Unit-III

 Semiconductor Diodes:
Semiconductor diode,

Zener diode,

Half-Wave Rectifier,

Full-Wave rectifier,

Clippers and Clampers (no bias/reference voltage).

 Bipolar Junction Transistor:

Transistor operation,

Transistor configurations

 Common Base configuration (CB),

 Common Emitter configuration (CE),

 Common Collector configuration (CC).

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 Introduction: Atomic theory

Atom:
It is the smallest particle of an element. It consists of positively charged protons, negativelycharged
electrons and neutral neutrons. The central part which consists of protons and neutrons is called nucleus.
Electrons revolve around nucleus in various orbits. The maximum number of electrons in eachorbit is
limited by the formula 2n2.

Valence electrons:
The electrons in the last orbit are called valence electrons.

Free electrons:
The valence electrons which are loosely connected with the nucleus are called free electrons. They
can move from atom to other.

Bounded electrons:
The electrons which are tightly attached with nucleus are called bounded electrons. They are the
innermost orbit electrons.

Atomic structure of Silicon & Germanium

Silicon:
Its atomic number is 14. It consists of 14 protons & 14 electrons. The 1st orbit consists of 2 electrons.
The 2nd orbit has 8 electrons. The 3rd has 8 electrons. The valence number is 4.

Germanium
Its atomic number is 32. It consists of 32 protons& 32 electrons. The 1st orbit consists of 2 electrons.
The 2 orbit has 8 electrons. The 3rd has 18 electrons. The 4th has 4 electrons. The valence numberis 4.
nd

These elements are called semiconductors.

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 Energy Band diagrams
The electrons moving in a particular orbit possess energy. The energies possessed by the electrons
of the same orbit are not equal. The range of energies possessed by the electrons of the same orbit is called
asenergy band of that orbit.

Valance band:
It is the highest occupied energy band. It represents the range of energies possessed by valence
electrons. The band may be completely or partially filled in.

Conduction band:
It represents the range of energies possessed by free electrons. These electrons move freely and
conduct electric current. This band may be empty or partially filled in.

Forbidden energy gap:

The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands is called forbidden energy gap. There is
no allowed energy state in this region. This gap indicates the amount of energy needed to push an electron
from valence band to conduction band. It is represented by electron-volt (e-v).

Conductors: It is a material in which the Current flows easily. For eg- Silver, Copper and
Aluminum. The reason for the Conductor's Conduction is the absence of a forbidden band. So, Very Small
amount of energy is required for the flow of Current. There are many free electrons in the conducting
material. For the Conductor, the Conduction band and Valence band are not separated. So, there is no Energy
gap. Due to Conduction of electrons in the Conduction band, the electricity / heat produced. In the Conductor
the Valence band is full of electrons, while the Conduction band has some free electrons and with addition
of very small amount of energy will allow the electron to move in the Conductor band.
Eg: metals

Insulators:
In Insulators, the valence band is full and the Conduction band is Empty. The energy gap between the
Conduction band and valence band is very large. Hence in the insulator Current does not flow. Examples are
paper, plastic, wood etc.
A large amount of energy is required to shift the electrons from the valence band to Conduction band

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SEMICONDUCTORS:
It has conductivity much greater than that of an insulator and much smaller than that of conductor.
At low temperature the valence band remains full and the conduction band is empty. So it acts asan insulator.
The forbidden energy gap is very small about 1ev.By giving minimum external energy, the valence electrons
move into conduction band. So the conductivity increases. It has negative temperature co- efficient of
resistance i.e. when the temperature increases, the resistance decreases.

Note:

 When the number of valence electrons = 4, the element is semiconductor.

 When the number of valence electrons >4, the element is an insulator.
 When the number of valence electrons <4, the element is a conductor.

Bonding in semiconductors:

In semiconductors, to have atomic stability, co-valent bonds are formed. The semiconductor has 4
valence electrons. So each atom is forced to make bonding with other atom. Bonds are formed by sharing
valence electrons in such a way that last orbit gets 8 electrons.

Electron – Hole pair generation:

By breaking a co-valent bond, electron-hole pair is created. This is done by giving external energy
to the semiconductor. The valence band electrons get additional energy. When this energy exceeds the
forbidden energy level, the valence electrons move to conduction band. The missing electron in the valence
band leaves a vacant space, which is known as a hole. In semiconductors even at room temperature electron-
hole pairs are generated.

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Classification of semiconductors:
Semiconductors are classified as
1. Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
2. Extrinsic or impure semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors:

A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. At room temperature, some valence

electrons get additional energy to break the co-valent bonds. So electron-hole pairs are created. When an
electric field is applied, the current conduction takes place. The conduction is due to both electrons and
holes. The total current is the sum of two currents due to free electrons and holes. It has poor conductivity.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the total number of free electrons is always equal to the number of holes.

Extrinsic semiconductor:
To improve the conductivity, a small amount of impurity is added to the pure semiconductor. This
type of semiconductor is known as impure or extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurity is
known as doping.1 or 2 atoms are added to 106.The extrinsic semiconductors are classified as n-type
semiconductor & p-type semiconductor.

N type semiconductor:

A small amount of pentavalent impurities (Arsenic, Antimony, and Phosphorous) are added to pure
semiconductors. Silicon has 4 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence electrons. Each atom forms a co-
valent bond with surrounding 4 Si atoms. 4 valence electrons of As is used for this bonding. The 5th electron
is left free. This electron moves to the conduction band. So number of free electrons is increased. The
conductivity is increased.

In addition to this electron-hole pairs are created due to room temperature. The pentavalent element
is called donor impurity because it donates electrons for conduction. Here electrons are called majority
carriers and holes are called minority carriers. The current conduction is mainly due to free electrons. In n-
type semiconductors, number of free electrons is greater than number of holes.

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P type semiconductor:

A small amount of trivalent impurities (Aluminum, Boron) are added to the pure semiconductors.
Si has 4 valence electrons and Al has 3 valence electrons.3 valence electrons in Al form co-valent bond with
4 surrounding atoms of Si. This leaves one bond incomplete which gives a hole. When a trivalent impurity
is added to a pure semiconductor a large number of holes are created. These holes increase conductivity.
In addition electron-hole pairs are created due to room temperature. The trivalent impurity is called
acceptor impurity because it accepts free electrons. Here holes are called majority carriers and electrons are
called minority carriers. The current conduction is mainly due to holes. In p-type semiconductors, number
of holes is greater than the number of free electrons.

Drift current:

An electric field is applied across the semiconductor. The holes move towards the negative terminal
of the battery. The electrons move towards the positive terminal of the battery. The effect of movement of
charge carriers constitutes a current. This is called drift current. It can be defined as the flow of electric
current due to the movement of the charge carriers under the influence of an external electric field.

Diffusion current:

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 Let us assume that one type of charge carrier concentration is occurred at one end of semiconductor.
There is a force of repulsion between the charge carriers. The result is that there is a tendency for the charge
carriers to move gradually from the region of high concentration to one of low concentration. This
movement continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed. This movement of carriers constitutes an
electric current known as diffusion current.
P-N Junction
In a piece of a semiconductor, if one half of is doped by p-type and the other half is doped by n- type
impurities, P-N junction (diode) is formed. The n-type has high concentration of free electrons. The p-type
has high concentration of holes. At the junction diffusion takes place.

Open circuit:

When free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, the donor atoms becomes
positively charged ions. The holes in p-type combined with free electrons. Therefore negative ions built on
the p side of the junction. The net negative charge prevents further diffusion of electrons from n-side. These
immobile ions set up a potential across the junction. This is called barrier potential, junction barrier,diffusion
potential or contact potential. The region containing immobile ions is called depletion region or space charge
region.

Forward bias:

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type and negative terminal is connected
to n-type, the bias is known as forward bias. The applied potential opposes barrier potential. The free
electrons and holes move towards the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion region. Since the
barrier potential is very small (0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge), a small forward voltage is enough to eliminate
it When the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential, the electrons and holes cross the junction.
These charges constitute current in forward direction. The junction offers very low resistance.
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Reverse bias:

When negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-type and positive terminal is connected to
n-type the bias is called reverse bias. Electrons in the n-side move towards the negative terminal. Holes in
the p-side move towards the positive terminal. Now the barrier potential increases. The depletion region
widens. No current flow in the external circuit. But in practice a very small current in the order of nano or
micro ampere flows because of minority carriers. The junction offers very high resistance.

V-I Characteristics
It gives the relationship between voltage and current in the forward and reverse biases.

Forward bias:
When supply voltage is increased, the current increases very slowly. The curve is non-linear
(OA).The voltage is used to overcome the barrier potential. When this is removed, the current increases
rapidly with the slight increase in applied voltage. The voltage at which the barrier potential is eliminated
is called cut in voltage, knee voltage or threshold voltage. Its value is around 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge.
The region is almost linear (AB).

Reverse bias:
Now minimum current flows because of minority carriers. This current is called reverse saturation
current or reverse current I0.This current increases slowly with the increase in supply voltage (OC). At one
stage (point C) the break down occurs. The reverse current increases rapidly (CD). This may destroy the
junction permanently. The reverse voltage at which the junction breaks permanently is called breakdown
voltage.
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Applications of the diodes:
1. Rectifier
2. Clippers
3. Clampers
4. Logic circuits
5. Modulation and demodulation circuits
6. Switch.

Specifications of diode:
Semiconductor material: The semiconductor material used in the PN junction diode.
Forward voltage drop (Vf): The voltage across a PN junction diode when it is ON.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied across the diode without
breaking the junction.
Junction capacitance: All PN junction diodes exhibit a junction capacitance. The depletion region is the
dielectric spacing between the two plates which are effectively formed at the edge of the depletion region
and the area with majority carriers.

Package type: Diodes can be mounted in a variety of packages according to their applications.

Zener diode:

Construction:
It is a specially designed p-n junction. It is a highly doped p-n junction. The doping ratio is 1:103. It
has narrow depletion region. It is operated in the break down region. It is also called as voltage regulator
diode or break down diode.

Working:
In forward bias condition it acts as normal p-n junction diode. In reverse bias, because of the high
doping concentration, the break down occurs at a very low voltage. The break down is due to the strong
electric field. Due to this field, direct rupture of co-valent bonds takes place.

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V-I Characteristics:
The forward characteristics are similar to that of p-n junction diode. When the reverse voltage
exceeds the break down voltage VZ, the current increases very sharply. The voltage across the diode becomes
constant. In break down region, it may be represented by a battery of voltage V Z in series with the Zener
resistance RZ.

Breakdowns:
Zener breakdown:
When the p and n regions are heavily doped, the depletion region width becomes very small. The
doping ratio is about 1: 103.Due to this, for an applied voltage of 6V or less, the field across the depletion
region becomes very high in the order of 107 volts/meter. So direct rupture of co-valent bonds takes place.

Avalanche breakdown:
It occurs in normally doped p-n junction. It occurs at large reverse voltage. Due to the electric field,
thermally generated carriers acquire kinetic energy. The velocity of these carriers increases. They collide
with the co-valent bonds and create new electron-hole pairs. The new carriers acquire additional energy
from the field and collide with other atoms, there by generating additional electron-hole pairs. This process
is cumulative. This results in generation of large charge carriers. This process is known as avalanche
multiplication. The junction breaks down and a large amount of reverse current flows.

Difference between Zener break down and avalanche break down:

S.No Zener break down Avalanche break down
1 Occurs in a heavily doped p-n junction Occurs in a normally doped p-n junction
2 Occurs in low reverse voltage Occurs in large reverse voltage
3 Because of high electric field , direct Due to thermally generated carriers ,
rupture of co-valent bonds takes place ionization by collision takes place
4 Normally , the junction rebuilds again Normally , the junction does not rebuild
again

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

Here the Zener diode Z is connected in reverse bias. The value of RS is to be selected such that the
Zener current is above 50% of its maximum value. The current flowing through RS is equal to the sum of
the currents flowing through the diode and the load.

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 I = IZ + IL
When the load current remains constant and the UN regulated input voltage increases/decreases. The
current drawn from the supply increases/decreases. The Zener current also increases/ decreases by the same
amount. The supply current makes more/less voltage drops in RS. This drop compensates the increase/
decrease in supply voltage. The output voltage remains constant.

VO = Vin - IS * RS
When the input voltage is constant and the load current increases/ decreases. The Zener diode current
decreases/increases by the same amount. The total current through RS remains the same. Therefore the
voltage across RS remains constant. Hence the output voltage remains constant. Thus the circuit keeps the
output voltage constant irrespective of variations in supply voltage or load current.

Disadvantages:
1. The output voltage depends upon Zener voltage and cannot be varied.
2. Both IL and IZ flow through the series resistance, so there is a power loss in RS.
3. Thus the efficiency will be low.

Applications of Zener diode:

1. Voltage regulator.
2. Peak clippers.
3. Fixed reference voltage source.

Specifications of Zener diode:

Voltage Vz: The Zener voltage or reverse voltage at which the diode breaks down.

Current: The current, IZM, of a Zener diode is the maximum current that can flow through a Zener
diode at its rated voltage, VZ.
Zener resistance Rz: The IV characteristic of the Zener diode is not completely vertical in the
breakdown region. The voltage change for a given change in current is the resistance of the diode.
Thisvalue of resistance, often termed the resistance is designated Rz.

Power rating: This defines the maximum power that can be dissipated by the package.
Package type: Diodes can be mounted in a variety of packages according to their applications.

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RECTIFIERS:

Definition:
It is an electronic circuit which converts A.C in to D.C. (unidirectional current).

Types:
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier with centre tapped transformer
3. Bridge rectifier.
Ripple: The A.C. components present in the rectified output is called ripple.
Ripple factor: It is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the A.C. component of voltage/current to the
D.C. component of voltage/current.
R.F. = Vrms / V dc or I rms / I dc
Rectification efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of D.C. power output at the load to the A.C. power input
to the rectifier.
Ƞ= D.C. power output / A.C power input X 100%
Peak inverse voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied across the diode
without breaking the junction.

Half wave rectifier:

The circuit is shown in the figure. It uses one diode. When point A is positive w.r.to point B (1st
half of the input), the diode is forward biased and conducts. The current flows from A through D, X, Y, B
and back to A.X becomes positive w.r.to Y. During the 2nd half of the input, point A becomesnegative. The
diode becomes reverse biased. It does not conduct current. The output is zero. The wave formsare shown in
the figure. So the circuit uses one half of the input and it is called half wave rectifier.

Characteristics:

 Ripple frequency = supply frequency

 Ripple factor = 1.21
 PIV = E M
 Rectification efficiency = 40.6 / ( 1 + R F / R L ) %
 Where, R F is the resistance of the diode and R L is the load resistance.

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Full wave rectifier with centre tapped transformer:

A full wave rectifier converts A.C. into D.C by using both the half cycles of the input. It uses 2
diodes. During the positive half cycle of the input, point A becomes positive w.r.to B. D1 is forward biased
and conduct current I1.This current flows from X to Y making X positive. During this period D2 is reverse
biased. During the negative half cycle of the input, point B becomes positive w.r.to A. D2 is forward biased
and conducts current I2.This current flows from X to Y making X positive. During this period D1 is reverse
biased. The direction of both the currents is same through load resistance.

Characteristics:

 Ripple frequency = twice the supply frequency

 Ripple factor = 0.4285
 PIV = 2 E M
 Rectification efficiency = 81.2 / ( 1 + R F / R L ) %
 Where, R F is the resistance of the diode and R L is the load resistance.

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Bridge rectifier:

A full wave rectifier converts A.C. into D.C by using both the half cycles of the input. It uses 4
diodes. During the positive half cycle of the input, point A becomes positive w.r.to B. D1 and D4 are forward
biased and conduct current I1.This current flows from X to Y making X positive. During this period D2 and
D3 is reverse biased. During the negative half cycle of the input, point B becomes positive w.r.to A. D2 and
D3 are forward biased and conduct current I2.This current flows from X to Y making X positive. During this
period D1 and D4 are reverse biased. The direction of both the currents is same through load resistance.

Characteristics:

 Ripple frequency= twice the supply frequency

 Ripple factor = 0.4285
 PIV = E M
 Rectification efficiency = 81.2 / ( 1 + R F / R L ) %
 Where, RF is the resistance of the diode and R L is the load resistance.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN RECTIFIERS:

S.No Parameter Half-wave Full-wave Bridge

Rectifier Rectifier Rectifier
1 Number of diodes 1 2 4
2 Ripple frequency F 2F F
3 Ripple factor 1.21 0.48 0.48
4 Efficiency 40.8% 81.6% 81.6%
5 Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2 Vm Vm

FILTERS:(out of scope)
Definition:
It is a circuit which eliminates unwanted frequencies present in the rectified output.

Capacitor filter or c filter:

Here a capacitor is connected across the load resistor. The capacitive reactance X C = 1 / 2πfC. For
D.C. f= 0, so X C = infinity; it offers very high resistance. For A.C. f = high, so X C = low; it offers very low
resistance. The ripples are removed and pure D.C. voltage appears in the output. The capacitor gets charged
during the conduction period and energy is stored in it. During non-conduction period, the capacitor
discharges through the load resistance. Therefore throughout the A.C cycle, current flows in the load
resistance.

Applications:

 This filter has poor voltage regulation and mainly used for low current applications.

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LC or L section filter:

It is also called as choke coil input filter. The capacitive reactance X C = 1 / 2πfC. For D.C. f= 0, so
XC = infinity; it offers very high resistance. For A.C. f = high, so XC = low; it offers very low resistance.
The inductive reactance XL =2πfL For D.C. f=0, so XL = 0; it offers very low resistance. For A.C. f
= high, so XL = high; it offers very high resistance. The inductor blocks A.C. and allows D.C. The capacitor
blocks D.C. and allows A.C. So, pure D.C. appears across the output.

Applications:

 It has very good voltage regulation. It is used for high current applications.

𝑀Section filter:

It is also called as capacitor input filter. The capacitive reactance X C = 1 / 2πfC. For D.C. f= 0, so
XC = infinity; it offers very high resistance. For A.C. f = high, so X C = low; it offers very low resistance.
The inductive reactance XL =2πfL. For D.C. f=0, so XL = 0; it offers very low resistance. For A.C. f
= high, so XL = high; it offers very high resistance.C1 blocks D.C. and allows A.C. The remaining ripples
are blocked by L.C2 blocks D.C. and allow A.C. So, pure D.C. appears across the output.

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 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
Introduction:
Transistor:
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has two PN-junctions. It is a device which transforms current
flow from a low resistance path to a high resistance path. This transfer of current through resistance has
given the name to the device transfer resistor or transistor. Since this device is made up of two junction
diodes. It is generally called junction transistor.

There are two types of junction transistors:

Uni-polar junction transistors Bipolar junction transistors

Only majority carrier’s transport the Interaction of both the majority and
current. minority carriers transport the current.

Constructional Details:
A bipolar junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material (p-type or
n-type) between two layers of the other type. A block representation of a layer of n-type material between
two layers of p-type is shown in Figure (a). This is described as PNP transistor. Figure: (b). shows an NPN
transistor, consisting of a layer of p-type material between two layers of n-type.

The center layer is called the base, one of the outer layers is termed the emitter, and the other outer
layer is referred to as the collector. The emitter, base and collector are provided with terminals, which are
appropriately labeled E, B, and C. Two PN junctions exist within each transistor: the collector-base junction
and the emitter-base junction.
Circuit symbols for PNP and NPN transistors Figure: (c) and Figure: (d) together with the
corresponding block representations. The arrowhead on each symbol always identifies the emitter terminal
of the transistor. Also, in each case its direction indicates the conventional direction of current flow. For
the NPN transistor, the arrowhead points from the p-type base to the n-type emitter. For the PNP transistor,
it points from the p-type base. Thus, the arrowhead is always from p to n.
The center layer of the transistor is made very much narrower than the two outer layers. Also the
outer layers are much more heavily doped than the center layer. This causes the depletions regions to
penetrate deeply into the base, and thus the distance between the emitter-base (EB) and collector-base (CB)
depletion regions is minimized.
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Transistor Biasing:
The application of a suitable D.C. voltage, across the transistor terminals is called Biasing.

Figure (a) : PNP transistor Figure (b) : NPN transistor

In order to have a normal function of transistor it is necessary to apply voltage of a correct polarity
across its two junctions. This is called biasing. The bias and supply voltage polarities for NPN and PNP
transistors are shown in fig (a) & (b). For NPN points from the (positive) base to the (negative) emitter. The
collector is then biased to a higher positive level than the base. For a PNP device the base is negative with
respect to the emitter. The arrowhead a point from the (positive) emitter to the (negative) base, and the
collector is then more negative than the base. Typical base-emitter voltages for both NPN and PNP
transistors are 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium.

TRANSISTOR OPERATION:
PNP Transistor:

Fig shows the basic connection of a PNP transistor. A small value battery B1 forward biases the
emitter-base junction of a PNP and the collector-base junction is reverse biased by a high value battery B2.
The positive terminal of the battery B1 repels the holes in the P-region on the left. These holes in the P- Type
emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these holes cross into the N-
Type base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore
only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The remainders (more than 95%) cross into
the collector region. The negative terminal of the battery B2 attracts these holes. This constitutes the
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collector current Ic. In this way almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be
noted that current conduction with in PNP transistor is by holes. Therefore, the emitter current
IE = IB + IC.

NPN Transistor:

Fig shows the basic connection of a NPN Transistor. A small value battery B1 forward biases the
emitter-base junction of a NPN and the collector–base junction is reverse biased by a high value battery
B2. The negative terminal of the battery B1 repels the electrons in the N-region on the left. This electronin
the N-Type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons cross
into the P-Type base, they tend to combine with the holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin,
therefore only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with the holes. The remainder (more than 95%)
crosses into the collector region. The positive terminal of the battery B2 attracts these electrons. This
constitutes the collector current IC. In this way almost the entire emitter current flows in the collectorcircuit.
It may be noted that current conduction with in NPN transistor is by electrons. Therefore, the emitter current
IE=IB + IC.
Transistor as a switch:
The transistor as a switch operates between two states namely saturation and cut off state. The typical
transistor circuit is shown in figure. It consists of a transistor with collector load resistance Rc. The input is
given at base terminal and output is taken at collector terminal.

When the input signal is negative, the emitter base junction will reverse biased and the transistor
never comes to conduction state. The transistor will be in cut off and no current flows in the load
resistance Rc. As a result, there is no voltage drop across Rc.

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Hence the output voltage will be supply voltage i.e., Vo=Vcc. It is equal to open circuit voltage since
thetransistor is in cut off.

When the input voltage is positive, it forward biases the base-emitter junction and the transistor will
come to conduction state. Now maximum current will be flowing from collector to emitter and all the Vcc
is dropped across Rc. Thus the output voltage will be zero. i.e. Vo=0. Hence the transistor is turned on and
off depending upon whether the input bias voltage is positive or negative. Thus a transistor can act asa
switch.

Advantages:

1. It has no moving point.

2. It gives noiseless operation.
3. It has smaller size and weight.
4. It gives trouble free service because of solid state.
5. It is cheaper than other switches.
6. It requires less maintenance.
7. It has a very fast speed of switching operation.

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:
The operation of a transistor as an amplifier is based on the fact that base current, IB in a transistor
can control the collector current, IC. The base current can be varied by variation of forward bias and this
produce corresponding variation in the collector current.

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 The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken across the load Rc
connected in the collector circuit. The emitter-base junction in a transistor is forward-biased and, as such
the input impedance is low. On the other hand, the base-collector is reverse biased and hence the output
impedance is very high. A D.C voltage VEE is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal. This
D.C voltage magnitude is such that it always keeps the input forward biased regardless of the polarity of the
signal.
Even a small change in signal voltage caused an appreciable change in emitter current, since the
input circuit has low resistance. Due to transistor action the same change in collector current take place. The
collector flows through a large load resistance (Rc), which in turn produces a large voltage across it. Thus
a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit. In this way
transistor acts as an amplifier.

TRANSISTOR BIASING: (out of scope)

The amplifiers which are used to magnify the weak signal without change in its wave shape and
frequency are called faithful amplifiers. For faithful amplifications, the transistor amplifier must satisfy
three basic conditions. They are namely:
1. Proper zero signal collector current.
2. Proper base to emitter voltage at any instant.
3. Proper collector to emitter voltage at any instant.
The technique of transistor biasing is used to fulfill the above said three conditions. The
Properflow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector-emitter voltage during
the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.
The basic purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter junction properly forward biased
and collector-emitter junction properly reverse biased during the application of signals. That means the
transistor must operate only in active region. This can be achieved by using bias battery of resistor circuit
with the transistor. The resistor method is more efficient and is frequently used. The circuit used for proper
biasing of the transistor is called biasing circuit. This circuit used to fix the operating point at a particular
level for satisfying the above said basic conditions.

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 In the interest of simplicity and economy, it is desirable that transistor circuit should have a single
source of supply – the one in the output circuit (supply voltage VCC). The following are most commonly
used methods of biasing circuits.
1. Fixed bias.
2. Collector to base bias.
3. Self-bias.

1. Fixed bias or Base resistor method:

A common emitter amplifier using fixed bias circuit is shown in fig. In this method, a high resistance
RB is connected in between the base and positive end of supply voltage VCC. The required zero signal base
current is provided by VCC and it flows through RB.
IC
Let β = -------
IB

Considering the closed circuit ABENA and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get

VCC = IBRB+ VBE

Therefore, IBRB = VCC - VBE
VCC - VBE
RB =
IB
As Vcc and IB are known and VBE can be seen from the transistor manual. Therefore, the value of RB can
be easily calculated.
1+β
Stability factor, S = ------------
1-β dIB

dIC
In fixed bias, IB is independent of IC, so that dIB /dIC = 0. Hence stability factor, s = β + 1. Since β is
a large quantity, this is a very poor bias stable circuit. The collector current Ic changes (β = 1) times as much
as any change in ICO. Therefore, this circuit is not used for biasing the transistor.

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Advantages:
1. Simplicity.
2. Less number of components
3. No loading of the source by biasing circuit.
4. Easily set the biasing conditions.
Disadvantages:
1. Poor stabilization.
2. Stability factor is very high. Therefore, there are strong chances of thermal runaway.

2. Collector to base bias (Biasing with feedback resistor):

A common emitter amplifier using collector to base bias circuit is shown in the fig. In this method,
a resistor RB is connected in between collector and base determined by the collector-base voltage VCB. The
voltage VCB forward biases the base-emitter junction and hence base current IB flows through RB. This
caused zero signal collector current flow in the circuit.
The loop equation for this circuit is

VCC = (IC+IB) RC + IBRB + VBE

VCC - VBE - ICRC
IB =
RC + RB
dIB RC
Therefore ----- = ----------
dIC RC + RB
1+β
Stability factor, S = ------------
1-β dIB

dIC

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 β+1
Hence S =
1+ β RC

R C + RB

The stability can be improved by choosing low value of RB and high value of RC. If RC is very small,
then S = β + 1 i.e. stability is very poor. Hence the value of RC is quite large for good stabilization. This
method provides better thermal stability than the fixed bias.
Advantages
1. Simple circuit
2. High stability compared with fixed bias
Disadvantages
1. The circuit provides negative feedback, which reduces the gain of the amplifier.

3. Self-bias (Emitter bias or Voltage divider bias):

A common emitter amplifier using self-bias circuit is shown in the fig. It is the most widely used
method of providing biasing and stabilization to a transistor. In this method, two resistors R1 and R2 are
connected across the supply voltage VCC. A resistor RE is connected to the emitter terminal provides for
stabilization. The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base
current and collector current flow in zero signal conditions.

If ICO tends to increase due to increase with temperature, the collector current IC increases and also
the current in RE increases. Hence the voltage drops across RE increases, thereby decreasing the base current.
As a result, IC is maintained almost constant. The current in emitter resistor RE causes a voltage drop which
is in the direction to reverse bias the base emitter junction. For this, the transistor is always in active region.

24
 R2 VCC
Voltage drop across R2, V2 = ------------- and
R1 + R2

R1 R2 [RB = R1 // R2]
RB =
R1 +R2
The loop equation around the base circuit can be written as.
Vin = V2 = IBRB + VBE + IERE
V2 = IBRB + VBE + (IB + IC) RE [IE=IB + IC]
IB (RB + RE) = V2 – VBE – ICRE

V2 - VBE - ICRE
IB =
RB + RE
Differentiating the equation with respect to IC, we get
dIB RE
=
dIC RB + RE

β+1
Stability factor, S = ----------------
1-β dIB

dIC

dIB
Substituting the value of -------- in the above equation, we get
dIC
β+1
S=
1 + β RE

RB + RE
β+1
Therefore, S = (β + 1) -----------------
RB
1 + β 1+ ------
RE
The ratio of (RB / RE) is very small, and then it can be neglected.

(β + 1)
Stability factor = -------
(β + 1)

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Stability factor = 1
This is the smallest possible value of S and gives maximum possible thermal stability.

Transistor Configurations:
To investigate the characteristics of a two terminal device (a diode), several levels of forward or
reverse bias voltage are applied and the corresponding currents that flow are measured. Plotting the graphs
of current against voltage then derives the characteristics of the device. Since a transistor is a threeterminal
device, there are three possible configurations in which it may be connected to study its characteristics.
From each of this configuration, three sets of characteristics may be derived. A transistor can be connected
in a circuit in the following three ways (called configuration).
1. Common Base (CB)
2. Common Emitter (CE)
3. Common Collector (CC)
The word common is used to mention the particular terminal which is common to both the input and
output circuit. Since a transistor is a three terminal device, one of its terminal has to common to both the
input and output circuits. Generally, the common terminal is grounded. Then the mode of operation can
be called grounded base, grounded emitter and grounded collector configuration.

COMMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS (CB):

Common base connection:
In this configuration the input is applied between the emitter and base and the output is taken from
the collector and the base. Here the base is common to both the input and the output circuits as shown
in fig.

In a common base configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the collector current
IC. The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant collector-base voltage
is called current amplification factor.
Δ IC
------------ = at constant VBC
Δ IE

In a transistor VEB, IE, IC, VCB are parameters. In the above connection voltmeters and ammeters are
connected to measure input and output voltages and currents as shown in fig.

26
Characteristics of Common Base Configuration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common base NPN transistor is
shown in fig. In this circuit, the collector to base voltage (VCB) can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer
R2. The emitter to base voltage (VBE) can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R1. The DC voltmeters
and DC millimeters are connected in the emitter and collector circuits to measure the voltages and currents.
Input characteristics:

The curve plotted between the emitter current (IE) and the emitter to base voltage (VBE) at constant
collector to base voltage (VCB) are known as input characteristics of a transistor in common base
configuration.
Output characteristics:
The emitter current IE is held constant at each of several fixed levels. For each fixed level of IE, the
output voltage VCB is adjusted in convenient steps, and the corresponding levels of collector current IC are
recorded. In this way a table of values is obtained from which a family of output characteristics may be
plotted. In fig the corresponding IC and VCB levels obtained when IE was held constant at 1mA are plotted,
and the resultant characteristic is identified as IE = 1mA. Similarly, other characteristics are plotted for IE
= 2mA, 3mA, etc.

27
 1. The common base output characteristics in fig. show that for each fixed level of IE, IC is almost
equal to IE and appears to remain constant when VCB is increased.
2. This characteristic may be used to find the output resistance (ro).

Δ VCB
ro= ------------ at constant IE
Δ IC
3. A very large change in collector-base voltage produces small change in collector current. It
means that the output resistance is very high.

4. The collector is constant above certain values of collector-base voltage. It means that IC is
independent of VCB and depends upon IE only.

The output characteristics may be divided into three regions and these regions are plotted in the fig.
1. The active region
2. Cut-off region
3. Saturation region

Active region:

In this region the collector junction is reverse biased and the emitter junction is forward biased. In
this region when IE = 0, IC = ICO. This reverse saturation current remains constant and is independent of
collector voltage VCB as long as VCD is below the breakdown potential.

Saturation region:

The region to the left of ordinate VCB = 0 is called the saturation region. In this region both junction
are forward biased.

Cut-off region:

The region below the IE = 0 characteristics, for which the emitter and collector junction both reverse
biased is called cut-off region.

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COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS (CE):

Fig. shows the circuit employed for determining transistor common emitter characteristics.

In this configuration, the input is applied between the base and the emitter and the output is taken
from the collector and the emitter. In this connection, the common emitter is common to both the input and
the output circuits as shown in fig. In the common emitter configuration, the input current is the base current
IB and the output current is the collector current IC. The ratio of change in collector current to the change in
base current at constant collector-emitter voltage is called current amplification factor (β).

ΔIC
β = -------------- at constant VCE
ΔIB
Common Emitter Circuit:

A test circuit for determining the static characteristics of an NPN transistor is shown in fig. In this
circuit emitter is common to both input and output circuits. To measure the base and collector current milli
ammeters are connected in series with the base and the output circuits. Voltmeters are connected across the
input and the output circuits to measure VBE and VCE. There are two potentiometers R1 and R2 to vary the
supply voltages VCC and VBB.

29
Input Characteristics:

It is a curve, which shows the relationship between the base current IB and the emitter-base
voltage, VBE at constant VCE. The method of determining the characteristic is as follows.

First, by means of R1 suitable voltage is applied from Vcc. Next, voltage VBE is increased in number
of steps and corresponding values of IB are noted. The base shows the input characteristic for common
emitter configuration. The following points may be noted from the characteristic.

1. The input resistance of the transistor is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of the input
characteristic curve
ΔVBE
ri =
ΔIB
2. The initial portion of the curve is not linear
3. The input resistance varies considerable from a value of 4-Kilo ohm to a value of 600 ohms
4. In the case of silicon transistor, the curves break away from zero current for voltage in the range
of 0.5 to 0.6 volt whereas for germanium transistor the breakaway point in the range 0.1 to 0.2V.

Output Characteristics:

30
 It is a curve that shows the relationship between the collector IC and the collector-emitter voltage
VCE.
A suitable base current IB is maintained. VCE is increased in a number of steps from zero and the
corresponding values of IC are noted. It is repeated for different values of IB then they are plotted as shown
in the fig.
The output resistance is less than the common base configuration. It is equal to
ΔVCE
ro = -----------at constant IB.
ΔIC
The following points may be noted from the family of characteristic curves.
1. The collector current IC increases rapidly to a saturation level for fixed value of IB but at the
same time VCE increases from zero.
2. A small amount of collector current flows even when IB = 0. The current is called ICEO. Now
main collector current is zero and the transistor is cut-off.
3. The output characteristic may be divided into three regions.
1. Active region
2. Cut-off region
3. Saturation region
Active region:
In this region the collector is reverse biased and the emitter is forward biased. The collector current,
IC response is the most sensitive for changes in IB. Only in this region, the emitter acts as a linear one.
Cut-off region:
The region below the curve for IB = 0 is called cut-off region. In this region both junctions are
reverse biased.
Saturation region:
The region curves to the left of line is called saturation region. In this region both the junctions are
forward bias and incremental change in IB do not produce corresponding large changes in IC. The ratio of
VCEo, IC at any point in this region is called saturation region.

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION (CC):

31
 In this configuration the input is applied between the base and collector and the output is taken from
the collector and the emitter and hence the collector is common to both input and the output circuits as
shown in fig.
In common collector configuration, the ratio of change in output current (emitter current) to the change
in the input current (base current) is called current amplification factor.
ΔIE
Γ=
ΔIB
COMMON COLLECTOR CIRCUIT:
A test circuit for determining the static characteristic of an NPN transistor is shown in the fig. In this
circuit the collector is common to both the input and the output. To measure the base and the emitter circuits,
milli ammeters are connected series with the base and the emitter circuits. Voltmeters areconnected across
the input and the output circuits to measure VCB and VCE.

Input characteristics:
It is a curve, which shows the relationship between the base current, IB and the collector base voltage
VCB at constant VCE. This method of determining the characteristic is as follows.
First, a suitable voltage is applied between the emitter and the collector. Next the input voltage VCB
is increased in a number of steps and corresponding values of IB are noted. The base current is taken on the
Y-axis. Fig shows the family of the input characteristics at different collector-emitter voltages. The
following points to be noted from the family of characteristics curves.

32
1. Its characteristics are quite different from those of common base and common emitter circuits.
2. When VCB increases, IB is decreased.
ΔVCB
ri=--------------- at constant VCE
ΔIB
Output characteristics:
It is a curve, which shows the relationship between emitter current IE and collector-emitter voltage,
VCE. The method of determining the output characteristics is as follows.

First, by adjusting the input a suitable current IB is maintained. Next VCB is increased in a number of
zero and corresponding values of IE are noted. The above whole procedure is repeated for different values
of IB. The emitter current is taken on the Y-axis and the collector-emitter voltage is taken on the X-axis. Fig
shows the family of output characteristic at different base current values. The following point is noted from
the family of characteristics curves.
1. This characteristic is practically identical to that of the common emitter circuit.
2. Its current gain characteristics for different identical values of VCE are also similar to that of a
common emitter circuit.
ΔVCE
ro = ----------- at constant IB
ΔIE
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AMPLIFIER
(i) Input impedance (Zi):
Input impedance of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage (Vi) across the input
terminals of the amplifiers to the input current (Ii), keeping the output of the amplifier as open circuited.
Zi = Vi/Ii
(ii) Output impedance (Zo)
Output impedance of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage (VO) to the output
current (Io), keeping the input of the amplifier as open circuited.
Z0 =Vo/Io
(iii) Voltage gain (AV)
Voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of rate of output voltage (ΔVo) to the rate of
change of input voltage (ΔVi);
AV =ΔVO/ Δ Vi

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(iv) Current gain (Ai)
Current gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of change of output current (ΔIo) to the rate of
change of input current (ΔIi);
Ai= ΔIo/ ΔIi
(V)Power gain (Ap)
Power gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of rate of change output power (ΔPo) to the rate of
change of input (ΔPi).
ΔPo
Ap = ------
ΔPi
It is also equal to the product of voltage gain and current gain.
Power gain, Ap = Av x Ai.

Comparison of CB, CE, CC Configurations:

S.No Characteristics CB CE CC
1. Input impedance Low Medium High
2. Output impedance High Medium Low
3. Current gain Low High High
4. Voltage gain High High High
5. Power gain Medium High Low
6. Phase reversal No Yes No
7. Application AF Voltage & Power Impedance
Amplifiers amplifiers matching

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