.
 Vicious if manhandled.
 Fairy resistant to diseases e.g. acarive and American foul brood disease.
Characteristics of European Bee.

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  More gentle and larger than African bee.
 Less active and vicious than African bee.
 Susceptible to disease that attack bees.

BEE COLONY.

Types of Bees.

1) The queen.

There is only one queen in the colony.

It is the largest bee in the colony.

Functions of the queen.

1. Lays fertilised eggs. Mating takes place in the air requiring 5-7 drones. The queen stores
sperms in a spermatheca hence requires mating only once in its lifespan.
2. Keeping the colony together by producing a pheromone called queen substance of
identification.

2) The Drones.

They are 300 in number.

Functions of the Drones.

1. To fertilise the queen. Those that take place in this nuptial flight are killed after this
by the worker bees.
2. Control temperature /cool the hive by flapping their wide wings at high speed.

3) Worker Bees.

They are 60,000 in number. They are the smallest and are female bees.

Functions of the worker Bees.

1. Feed the queen, drones and the brood.

2. Protect the hive from intruders.
3. Collect nectar, pollen, tree resins, gums and water.
4. Build combs and seal the cracks and crevices in the hive.
5. Clean the hive.
6. Make honey and bee wax.

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 Queen.

Drone.

Worker Bee.

Life cycle and work of a Bee.

 Fertilised queen moves from one cell to another laying an egg in each.
 In the warmth and moisture generated by a cluster of worker bees, eggs
hatch after 3 days.
 Larvae are feed by nurse bees on special pulp, then on a mixture of pollen
and honey.
 Each larvae spins a cocoon and after 2 days moults into a pupa.
 Pupa becomes a young bee after 10 days and emerges from the cocoon.
N/B.

21 days –worker bee.

24 days- drones.

15 days- queen.

SITING THE APIARY.

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Apiary. Where beehive are laid.

Factors to consider.

1. Availability of water within a radius of 3 km or otherwise place water in

containers near the hive with sticks floating on the water to prevent bees from
drowning.
2. Availability of flower for nectar.
3. A sheltered place protected from sun and wind.
4. Free from noise and other disturbances.
5. Away from human beings and livestock that is, away from homestead, pastures
and busy roads.

Types of Bee Hives.

Log Hive.
Made of a log spilt into two parts.one side is larger than the other. The inner material from the
larger portion is scooped out to leave a hollow space. The smaller portion forms the floor of the
hive. The two portions are then joined together using wire strings.

The hive is suspended by means of wires from a tree or a pole.

Box Hive.

Holes are drilled for ventilation and entrance of bees. These are drilled in the bottom board.
The top side and end board are nailed together while the bottom board is attached by use of
wires.

Kenya Top Bar Hive.

Has a series of bars arranged to form the top of the hive. Bees attach their combs on the top bars.

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Consist of 27 bars but one may be replaced with a feeder box for feeding bees.

Another top bar is replaced with a queen excluder.

Queen excluder.
Restrict the queen from laying eggs on all the top bars, thus ensuring high quality honey that is
not mixed with the brood.

Queen excluder.

Top bars contain a strip of bee wax starter along the centre to guide bees to build their combs
straight.
The sides of the hive should be sloping at an angle of 110-120 so that bees do not attach their
combs to the hives walls.

Parts of Kenya Top Bar Hive.

Kenya Top Bar Hive.

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 1. 25-27 top bars. 3.2cm wide by 48cm long.
2. Wooden end piece. 2 for each side. 48cm wide at the top and 23cm at the base
and 30cm high. (48x23x30)
3. Side pieces. 2 measuring 30cm wide and 90 cm long. Bear holes that serve as
entrance to the hive.
4. Bottom piece. 1 measuring 30 cm wide and 92 cm long.
5. Top cover. Made of corrugated iron sheet with a wooden rim. Measures 96 cmx
55cm.
6. Wire loop. On both sides to suspend the hive above the ground.
AGRICULTUREFORMTHREENOTES.BY: [email protected].

Advantages of KTBH.

 Top bars can be removed for inspection of combs and replaced.

 Honey combs can be removed without disturbing the brood.
 Production of high quality honey as it is not mixed with brood combs.
 More wax is harvested as combs are not returned to the hive.
 Cheap to build and does not require expensive equipments.
 Queen excluder can be used in the centre of the hive to separate honey from
the brood thus increasing quality of honey.

The langstroth Hive.

Designed with separate chambers for the brood and the honey.

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Each chamber is a separate box and can be placed on top of each other to form a storey of many
chambers.

Queen excluder is placed in between the chambers.

The bottom board forms the floor of the hive while the top board forms the roof of the hive
STOCKING THE HIVE.

Act of encouraging bees to enter an empty hive or actually putting them in it.

Methods of stocking the hive.

1. Use of a swarm net.

Made by fixing a strong wire ring to a bamboo pole. A piece of mosquito netting is sewn onto the
ring. Trapped bees are then transferred to a hive.

2. Use of a catcher box.

Small hive that is moveable. Kept where it is likely to attract bees.
Old combs and wax are placed in the box to attract bees which are transferred to the main hive
after a week.
Bees on a sloping surface always move upward thus the hive should be placed at higher position
the catcher box.

MATERIALS COLLECTED BY BEES.

1) Nectar.

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Juice collected from flowers. It is swallowed by worker bees, acted upon by enzymes in stomach
and regurgitated back and stored in combs.

2) Pollen.
Collected from flowers. Collected with special “pollen baskets” on the feet. Contains
30% protein.

3) Propolis.
Bee product collected from trees and used to fill cracks and crevices in the hive. Has
medicinal properties in human.

4) Water.
Water is put into containers and placed near the hive. Pieces of sticks or barks are floated on the
water to prevent drowning of bees.
FEEDING BEES.

Reasons for feeding bees.

 To maintain the colony. To avoid swarming of bees.

 To encourage multiplication. Well-fed queen breeds regularly.
 To supplement what bees get from flowers during the dry season.

PESTS, DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL.

Ants.
Makes holes in the hive which allows water into the hive causing rotting which allows honey
badgers.

Control.

 Avoid contact between a plant and the hive.

 Suspend the hive between poles with the wires and post coated with old
engine oil to keep off ants.

Wax moth.

Larvae of wax moth hatch from eggs laid in cracks. Have a protective greyish web.

Makes tunnels in combs and contaminate honey with their excreta.

Control.

 Remove and burn all infected combs.

 Old combs or wax left after harvesting honey should immediately be melted.

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Bee louse.

Parasite of bee.

Control.

 Smoke out the hive with a smoker containing creosote to control the
parasite.

Honey Badgers.

Spoils the hives and eat honey.

Control.
Hung the hive with wires so as to discourage the badgers as they fall off when the hive
swings.

Diseases.
Acarive and American foul Brood. Controlled by proper feeding and proper construction of the
hive to prevent damp conditions.

SWARMING OF BEES.

Swarm of bees. Colony or part of it that is in flight.

Causes.

1) Shortage of food and water in their surroundings.

2) Outbreak of diseases and parasites.
3) Damage of brood combs.
4) Lack of adequate ventilation.
5) Dampness and bad smells.
6) Sick or infertile queen.
7) Overcrowding.

Nuptial flight. First flight where mating takes place.

Absconding. Where some cluster of bees leave the hive because of unfavourable conditions.

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Handling of bees.

 Bees should not be frightened as doing so makes them wild and sting.
 Do not approach the beehive from the front.
 A smoker must be used properly.
 Do not crush bees during handling as it excites the whole colony.
 Movement towards the hive should be made quietly to avoid alerting the
bees.
 A bee sting should not the rubbed. Pressing causes the poison bag to release
more poison.
 Wear protective clothing. That is, veil, an overall, gloves and gumboots.

HONEY HARVESTING.
Honey is harvested when bees are less active. However do not harvest honey as night as it may
lead to destruction of brood combs as visibility is poor at night.

Procedure of honey harvesting.

 Approach the hive quietly and blow smoke around the hive and later through
the entrance holes using a smoker.
 Lower the hive to the ground.
 Using a hive tool separate the top bars from each other.
 Cut the combs 3 cm from the surface of the combs. The 3cm left is for
attachment of new combs.
 Place back the bars and do not disturb the brood. Return the top cover.
 Return the hive to its position.

Equipments used in Harvesting Honey.

 Protective gear.

Smoker. Veil.

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  Honey container with a tight cover to hold the honey combs being harvested.
 A hive tool. Tom scarp away Propolis holding the top bars together.
 Bees brush. To brush off bees from the honey coms before cutting and
putting into the container.

HONEY PROCESSING.

1) Using heat to melt the honey.

2) Crushing and straining method.
3) Using a centrifugal extractor.

Heat method.

 Heat some water in a sufuria.

 Put honey combs in an enamel basin or any container not made of iron.
 Put the container with honey combs into the boiling water.
 Heat until most of the honey melts.
 Separate the melted honey from the combs by straining through a muslin
cloth.
 Keep honey in a container to cool down.
 Remove the wax layer the may form on the surface of honey.

Crushing and straining method.

This produces the highest quality honey.

 Honey combs are crushed and strained using a muslin cloth into the
enamel basin.
 The scum formed is removed with a wooden spoon.
 Honey is put in a suitable Container

Using a centrifugal extractor.

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Used for large scale production.

Rotary motion forces out honey and combs are left clean.
Bee wax.

Wax is secreted by a pair of glands in the abdomen of the worker bee.

It is used to make combs.

Uses of processed wax.

 Manufacture creams, ointments, candles, shoe and floor polish.

 Used in dissection of small insects.
 Used to make pill coatings.
 Used to make teeth impressions for filling and replacement.

Procedure of wax processing.

 Put combs (with honey extracted) into a basin.

 Add water to the basin.
 Heat the mixture until wax melts.
 Strain the mixture through a muslin cloth.
 Squeeze the residue strongly to force wax out.
 Cool the mixture overnight.
 Drain the water and remove any foreign particles.
 Re-melt the wax over a water bath and put it in a clean container.
Marketing of honey and wax.

Factors determining quality of honey.

 Type of plants from which nectar was obtained.

 Maturity stage of honey at the time of harvesting.
 Method of harvesting.
 Method of processing honey. FISH FARMING. (AQUACULTURE)

Importance of fish farming.

 Supplies cheap and good source of proteins which is a good substitute

for meat.
 Requires little land hence practiced even where land is a limiting factor.
 Source of income for fish farmers.  Makes fish available nearby.

Species of fish farmed in Kenya.

Fresh warm water fish.

18 degrees Celsius. E.g. Tilapia, Nile perch and Cat fish.

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Fresh cold water fish. 10-15 degrees Celsius. Requires water that is

always flowing. E.g. Trout.

REQUIREMENTS FOR FISH FARMING.

1. Water supply.
Water flowing freely is suitable .flowing water in and out ensures enough oxygen supply.

2. Slope of the land.

Should have a gentle slope. Flat land does not allow free flow of water.

Hilly places are expensive to construct a pond because dykes are needed.
3. Soil.
Clay soil is suitable as it does not allow water to seep through.

How to test soil suitability.

1. Method one.

 Take a handful of wet soil.

 Knead in between the fingers and roll it into a ribbon.
 Throw into the air and catch it.  If it does not break it is clay soil.

2. Method two.
 Dig a Hole 1M deep and 30cm in diameter.
 Fill it with water in the evening and leave overnight, then fill it again in the
morning.
 Good soil should retain water up to the evening.

CONSTRUCTING INLET, OUTLET AND SPILLWAY.

1. Inlet.

Canal/pipe at the entrance of the pond.

Screen or fine mesh is made across the inlet to prevent entrance of undesirable/strange
species of fish. 2. Outlet.

Made at the deeper end of the pond just a little above the bottom of the pond.

Screen is fitted at the mouth to prevent fish swimming away.

3. Spillway.

Channel that allow excess water back to the river.

Made at the top of the dyke on lower side of the pond.

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Prevents water from overflowing on the dykes.
Grass is planted on the dykes and land around it to stabilise the ground. The

pond is fenced all round to keep off predators and unauthorised persons.

ESTABLISHING A FISH POND.

Procedure.

1. Site selection.
Select a suitable place where water flows gently from the source.

2. Site marking.
Pegs are used to mark the channel from the river, the entrance and exit and the channel to take
water back to the river.

3. Clearing the land.

All vegetation is removed and taken away from the pond area.

4. Digging the pond.

Soil is dug out. The top soil is placed separately. Upper portion of pond is 0.5M deep and lower
side 1.5 M deep.

5. Constructing the dyke.

Wall constructed all-round the pond.

STOCKING THE POND.

Fingerlings are introduced to the pond.

They are transported in oxygenated polythene bags, drums etc.

Water in the container should be clean and at a temperature of 10 degrees Celsius.

Fingerlings are introduced into the pond by lowering the container into the water and tilting it to
allow them to swim away. For every 5M2 , 5-10 fingerlings are introduced.

PAGE 42 OF 44.
FEEDING FISH.

Feed on planktons.

Other feed include: kitchen waste, leaves, chicken manure.

Give just enough food as excess can rot and pollute the pond.

Any change in food type should be gradual.

Manure and fertiliser should be added to the pond to encourage growth of planktons.
CROPPING AND HARVESTING OF FISH.

Cropping.

Removal of sizeable and marketable fish from the pond.

 Hook and line. Baited hooks are lowered into the water. Commercially as
fishing lines.
 Use of nets. Nets of different meshes are used. Seine nets in East Africa have a
size of
3.0-3.5 cm.

Merits of using seine net over hook and line.

 Only marketable size of fish are caught as smaller ones swim back to the pond if
caught.
 Fish are not injured.
 Ensure large number of fish are cropped.

Harvesting.

Removal of all fish from the pond.

The pond is drained and all fish are removed.

Procedure of harvesting fish.

 Inflow of water from the river is stopped by closing the channel leading to the
pond.
 Normal cropping is done to remove all the large fish by use of a seine net.
 The outlet is then opened to allow water to flow out.
 A scoop net is used to catch the fingerlings which are kept in a holding pond.
 Water is completely drained for the pond to dry up.
 Maintenance of pond is carried out and fingerlings taken back to the pond.
(Restocking)

Maintenance of the pond.

 Repairing the dykes or any structure on it.

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  Cleaning the pond and removing all foreign materials.
 Planting grass where necessary.
 Removing undesirable vegetation.
 Removing silt.

FISH PRESERVATION.

Activities before preservation.

 Cleaning the fish to remove mud and any worms.

 Removing scales and slime.
 Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines. (Gutting) 
Cleaning the abdomen/cavity thoroughly.
 Keeping fish in open containers.

METHODS OF FISH PRESERVATION.

1. Freezing.
Keeping fish in deep freezers.

2. Salting.
Fish are kept in salt solution or rubbing granular salt on the fish.

3. Sun-drying.
Fish is dried under strong sunlight. It is spread on racks or mats to dry.

4. Smoking.
Done by exposing fish to temperatures of 70 degrees Celsius in smoking houses.

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