Transistor Biasing

Transistors can be studied and analyzed with proper biasing. With the right biasing
techniques, transistors can be studied and evaluated. This approach makes us
understand that a transistor amplifier works within the specified linear range just by
adjusting the DC operating point, This is also known as the bias point. Biasing is crucial
because it establishes the amplifier's quiescent conditions, which have an impact on the
circuit's AC performance.

The transistor type being utilized and the individual circuit requirements determine the
biasing method to be used. Temperature, variations in transistor properties, and
component aging are additional variables that might impact biasing. To ensure that the
transistor functions in the desired region and that the bias point remains stable over
time and under various operating situations, it is crucial to properly design the bias
circuits.

“The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper
collector-emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing.
The circuit which provides transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.”

Need for Transistor Biasing

If the transistor is not biased correctly, it would,

 Works inefficiently
 Produce distortion in the output.

To produce distortion-free output in amplifier circuits, the transistor must operate in the
active region. The basic purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter
junction in proper forward bias and the collector-base junction in proper reversed biased
then the transistor is operated in the active region. In a transistor, with normal bias, the
emitter junction has a low resistance.

The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its general
shape is known as faithful Amplification. The key factor for achieving faithful
amplification is that the "base-emitter junction of the transistor remains forward biased
and collector junction reverse biased" this is known as transistor biasing.

Essentials of Transistor Biasing

The biasing is required for faithful amplification. The biasing network associated with the
transistor should meet the following requirements:

 It should ensure proper zero signal collector current.

 It should ensure that VCE does not fall below 0.5 V for the germanium transistor
and 1 V silicon transistor at any instant.
 Establish the operating point in the center of the active region of the
characteristics. Stabilize the collector current against temperature variations.
  Make the operating point independent of the transistor parameters.

Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified.
Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.

 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.

If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so
that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then
this problem can be avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the
transistor remains in active region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is
needed. The below figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC biasing
on both input and output circuits.

For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the operating point should be

stabilized. Let us have a look at the factors that affect the stabilization of operating
point.

Factors affecting the operating point

The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point
shifts due to change in temperature. As temperature increases, the values of I CE, β, VBE
gets affected.

 ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)

 VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)

So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence operating
point should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. To
achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced.

Stabilization

The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or

variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of
temperature variations or replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the
stabilization of operating point.
Need for Stabilization

Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.

 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway

Let us understand these concepts in detail.

Temperature Dependence of IC
As the expression for collector current IC is

IC=βIB+ICEO
= βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To
come out of this, the biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector current I C =
1 mA. Therefore, the operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep
IC constant.
Individual Variations
As the value of β and the value of V BE are not same for every transistor, whenever a
transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point.
Thermal Runaway
As the expression for collector current IC is
I C=βIB+ICEO
=βI B+(β+1)ICBO

The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat
dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect
which increases this heat dissipation. The self-destruction of such an unstabilized
transistor is known as Thermal run away.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.

Stability Factor

It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of ICBO or ICO. The
extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured
by Stability factor. It denoted by S.
By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector
leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.
dI C
S= at constant IB and β
dI CO

Hence we can understand that any change in collector leakage current changes the
collector current to a great extent. The stability factor should be as low as possible so
that the collector current doesn’t get affected. S=1 is the ideal value.

The general expression of stability factor for a CE configuration can be obtained as

under.

I C=βIB+ICEO= βIB+(β+1)ICBO

Differentiating above expression with respect to IC, we get

Hence the stability factor S depends on β, IB and IC.

The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources VBB and VCC. It is
economical to minimize the DC source to one supply instead of two which also makes
the circuit simple.
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are

a) Fixed bias (or) Base resistor bias

b) Collect-to-base bias (or) Biasing with collector feedback resistor
c) Potential divider bias (or) self bias (or) Voltage divider bias (or) Universal bias.

a)Fixed Bias:

In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as the name

implies. The required zero signal base current is provided by V CC which flows through
RB. The base emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to
emitter.
The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as I C =
βIB) can be made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence the
value of RB is to be known. The figure below shows how a base resistor method of
biasing circuit looks like.

Let IC be the required zero signal collector current. Therefore,

IC
I B=
β
Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground, while applying the
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get,
Vcc=IBRB+VBE (OR) IBRB=VCC-VBE
Therefore ,
V CC−V BE
R B=
IB

Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can be neglected with
little error. Then,

V CC
R B=
IB
We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value. As
RB can be found directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.

Stability factor

β +1
S=
dI B
1− β( )
dI C

In fixed-bias method of biasing, IB is independent of IC so that,

dI B
=0
dI C

Substituting the above value in the previous equation,

Then the Stability factor, S=β+1
Thus the stability factor in a fixed bias is (β+1) which means that I C changes (β+1) times
as much as any change in ICO.

Advantages
 The circuit is simple.
 Only one resistor RE is required.
 Biasing conditions are set easily.
 No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.

Disadvantages
 The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
 The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run
away.

Hence, this method is rarely employed.

b) Collector to Base Bias

The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit except that the base
resistor RB is returned to collector, rather than to V CC supply as shown in the figure
below.
This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably. If the value of I C increases, the
voltage across RL increases and hence the VCE also increases. This in turn reduces the
base current IB. This action somewhat compensates the original increase. The required
value of RB needed to give the zero signal collector current I C can be calculated as
follows.
Voltage drop across RL will be
VRL=(Ic+IB)RL= IcRL
From the above figure ,
ICRL+IBRB+VBE=VCC
OR
IBRB=VCC-VBE-ICRL
Therefore,
V CC−V BE−I C R L
R B=
IB

OR

(V ¿ ¿ CC −V BE −I C R L )β
R B= ¿
IC

Applying KVL we have

 (IB+IC)RL+IBRB+VBE=VCC
Or
IB(RL+RB)+ICRL+VBE=VCC
Therefore,
(V ¿ ¿ CC−V BE−I C R L )
I B= ¿
R L+ R B

Since VBE is almost independent of collector current, we get

dI B −R L
=
dI C R L + R B

We Know that

β +1
S=
dI
1− β( B )
dI C

Therefore,
β +1
S=
RL
1− β( )
R L+ R B

This value is smaller than (1+β) which is obtained for fixed bias circuit. Thus there is an
improvement in the stability.This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the
gain of the amplifier. So the increased stability of the collector to base bias circuit is
obtained at the cost of AC voltage gain.

Biasing with Collector Feedback resistor

In this method, the base resistor RB has its one end connected to base and the other to
the collector as its name implies. In this circuit, the zero signal base current is
determined by VCB but not by VCC.It is clear that VCB forward biases the base-emitter
junction and hence base current IB flows through RB. This causes the zero signal
collector current to flow in the circuit. The below figure shows the biasing with collector
feedback resistor circuit.
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal current IC can be determined as
follows.
V CC=ICRC+IBRB+VBE
OR
V CC−V BE−I C R C
R B=
IB
V CC−V BE−β I B R C
R B=
IB

Since IC= β IB
Alternatively,
VCE=VBE+ VCB
OR

VCB =(VCE)-(VBE)
Since
V CB V CE −V BE
R B= =
IB IB

Where IC= β IB
Mathematically, Stability Factor , S<( β +1)
Therefore, this method provides better thermal stability than the fixed bias.

Advantages
 The circuit is simple as it needs only one resistor.
 This circuit provides some stabilization, for lesser changes.

Disadvantages
 The circuit doesn’t provide good stabilization.
 The circuit provides negative feedback.

C) Voltage Divider Bias Method:

Among all the methods of providing biasing and stabilization, the voltage divider bias
method is the most prominent one. Here, two resistors R 1 and R2 are employed, which
are connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor R E employed in the emitter
provides stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R 1 and R2. The
voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base
current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below
shows the circuit of voltage divider bias method.

Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R 1 is I1. As base current IB is very
small, therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing
through R2 is also I1.Now let us try to derive the expressions for collector current and
collector voltage.
Collector Current, IC

From the circuit, it is evident that,

V CC
I 1=
R 1+ R 2

Therefore, the voltage across resistance R2 is

V 2=
( V CC
)
R 1+ R 2
∗R 2

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base circuit,

V 2=V BE +V E

V 2=V BE + I E R E

I E=
( V 2−V BE
RE )
Since IE is approximately equal to IC, then

I C=
( V 2−V BE
RE )
From the above expression, it is evident that I C doesn’t depend upon β. VBE is very small
that IC doesn’t get affected by VBE at all. Thus IC in this circuit is almost independent of
transistor parameters and hence good stabilization is achieved.
Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side,

VCC=ICRC+VCE+IERE

Since IE is approximately equal to IC, then

VCC=ICRC+VCE+ICRE=IC(RC+RE)+VCE
Therefore,
VCE= VCC-IC(RC+RE)

RE provides excellent stabilization in this circuit.

Suppose there is a rise in temperature, then the collector current I C decreases, which
causes the voltage drop across RE to increase. As the voltage drop across R2 is V2,
which is independent of IC, the value of VBE decreases. The reduced value of IB tends to
restore IC to the original value.

Circuit analysis using Thevenin’s theorem:

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of above fig is shown in below fig.

V 2=V Th =
( R2
)
R2 + R1
∗V CC

R1∗R
And R TH=R1 in parallel with R2= 2

R 1+ R 2

Now applying KVL to the base emitter circuit

VTH=IBRTH+VBE+(IB+IC)RE --------------------------------(1)

Applying KVL to the emitter-collector circuit, we have

VCE= VCC - IC (RL+RE) -------------------------------- (2)

From equation (2)’we have

V CC−V CE
I C=
(R L + R E )

Substituting this value of IC in equation (1) then we get

 V CC−V CE
VTH = IBRTH+VBE+RE(IB+ )
R L+ R E

R E∗V CC R E∗V CE
Then VTH= IBRTH+VBE+ R E IB + R L + RE - R L+ R E

Stability Factor
The equation for Stability factor of this circuit is obtained as

( β +1)
Stability Factor , S=
dI
1−β( B )
dI C

Considering Rth=R2 , equation (1) becomes

VTH=IBRB+VBE+(IB+IC)RE --------------------------------(3)

Differentiating Equation (3) w.r.t. to IC and assuming VBE to be constant , we get

dI B dI B
0= RB+ RE( + 1)
dI C dI C

Then

dI B −R E
=
dI C R B + R E

( β +1)
Stability Factor , S=
We know that dI
1−β( B )
dI C

Then

( β +1)
S=
RE
1+ β ( )
RB + R E
Smaller the value of RB, better is the stability.If RB/RE is very small then S approaches to
unity.