gs;spf;fy;tpj;Jiw

kJiu khtl;lk;

,aw;gpay; 12
rpwg;G topfhl;b

jiyik
jpU ,uh. Rthkpehjd; M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed.
Kjd;ikf; fy;tp mYtyH
kJiu khtl;lk;

xUq;fpizg;ghsH
jpU P. FkNurd;
Nky;epiyg; nghJj;NjHTfs; mikg;ghsH (k) jiyikahrpupaH
m.Nk.ep.gs;sp - mk;khgl;b

MrpupaH FO

S . nghd;idah R . rutzf;FkhH
m.Nk.ep.gs;sp> cwq;fhd;gl;b. m.Nk.ep.gs;sp> ,.kyk;gl;b.

R . rptf;FkhH S . fhHj;jpf;
,sq;Nfh(kh) Nk.ep.gs;sp> kJiu. NrJgjp Nk.ep.gs;sp> kJiu.

P. fw;gfk; T. nre;jpy;KUfd;
m(ng).Nk.ep.gs;sp> myq;fhey;Y}H. m.(M).Nk.ep.gs;sp> T.thbg;gl;b.
P . rhypdp Njtp J . [hf;Fypd; v];jH uhzp
m.Nk.ep.gs;sp> KLthHgl;b. m.Nk.ep.gs;sp> Nrlg;gl;b.
P. md;guR S . rhHy]; ,sq;Nfh
m(ng).Nk.ep.gs;sp> Nrhote;jhd;. m.Nk.ep.gs;sp> kq;fshk;gl;b.
 nghUslf;fk;

jiyg;G gf;fk;

myF 1 epiykpd;dpay; 2

myF 2 kpd;Ndhl;ltpay; 16

myF 3 fhe;jtpay; (k) kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisT 26

myF 4 kpd;fhe;jj;J}z;lYk; khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lKk; 34

myF 5 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; 43

myF 6 fjpH xspapay; 49

myF 7 miy xspapay; 55

myF 8 fjpHtPr;R kw;Wk; gUg;nghUspd ,Uikg;gz;G 60

myF 9 mZ kw;Wk; mZf;fU ,aw;gpay; 66

myF 10 vyf;l;uhdpay; (k) jfty; njhlHG mikg;Gfs; 75

myF 11 ,aw;gpaypd; mz;ikf;fhy tsHr;rpfs; 83

[1]
 1. epiykpd;dpay;
2 kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1A) $Y}k; tpjpapd; ntf;lH tbtk; $wp tpsf;fk; jUf.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
 $Y}k; tpjpapd; ntf;lH tbtk; 𝑭 =𝒌 𝒓
𝒓𝟐

 ,q;F> 𝐹 - Gs;sp kpd;Jfs;fSf;F ,ilg;gl;l tpir.

𝑞1, 𝑞2 - Gs;sp kpd;Jfspd; vz;kjpg;G.
r - kpd;Jfs;fSf;F ,ilNaahd njhiyT.
𝑟 - q1 kw;Wk; q2 I ,izf;Fk; Nfhl;bd; jpirapy; nray;gLk; XuyF ntf;lH.

1B) epiykpd;dpaypy; $Y}k; tpjpapidf; $Wf.

 epiykpd; tpirahdJ> Gs;sp kpd;Jfs;fspd; kpd;D}l;l kjpg;gpd; ngUf;fw;gyDf;F
NeHj;jftpYk;> mtw;wpw;F ,ilNa cs;s njhiytpd; ,Ukbf;F vjpHj;jftpYk;
𝑞1 𝑞2
mikAk;. (i.e) 𝐹 𝛼
𝑟2
2) fh]; tpjpapiaj; jUf.
 xU %ba gug;gpd; topNa nry;Yk; nkhj;j kpd;ghak; 𝜙𝐸 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∈
.
0

 ,q;F Q vd;gJ %ba gug;gpDs; cs;s kpd;Jfs;fspd; epfu kpd;D}l;lk; MFk;.

∈0 − vd;gJ ntw;wplj;jpd; tpLjpwd;.

3) kpd; ,UKid vd;why; vd;d? vLj;Jf;fhl;L jUf.

 ,U rkkhd> Ntwpd kpd;Jfs;fs; rpwpa ,ilntspapy; gpupj;J itf;fg;gl;l mikg;G
kpd; ,UKid vdg;gLk;.
 v.fh: ePH (H2O). mk;Nkhdpah (NH3)>HCl kw;Wk; CO.
4) kpd; ,UKid jpUg;G jpwd; tiuaW. mjd; myF ahJ?
kpd; ,UKid jpUg;Gjpwdpd; vz;kjpg;ghdJ VNjDk; xU kpd;Jfspd; kpd;D}l;l
kjpg;gpid kpd;Jfs;fSf;F ,ilNaAs;s njhiytpdhy; ngUf;ff; fpilg;gjhFk;.
(i.e) 𝑝 = q 2a.
 ,jd; myF $Y}k; kPll
; H (C m).
5) epiy kpd;dOj;jk; tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 xU Gs;spapy; epiykpd;dOj;jk; vd;gJ> Gw kpd;Gyk; nray;gLk; gFjpapy; Kbtpyhj;
njhiytpy; ,Ue;J mg;Gs;spf;F XuyF NeH kpd;D}l;lk; nfhz;l kpd;Jfis
rPuhd jpirNtfj;Jld; nfhz;L tu Gwtpirahy; nra;ag;gLk; Ntiyf;F rkkhFk;.
 ,jd; S.I myF Nthy;l; ( V ).

[2]
6) kpd;dOj;j NtWghL tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 kpd;Gyj;jpy; xU Gs;spapypUe;J kw;nwhU Gs;spf;F XuyF NeHkpd;D}l;lk; nfhz;l
kpd;Jfs; xd;iw nfhz;L nry;y Gwtpirahy; Gyj;jpw;F vjpuhf nra;ag;gLk; Ntiy
mt;tpU Gs;spfSf;fpilNaahd kpd;dOj;j NtWghL vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jd; myF Nthy;l;(V).
7) epiy kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 kpd;D}l;l Jfs;fis xUq;fikf;f nra;ag;gLk; NtiyNa mj;njhFg;gpd;
epiykpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jd; myF [_y; (J).
8) $HKid nray;ghL my;yJ xsptl;l kpd;dpwf;fk; tiuaW.
 kpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w flj;jpapd; $HKidfspy; ,Ue;J kpd;D}l;lk; frpfpd;w epfo;T
$HKid nray;ghL my;yJ xsptl;l kpd;dpwf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
9) kpd;D}l;lq;fspd; Fthz;lkhf;fy; vd;why; vd;d?.
 xU nghUspd; nkhj;j kpd;D}l;lk; 𝒒 = 𝒏𝒆 .
 ,q;F 𝒏 = 0> 1 > 2 > 3>......... kw;Wk; 𝒆 vyf;l;uhdpd; kpd;D}l;lk;.
10) Nkw;nghUe;Jjy; jj;Jtk; tiuaW.
 xU kpd;Jfs; kPJ nray;gLk; nkhj;j tpir vd;gJ > mjd; kPJ kw;w midj;J
kpd;Jfs;fSk; nray;gLj;Jk; tpirfspd; ntf;lH $LjYf;Fr; rkkhFk;.
 𝐹1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 + ⋯ … . . +𝐹1𝑛
11) kpd;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Njf;Fj; jpwd; tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 kpd;Njf;Fj; jpwd; vd;gJ VNjDk; xU kpd; flj;J jl;by; cs;s kpd;Jfs;fspd;
kpd;D}l;l kjpg;gpw;Fk; flj;jpfSf;F ,ilNa epyTk; kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bw;Fk;
,ilNaAs;s tpfpjk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. (𝐶=𝑄/𝑉)
 myF ghul; (F) my;yJ C V-1
12) epiy kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; mlHj;jp tiuaW.
 kpd;Njf;fpapd; ,U jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s gFjpapd; XuyF gUkdpy;
Nrkpf;fg;gl;Ls;s Mw;wy;> epiy kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; mlHj;jp vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
13) kpd;Gyk; tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 xU Gs;spapy; kpd;Gyk; vd;gJ>mg;Gs;spapy; itf;fg;gl;l XuyF NeHkpd;D}l;l k;
nfhz;l kpd;Jfshy; czug;gLk; tpir vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑞𝐹
0

 myF NC -1
kw;Wk; V m-1.
14) kpd;ghak; tiuaW. mjd; myif jUf.
 kpd;Gyf; NfhLfSf;F FWf;Nf mike;j Fwpg;gpl;l gug;G xd;wpd; topNa ghAk;
kpd;Gyf; NfhLfspd; vz;zpf;if kpd;ghak; vdg;gLk;. kpd;ghak; xU ];NfyhH
msT. 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
 ,jd; myF 𝑵𝒎𝟐𝑪−𝟏
[3]
15) kpd;D}l;lj;jpd; khwhj;jd;ik vd;why; vd;d?
 gpugQ;rj;jpy; cs;s nkhj;j kpd;D}l;lk; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;. kpd;D}l;lj;ij Mf;fNth
mopf;fNth KbahJ.
 ve;jnthU ,aw;if epfo;tpYk;> kpd;D}l;l khw;wk; vg;NghJk; RopahfNt mikAk;.

3 kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1) $Y}k; tpir kw;Wk; <Hg;gpay; tpir NtWgLj;Jf.

t .
$Y}k; tpir <Hg;gpay; tpir
vz;

,U kpd;D}l;lq;fSf;F ,ilNa ,U epiwfSf;F ,ilNa

1
nray;gLk;. nray;gLk;.

ftUk; tpir kw;Wk; tpyf;F tpirahf

2 ftUk; tpirahf kl;LNk ,Uf;Fk; .
,Uf;Fk;.

3 ,jd; kjpg;G kpf kpf mjpfk; MFk;. ,jd; kjpg;G kpfTk; FiwT MFk;.

4 Clfj;jpd; jd;ikia rhHe;jJ. Clfj;jpd; jd;ikia rhHe;jjy;y.

2) kpd;Njf;fpapd; gad;fs; kw;Wk; tuk;Gfs; Mfpatw;iw tpsf;Ff.

gad;fs; :
1. njwpg;G kpd;Njf;fpfs; xspg;glf; fUtpfspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
2. ,ja epWj;jk; Vw;gLk; NghJ> ,jaj;ij ,ay;G epiyf;F nfhz;L tu gad;gLk;
,ja cjwy; ePf;fp vd;w fUtpapy; kpd;Njf;fp gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
3. jhdpaq;fp ve;jpuq;fspy;> vupa+l;Lk; mikg;Gfspy; jPg;nghwp cUthtij jtpHf;f
kpd;Njf;fpfs; gad;gLfpwJ.
4. kpd;toq;fpfspy; kpd;jpwd; Vw;w ,wf;fj;ij Fiwg;gjw;Fk;> kpd;jpwd; mDg;gPlb
; y;
mjd; gaDW jpwid mjpfupf;fr; nra;aTk; kpd;Njf;fpfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
FiwghL :
 kpd;Njf;fpia kpd;Ndw;wk; nra;Ak; kpd;fyidNah> kpd;toq;fpiaNah mizj;j
gpd;Gk;> kpd;Njf;fpapy; Njf;fp itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Jfs;fSk;> kpd;dhw;wYk; rpwpJ Neuk;
,Uf;Fk;. ,J Njitaw;w kpd;mjpHr;rpia Vw;gLj;jptpLk;.

[4]
3) rPuhd kpd;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gLk; kpd;,UKid kPJ nray;gLk; jpUg;Gtpirf;fhd
Nfhitiaj; jUtpf;f.
 ABvd;w kpd;,UKid rPuhd kpd;Gyj;jpy;  Nfhzk;
rha;thf cs;sJ.
 +q d; kPJ tpir +q𝐸 ; -qd; kPJ tpir –q𝐸 .

 ,UKid kPjhd njhFgad; tpir Rop.

 ,t;tpU tpirfshy;>,UKid kPJ jpUg;Gtpir
xd;W cUthfp kpd;,UKidiar; Row;Wk;.
 jpUg;Gtpirapd; vz; kjpg;G
 = VNjDk; xU tpirapd; vz; kjpg;G × tpirfSf;F ,ilg;gl;l nrq;Fj;J
njhiyT
 = qE x 2a sin ( p = q x 2a)
 = pE sin
; y;> 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸
 ntf;lh; FwpaPlb

4) xU Gs;sp kpd;D}l;lj;jhy; VNjDk; xU Gs;spapy; Vw;gLk; kpd;dOj;jj;jpw;fhd

Nfhitiaj; jUtp.
 Mjpg;Gs;spapy; epiyahf itf;fg;gl;l NeH kpd;;Jfs; q.mjpypUe;J r njhiytpy;
mike;j Gs;sp P.
𝑟
 Gs;sp Papy; kpd;dOj;jk; 𝑉 = − ∞
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟
1 𝑞
 Py; kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 = 𝑟
4𝜋∈0 𝑟 2
𝑟 1 𝑞
 𝑉=− ∞ 4𝜋∈0 𝑟 2
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑞
 𝑉=
4𝜋∈0 𝑟

5) ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpapDs;; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gLk;; Mw;wYf;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUf.

 kpd;D}l;lj;ij xU jl;bypUe;J ,d;ndhd;Wf;F ,lk;ngaUtjw;Fr; nra;ag;gLk;
NtiyahdJ kpd;Njf;fpapDs; epiykpd;dOj;j Mw;wyhfr; Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
𝑄 𝑄
 dQmsT kpd;D}l;lj;ij efHj;j nra;ag;gLk; Ntiy> dW = V dQ = 𝑑𝑄 ∵ 𝑉 =
𝐶 𝐶
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄2
 kpd;Njf;fpia kpd;Ndw;wk; nra;aj; Njitg;gLk; nkhj;j Ntiy 𝑊 = 0 𝐶
𝑑𝑄 =
2𝐶
 ,e;j Ntiy epiykpd;dOj;j Mw;wyhfr; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;.
𝑄2 1
𝑈= ( or ) U = 𝐶𝑉 2 .
2𝐶 2
[5]
6) ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwDf;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.

 FWf;F ntl;Lg;gug;G A kw;Wk; d-,ilntspapy; gphpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,U

,izj;jl;Lfisf; nfhz;l kpd;Njf;fpiaf; fUJf.
𝑄
  - jl;bd;; kpd;D}l;lg; gug;G mlh;j;jp . mjhtJ 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝜎 𝑄
 ,U jl;LfSf;fpilNaahd rPuhd kpd;Gyk; 𝐸= =
∈0 𝐴∈0
𝑄
 jl;LfSf;fpilNaahd kpd;dOj;j NtWghL> 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑
𝐴∈0
𝑄 𝑄
 ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; 𝐶= = 𝑄𝑑
𝑉
𝐴 ∈0

∈0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
7) $Y}k; tpjpapypUe;J fh]; tpjpiag; ngWf.
 +Q kpd;D}l;l msTila kpd;Jfs; xd;iw fUJf. C vd;w Gs;spahdJ
kpd;JfspypUe;J r njhiytpy; cs;sJ.
𝐹
 Gs;sp C-apy; kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 = . 𝑞0 vd;gJ Nrhjid kpd;D}l;lk;. NkYk; 𝑞0 = 1𝐶
𝑞0
1 𝑞 𝑞0
 kpd;D}l;lq;fs; kPJ nray;gLk; epiykpd; tpir 𝐹 = 𝑟 . ,J $Y}k;
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2

tpjpahFk;
𝐹 1 𝑄
 vdNt Gs;sp C-apy; kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 = = 𝑟 - - - - (1)
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟 2 c

 tiuaiwgb kpd;ghak; Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 - - - - (2)

1 𝑄
 (1) ia (2) - y; gpujpapl> Φ𝐸 = 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 - - - - (3)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

 𝑟 = 1 kw;Wk; 𝑑𝐴 = 4 𝜋𝑟 2 vd;gij (3)-y; gpujpapl>

𝑄
 Φ𝐸 = . ,J fh]; tpjpahFk;. ,t;thW ehk; $Y}k; tpjpapypUe;J fh]; tpjpiag;
𝜖0

ngwyhk;.

[6]
5 kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:
1) kpd; ,UKid xd;wpdhy; mjd; mr;Rf;Nfhl;by; xU Gs;spapy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;ijf;
fzf;fpLf.
 AB vd;gJ x mr;rpy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;s xU kpd;
,UKid MFk;.mjd; ikak; O tpypUe;J >r
njhiytpy; mr;Rf;Nfhl;by; mike;Js;s Gs;sp C
MFk;.
1 𝑞
 +q tpdhy; C apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyk>; 𝐸+ = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟−𝑎)2
1 𝑞
 - q tpdhy; C apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyk;> 𝐸− = − 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟+𝑎)2


kpd;,UKidahy; C apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyk;> 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸+ + 𝐸−
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= 2
𝑝 - 2
𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟−𝑎 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟+𝑎
𝑞 1 1
= − 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟−𝑎 )2 (𝑟+𝑎 )2

𝑞 (𝑟+𝑎)2 −(𝑟−𝑎 )2
= 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
𝑞 4𝑟𝑎
= 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
2𝑝
r >> a vdpy; (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2 ≈ 𝑟 4, 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ( 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞 𝑝).
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟 3

 𝐸 -apd; jpirahdJ 𝑝 -apd; jpirapy; mikAk;.

2) kpd; ,UKid xd;wpdhy; mjd; eLtiuf;Nfhl;by; xU Gs;spapy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;ijf;
fzf;fpLf.
 AB vd;gJ X mr;rpy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;s xU kpd;,UKid MFk;. mjd; ikak; O
tpypUe;J> r njhiytpy; eLtiuj;jsj;jpy; mike;j Gs;sp C MFk;.
1 𝑞
 +q tpdhy; C -apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpd; vz;kjpg;G> 𝐸+ = ----------- (1)
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 )
1 𝑞
 - q tpdhy; C -apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpd; vz;kjpg;G> 𝐸− = ----------- (2)
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 )

 NkYk;
i) 𝐸+ = 𝐸−

ii) nrq;Fj;J $Wfs; 𝐸+ sin 𝜃 , 𝐸− sin 𝜃 rkkhfTk;> vjpnujpH jpirapy; nray;gLtjhy;

mit rkd; nra;fpd;wd.
iii) fpilj;js$Wfs; 𝐸+ cos 𝜃 , 𝐸− cos 𝜃
rkkhfTk;> xNu jpirapYk; nray;gLtjhy; mit
$l;lg;gLfpd;wd.

[7]
  𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 𝐸+ cos 𝜃 𝑝 ----------- (3)

𝑎
 ,q;F cos 𝜃 = ----------- (4)
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 )1/2

rkd;ghL (1) >(4) I (3) -y; gpujpapl

1 𝑞 𝑎
 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 )1/2

2𝑞 𝑎
=− 𝑝
4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 )3/2

𝑝
r >> a vdpy; , 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − (𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎 𝑝 )
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟 3

3) kpd; ,UKidahy; xU Gs;spapy; Vw;gLk; epiykpd;dOj;jjÊijfÊ fzf;fpLf.

1 𝑞
 +q tpdhy; P apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;dOj;jk>; 𝑉1 =
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟1
−1 𝑞
 - q tpdhy; P apy; Vw;gLk; kpd;dOj;jk>; 𝑉2 =
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2

 P apy; Vw;gLk; nkhj;j kpd;dOj;jk;>

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉 = −
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟2
q 1 1
𝑉= −
4πϵ0 r 1 r2
1 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃 1 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃
 = 1+ kw;Wk; = 1−
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
q 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃
 kpd; ,UKidahy; Vw;gLk; kpd;dOj;jk>; 𝑉= 1+ − 1−
4πϵ0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

q 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4πϵ0 𝑟2

P 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑃 .𝑟
 𝑉= ( P = 2 q a ) my;yJ 𝑉=
4πϵ0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟 2

P kpd; ,UKidapd; mr;Rf;Nfhl;by;>+qmUfpy; Gs;sp

 =00 𝑉=
4πϵ0 r 2 PmikAk;.
− P kpd; ,UKidapd; mr;Rf;Nfhl;by;> - qmUfpy; Gs;sp
 =1800 𝑉=
4πϵ0 r 2 PmikAk;.
 =900 𝑉=0 kpd; ,UKidapd; eLtiuf;Nfhl;by; Gs;sp PmikAk;.

[8]
4. kpd;Njf;fpfs; njhlupizg;gpy; / gf;f ,izg;gpy; ,izf;fg;gLk;NghJ tpisAk;
njhFgad; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwDf;fhd rkd;ghl;bidg; ngWf.

kpd;Njf;fpfs; njhlupizg;G kpd;Njf;fpfs; gf;f ,izg;G

C1, C2, C3, kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; cila C1, C2, C3 kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; cila

kpd;Njf;fpfs; njhlupizg;gpy; ,izf;fg; kpd;Njf;fpfs; gf;f ,izg;;gpy;

gl;Ls;sJ. njhFg;gpd; njhFgad; ,izf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ. njhFg;gpd;

kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; CS njhFgad; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; CP

vy;yh kpd;Njf;fpfspYk; kpd;D}l;lk; vy;yh kpd;Njf;fpfspYk; kpd;dOj;jk;

rkk;.Mdhy; V = V1 + V2 +V3 rkk;. Mdhy;Q = Q1 + Q2 +Q3

𝑸 𝑄
Q = CPV kw;Wk;
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= ; 𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = 𝐶 ,𝑉3 = 𝐶
𝑪𝑺 𝐶1 2 3
Q1=C1V, Q2 = C2V, Q3 = C3V

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 CPV = C1V +C2V + C3V

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 CP = C1 +C2 + C3

njhFgad; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwdpd; jiyfPo; njhFgad; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwdpd; kjpg;G>

kjpg;G, jdpj;jdp kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwdpd; jdpj;jdp kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd;fspd;

jiyfPo; kjpg;Gfspd; $LjYf;Fr; rkk;. $LjYf;Fr; rkk;.

[9]
5) kpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w Kbtpyh ePsKs;s fk;gpdhy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;ilg;
ngWf.

1) kpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l fk;gpapd; kpd;D}l;l ePs; mlHj;jp .

𝑄 ¯û
𝑖. 𝑒 𝜆 =
𝐿

vdNt %ba gug;gpapYs;s nkhj;j kpd;D}l;lk; 𝑄¯û = 𝜆𝐿- - - - ( 1 )

2) kpd;Gyk; : fk;gpypUe;J r njhiytpy; cs;s Gs;sp P apy; kpd;Gyk; Evd;f.
3) fh]pad; gug;G : L ePsKk; >r MuKk; cila cUis.
4) tisgug;gpy; kpd;Gyg;ghak; :

𝜙𝐸 = ŨÇÀÃôÒ
𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃= E 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 [∵ 𝜃 = 0]

5) Nky; kw;Wk; mbg;gug;Gfspy; kpd;Gyg;ghak; : 𝜙𝐸 = 0

( 𝐸 MdJ 𝐴 tpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf cs;sjhy; 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 0)

6) nkhj;j kpd;Gyg;ghak; 𝜙𝐸 = E(2rL) - - - - - ( 2 )

𝑄¯û
7) fh]; tpjpg;gb 𝜙𝐸 = - - - - - (3)
∈0

rkd;ghL (1)>(2) I rkd;ghL (3) apy; gpujpapl

𝜆𝐿
E 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 =
∈0
𝜆 1 𝜆
E = my;yJ 𝐸 = 𝑟
2𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟
>0 vdpy; > E -d; jpirahdJ> fk;gpf;F nrq;Fj;jhf ntspNehf;fp mikAk;.
 < 0 vdpy; > E -d; jpirahdJ> fk;gpf;F nrq;Fj;jhf cs;Nehf;fp mikAk;.

6 ) thd;b fpuhg; kpd;dpaw;wpapd; jj;Jtk;> mikg;G kw;Wk; nray;ghl;il tptup:

jj;Jtk; : epiykpd;J}z;ly; kw;Wk; $HKid nray;ghL.

mikg;G:

i) A vd;w cs;sPlw;w Nfhsk; jhq;fpapd; kPJ

nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ii) B ,C vd;w ,U fg;gpfs; gl;Lj; Jzpahy; Md gl;il
%yk; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
iii) D, E vd;w cNyhf rPg;Gfs; fg;gpfspd; mUfpy;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
iv) rPg;G D-f;F 104V NeHkpd;dOj;jk; kpd;toq;fpapd; %yk; jug;gLfpwJ.
v) rPg;G E cs;sPlw;w Nfhsj;jpd; cl;Gwj;jpy; ,izf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ.
[10]
rPg;G D Ntiy nra;Ak; tPjk;:
i) caH kpd;Gyj;jpd; fhuzkhf> rPg;G D-apy; $HKid nray;ghl;bd; gb fhw;W
madpahf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ii) fhw;wpYs;s vjpH kpd;Jfs;fs;; rPg;ig Nehf;fp ftug;gLfpwJ. fhw;wpYs;s NeH
kpd;Jfs;fs;; gl;ilia Nehf;fp tpul;lg;gLfpwJ.
iii) NeHkpd;Jfs;fs; gl;ilapy; xl;bf;nfhz;L rPg;G E-I milfpwJ.
rPg;G E Ntiy nra;Ak; tPjk;:
i) epiykpd;J}z;ly; fhuzkhf>rPg;G E -apy; vjpH kpd;Jfs;fs; cUthfpd;wd.Nfhsk; NeH
kpd;Jfs;fisg; ngWfpwJ.
ii) rPg;G E-apd; $HKid nray;ghL fhuzkhf> fPopwq;Fk; gl;ilapy; kpd;Jfs;fs;
,Ug;gJ ,y;iy.
kpd;Jfs;fspd; frpT:
i) Nfhsj;jpd; ngUk kpd;dOj;j NtWghL (107V) mile;j cld;>fhw;wpd;
madpahf;fj;jpdhy; kpd;Jfs;fs; frpaj; njhlq;Fk;.
ii) caH mOj;jjpy; thA epug;gg;gl;l v/Ff; fyj;jpdhy; Nfhsj;ij %Ltjd; %yk;
kpd;Jfs;fspd; frpitf; Fiwf;fyhk;.
gad;: 107 V mstpy; ngwg;gLk; caH kpd;dOj;j NtWghL> mZf;fU gpsitapy;
gad;gLk; NeH madpfis (GNuhl;ld; > bAl;uhd; ) KLf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

7) kpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w Kbtpyh rkjsg; gug;gpdhy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;ilg;

ngWf.
 kpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w Kbtpyh rkjsj; jl;bd; kpd;D}l;lg; gug;G mlHj;jp .
𝑄¯û
𝑖. 𝑒  = . / vdNt jl;by; cs;s nkhj;j kpd;D}l;lk; 𝑄¯û = 𝜎𝐴 - - - - (1)
𝐴
 kpd;Gyk; : jl;by; ,Ue;J r njhiytpy; cs;s Gs;sp P apy; kpd;Gyk; E vd;f.

 fh]pad; gug;G : 2r ePsKk;> A FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;G nfhz;l cUis.

 tisgug;gpy; kpd;Gyg;ghak; : 𝜙1 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 0 [∵ 𝜃 = 900 ]
ŨÇÀÃôÒ

 Kidg;gug;G P kw;Wk; P’ apy; 𝐸 MdJ 𝐴 tpw;F ,izahf cs;sjhy;  = 00

𝜙2 = 𝑝
𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑝′
𝐸 𝑑𝐴
𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴
𝜙2 = 2𝐸𝐴
 nkhj;j kpd;Gyg;ghak; 𝜙𝐸 = 0 + 2𝐸𝐴 = 2 𝐸𝐴. - - - - (2)
𝑄¯û
 fh]; tpjpg;gb 𝜙𝐸 = - - - - - (3)
∈0

rkd;ghL (1)>(2)-I rkd;ghL (3)-apy; gpujpapl

𝜎𝐴
 2EA =
∈0
𝜎
E =
2𝜖 0
[11]
8. ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpapy; kpd;fyDld; ,izg;G Jz;bf;fg;gl;l epiyapy; kpd;fhg;G

GFj;jg;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; tpisTfis tpupthf vOJf.

 xU ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpahdJ 𝑉𝑜

kpd;dOj;jKila kpd;fydhy; kpd;Ndw;wk;

nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

𝑄𝑜 - jl;Lfspy; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;s kpd;D}l;lk;.

𝐸𝑜 - kpd;fhg;G ,y;yhj epiyapy; jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;Gyk;.

𝑄0
 kpd;fhg;G ,y;yhj epiyapy; kpd;;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; 𝐶𝑜 = .
𝑉0

 kpd;fyDldhd ,izg;igj; Jz;bj;j gpd;G> jl;LfSf;F

,ilNa kpd;fhg;G Eiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

𝑄𝑜 - jl;Lfspy; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;s kpd;D}l;lk;.

𝐸 - kpd;fhg;ig Eioj;j gpwF jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;Gyk;.

V - jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL.

 ϵr - kpd;fhg;gpd; kpd;fhg;G khwpypapd; kjpg;G.

 jl;Lf;fSf;F ,ilNa kpd;fhg;G cs;sNghJ Vw;gLk; tpisT

msT kjpg;G ϵr > 1 vd cs;sNghJ kpd;fhg;gpd; tpisT

E0
kpd;Gyk; 𝐸= 𝐸 < 𝐸0 FiwAk;
ϵr

V0
kpd;dOj;j NtWghL 𝑉 = 𝑉 < 𝑉0 FiwAk;
ϵr

kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; 𝐶 = ϵr 𝐶0 𝐶 > 𝐶0 mjpfupf;Fk;

U0
Mw;wy; 𝑈= 𝑈 < 𝑈0 FiwAk;
ϵr

[12]
9.kpd;D}l;lk; rPuhfg; ngw;w xU Nfhsff; $l;bdhy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;ilj;
jUtpf;f.

Nfhsj;jpw;F ntspNa Nfhsj;jpw;F Gwg;gug;gpy; Nfhsj;jpw;F cs;Ns

cs;s Gs;sp cs;s Gs;sp cs;s Gs;sp
Nfhsff;$l;bd; Muk; - Nfhsff;$l;bd; Muk; -
Nfhsff;$l;bd; Muk; - R
R R
fh]pad; gug;G : fh]pad; gug;G : fh]pad; gug;G :
r Muk; nfhz;l Nfhsk; r Muk; nfhz;l Nfhsk; r Muk; nfhz;l Nfhsk;

r > R r = R r < R

fh]; tpjpg;gb> fh]; tpjpg;gb>

𝑄¯û r = Rvd;gij gpujpapl 𝑄¯û
𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 =
∈0 ∈0
𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄¯û = 𝑄
𝑄¯û = 0
vd;gij gpujpapl
vd;gij gpujpapl
𝑄 𝑄 0
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝐸= 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
∈0 4𝜋 ∈0 𝑅2 ∈0
𝑄
𝐸= 𝐸=0
4𝜋∈0 𝑟 2

10. ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpapy; kpd;fyDld; ,izf;fg;gl;l epiyapy; kpd;fhg;G

GFj;jg;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; tpisTfis tpupthf vOJf.

 xU ,izj;jl;L kpd;Njf;fpahdJ 𝑉𝑜 kpd;dOj;jKila

kpd;fydhy; kpd;Ndw;wk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

𝑄𝑜 - jl;Lfspy; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;s kpd;D}l;lk;.

𝐸𝑜 - kpd;fhg;G ,y;yhj epiyapy; jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;Gyk;. (𝐸0 = V0 𝑑)

𝑄0
 kpd;fhg;G ,y;yhj epiyapy; kpd;;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; 𝐶𝑜 = .
𝑉0

[13]
  kpd;fyDldhd ,izg;Gld;> jl;LfSf;F ,ilNa kpd;fhg;G Eiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 𝑉𝑜 - jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL.( khwpç)
𝑄 - jl;Lfspy; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;s kpd;D}l;lk;.
𝐸 - kpd;fhg;ig Eioj;j gpwF jl;LfSf;fpilNa cs;s
kpd;Gyk;.(khwpç)
 ϵr - kpd;fhg;gpd; kpd;fhg;G khwpypapd; kjpg;G.
kpd;fyd; ,izg;Gld;>jl;Lf;fSf;F ,ilNa kpd;fhg;G cs;sNghJ Vw;gLk; tpisT

msT kjpg;G ϵr > 1 vd cs;sNghJ kpd;fhg;gpd; tpisT

kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 = V0 𝑑 𝐸 = 𝐸0 khwpç

kpd;D}l;lk; 𝑄 = ϵr Q 0 𝑄 > 𝑄0 mjpfupf;Fk;

kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; 𝐶 = ϵr 𝐶0 𝐶 > 𝐶0 mjpfupf;Fk;

Mw;wy; 𝑈 = ϵr U0 𝑈 > 𝑈0 mjpfupf;Fk;

11. rPuhd kpd;Gyj;jpy; cs;s ,UKidapd; epiy kpd;dOj;j Mw;wYf;fhd Nfhitia

jUtp.
 𝐸 vd;w rPuhd kpd;Gyj;jpy; 𝑝 jpUg;Gjpwd; nfhz;l kpd; ,UKid
itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.NkYk; ,q;F ,UKidapd; kPJ jpUg;Gtpir nray;gl;L mjid
Gyj;jpd; jpirapy; xUq;fikf;fpwJ.
 jpUg;G tpirf;F vjpuhf  Nfhzj;jpypUe;J  Nfhzk; tiu ,UKidia Row;w Gw
jpUg;G tpirahy; (𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡) Ntiy nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ
  𝜃
 𝑊= 𝜏 𝑑𝜃
𝜃  𝑒𝑥𝑡
= 𝜃
𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃′ = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 + 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 ′

 njhlf;f Nfhzk;> 𝜃’ = 900 vdf;nfhz;lhy;> 𝑊 = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃.

 ,t;NtiyahdJ ,UKidapd; epiykpd;dOj;j Mw;wyhf

(U) Nrkpf;fg;gLk;. mjhtJ 𝑈 = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 = −𝑝. 𝐸

 rpwg;G NeHT:
i) 𝜃 = 1800 vdpy; kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; ngUkkhFk;
ii) 𝜃 = 00 vdpy; kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; rpWkkhFk;.

[14]
12. fh]; tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp kpd;D}l;lg;gl;l Kbtpyh ,U ,izj;jl;Lfspd;
kpd;Gyj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWf.
 + σ kw;Wk; -σ kpd;D}l;lg; gug;G mlHj;jp nfhz;l ,U Kbtpyh ,izj;jl;Lfisf;

fUJf.
𝜎
 kpd;D}l;lg;gl;l Kbtpyh rkjsj; jl;lhy; Vw;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpd; vz;kjpg;G 𝐸 =
𝜖0

 σ > 0 vdpy;> kpd;Gyk; ntspNehf;fp Fj;jhfTk;> σ < 0 vdpy;> kpd;Gyk; cs;Nehf;fp

Fj;jhfTk; nray;gLk;.

 P2 kw;Wk; P3 Gs;spfspy;> jl;Lfshy; Vw;gLk;

kpd;Gyk; rkkhfTk; vjpnujpuhfTk; mikAk;.

,jdhy; jl;LfSf;F ntspNa kpd;Gyj;jpd;

𝜎 𝜎
kjpg;G Rop MFk;. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐸 = − = 0
2𝜖 0 2𝜖 0

 Mdhy; jfLfSf;F cs;Ns kpd;Gyq;fs; xNu jpirapy; (tyg;Gwk; Nehf;fp) mikAk;.

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
Gs;sp P1-y; njhFgad; kpd;Gyk;> 𝐸 = + =
2𝜖 0 2𝜖 0 𝜖0

 kpd;Gyk; jfLfSf;fpilNa midj;J Gs;spfspYk; rPuhfTk; kw;Wk; NeHkpd;D}l;lk;

ngw;w jl;bypUe;J vjpHkpd;D}l;lk; ngw;w jl;bid Nehf;fpa jpirapYk; mikfpwJ.

[15]
 2. kpd;Ndhl;ltpay;
2 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :

1. kpd;Ndhl;lk; xU ];NfyhH msT. Vd;?

 𝐼 = 𝐽. 𝐴 (,U ntf;lhHfspd; Gs;spg;ngUf;fy; xU ];NfyhH MFk;)

 kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpirAk; vz; kjpg;Gk; ,Ue;jhYk; mJ ntf;lH
tpjpfSf;F cl;glhJ vd;gjhYk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; xU ];NfyhH msT MFk;.
2. ,Og;G jpirNtfk; kw;Wk; ,af;fvz; NtWgLj;Jf.

t.v ,Og;G jpirNtfk; ,af;fvz;

1 flj;jpapy; cs;s vyf;l;uhd;fis XuyF kpd;Gyj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk;
kpd;Gyj;jpw;F cl;gLj;Jk;NghJ ,Og;Gj; jpirNtfj;jpd; vz;kjpg;G.
mit ngWk; ruhrupj; jpirNtfk;
MFk;.
2 ,jd; myF m s-1 ,jd; myF m 2 s -1 V -1

3. kpd;Ndhl;l mlHj;jp tiuaW.

 flj;jpapd; XuyF FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;G topahf ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; msT kpd;Ndhl;l
𝑰
mlHj;jp (𝐽) vdg;gLk;. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑱 =
𝑨
 kpd;Ndhl;l mlHj;jpapd; S.ImyF : A m-2 .
4. Xk; tpjpapd; Ez;tbtj;ijf; $Wf.
 kpd;Ndhl;l mlHj;jpahdJ> nray;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpw;F NeHj;jftpy; ,Uf;Fk;.

 mjhtJ 𝐽 = 𝜍𝐸 .
 ,q;F 𝐽 - kpd;Ndhl;l mlHj;jp>  - kpd;flj;J vz; kw;Wk; 𝐸 - kpd;Gyk;
5. xk; tpjpapd; gad;ghl;Ltbtj;ijf; $W.
 V vd;gJ kpd;dOj;j NtWghL> I vd;gJ kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; R vd;gJ kpd;jil vdpy;>
 Xk; tpjpapd; gad;ghl;L tbtk; V = I R .
6. Xk; tpjpf;F cl;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Xk; tpjpf;F cl;glhj nghUl;fs; vd;git ahit?

t.v Xk; tpjpf;F cl;gLk; nghUl;fs; Xk; tpjpf;F cl;glhj nghUl;fs;

1 V-I tiuglk; NeHNfhlhf mikAk;. V-I tiuglk; NeHNfhlhf mikahJ.
2 Xk; tpjpf;F cl;gLk.; Xk; tpjpf;F cl;glhJ.
3 ,tw;wpd; kpd;jil kjpg;G khwpyp. ,tw;wpd; kpd;jil kjpg;G khwpyp my;y.

7. flj;jpapd; kpd;jil vz; tiuaW.

 nghUspd; kpd;jil vz; vd;gJ XuyF ePsKk;> XuyF FWf;F ntl;L gug;Gk; nfhz;l
𝑹𝑨
flj;jpahdJ kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F mspf;Fk; kpd;jil MFk;. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝝆 =
𝒍
 ,jd; S.I myF Xk;-kPl;lH ( m) .
[16]
8. kpd;jil ntg;gepiy vz; tiuaW.
 kpd;jil ntg;gepiy vz; vd;gJ xU bfpup ntg;gepiy caHtpy; Vw;gLk; kpd;jil vz;
mjpfupg;gpw;Fk;> 𝑇𝑜 ntg;gepiyapy; cs;s kpd;jil vz;Zf;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s tpfpjk;
MFk;.
 kpd;jil ntg;gepiy vz;zpd; S.I myF: /℃.
9. kPf;flj;Jj; jpwd; vd;why; vd;d?
 rpy nghUl;fspd; ntg;gepiyahdJ Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyf;F fPNo FiwAk; NghJ mjd;
kpd;jil RopahfpwJ.
 Rop kpd;jilAld; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; flj;Jk; nghUl;fs; kPf;flj;jpfs; vdg;gLk;.
 ,g;gz;G kPf;flj;Jj;jpwd; vdg;gLk;.
10. kpd;dhw;wy; kw;Wk; kpd;jpwd; vd;why; vd;d?
kpd;dhw;wy;
1. flj;jpapd; xU KidapypUe;J kWKidf;F kpd;Jfs;fs; efu kpd;fyj;jhy; Ntiy
nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,t;NtiyNa kpd;dhw;wy; vdg;gLk;.
2. kpd;dhw;wypd; S.I myF [_y; (J).
3. ,jd; eilKiw myF fpNyhthl; kzp (kWh) ( 1kWh = 3.6 x 10 6 J ).
kpd;jpwd;:
1. kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; mspf;fg;gLk; tPjk; kpd;jpwd; vdg;gLk;.
2. kpd;jpwdpd; S.I myF thl; (W)
3. ,jd; eilKiw myF Fjpiujpwd; (HP). (1HP = 746 watt)
11. xUkpd;Rw;wpy; jpwDf;fhd rkd;ghL 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 vd;gij tUtp.
 kpd;dhw;wYf;fhd rkd;ghL> 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉𝑑𝑄.
𝑑𝑈 𝑉𝑑𝑄
 kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy; mspf;fg;gLk; tPjk; kpd;jpwd; vdg;gLk;. vdNt> 𝑃 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
 kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼 = vd;gjhy; kpd;jpwd; 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 .
𝑑𝑡

12. kpd;Rw;wpy; jpwDf;fhd gy;NtW tifahd rkd;ghLfis vOJf.

 kpd;jpwDf;fhd rkd;ghL> 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰.
 Xk; tpjpg;gb>𝑉=𝐼𝑅 vd;gjhy;, kpd;jpwd; 𝑷 = (𝑰𝑹) 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹.
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽𝟐
 Xk; tpjpg;gb> 𝑰 = 𝑹> vd;gjhy; kpd;jpwd; 𝑷 = 𝑽 =
𝑹 𝑹
13. fpHf;fh/g; Kjy; tpjpia (kpd;Ndhl;ltpjp my;yJ re;jp tpjp) $Wf.
 ve;j xU re;jpapYk; re;jpf;fpd;w kpd;Ndhl;lq;fspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhif RopahFk;
(Σ𝐼 = 0).
 ,J kpd;D}l;lq;fspd; moptpd;ik tpjpapd; mbg;gilapy; mikfpwJ.
14. fpHf;fh/g; ,uz;lhk; tpjpia (kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;L tpjp my;yJ Rw;W tpjp ) $Wf.
 ve;jnthU %ba Rw;wpd; xt;nthU gFjpapYk; cs;s kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; kpd;jil
Mfpatw;wpd; ngUf;fw;gyd;fspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhifahdJ>me;j kpd;Rw;wpy; cs;s
kpd;dpaf;Ftpirfspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkk.; [ Σ𝑰𝑹 = Σ]
 ,J jdpj;j mikg;gpd; Mw;wy; khwh tpjpg;gb mikfpwJ.
[17]
15. kpd;Ndhl;lk; tiuaW.mjd; myF ahJ?
 xU flj;jpapy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;gJ nfhLf;fg;gl;l FWf;F ntl;L gug;G topahf kpd;Jfs;
ghAk; tPjk; MFk;.
 ,jd; myF : Mk;gpaH.
16. kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil vd;why; vd;d?
 kpd;fyj;jpDs; kpd;gFspahdJ kpd;Jfs;fspd; Xl;lj;jpw;F jilia Vw;gLj;Jk;.
,k;kpd;jil kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil (r) vdg;gLk;.
 Gjpajhf cUthf;fg;gl;l kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil FiwthfTk;> ehl;fs; nry;y
mfkpd;jil mjpfupf;Fk;.

17. ruhrup jsHT fhyk; vd;gJ ahJ?

 ,U mLj;jLj;j Nkhjy;fSf;fpilg;gl;l ruhrup NeukhdJ ruhrup jsHT Neuk; vdg;gLk;.

18. rPngf; tpisT tiuaW.

 xU %ba Rw;wpy;> ,U ntt;NtW cNyhfq;fspd; ,U re;jpg;Gfis ntt;NtW

ntg;gepiyfspy; itf;Fk;NghJ kpd;dpaf;F tpir Njhd;Wk; epfo;T rPngf; tpisT
vdg;gLk;.

19. jhk;rd; tpisT tiuaW.

 xU flj;jpapd; ,U Gs;spfs; ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyfspy; cs;sNghJ> ,e;j Gs;spfspy;
vyf;l;uhd; mlHj;jp NtWgLtjhy; ,t;tpU Gs;spfSf;fpilNa kpd;dOj;jNtWghL
cUthf;fg;gLk;.
 ,jdhy; flj;jp KOtJk; ntg;gk; ntspg;gLjYk; cl;ftug;gLjYk; eilngWk; . ,JNt
jhk;rd; tpisT vdg;gLk;

20. ngy;baH tpisT tiuaW.

 ntg;gkpd;dpul;ilAld; $ba kpd;Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij nrYj;Jk;NghJ> xU re;jpapy;

ntg;gk; ntspg;gLjYk; kw;nwhU re;jpapy; ntg;gk; cl;ftHjYk; eilngWk;. ,t;tpisT
ngy;baH tpisT vdg;gLk;.

21. rPngf; tpistpd; gad;ghLfs; ahit?

i. kpd;cw;gj;jp epiyaq;fspy; tPzhFk; ntg;gMw;wiy kpd;dhw;wyhf khw;Wk;

ntg;gkpd;dpaw;wpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

ii. jhdpaq;fp thfdq;fspy; vupnghUspd; gaDWjpwid mjpfupf;f gad;gLk; jhdpaq;fp

ntg;gkpd;dpaw;wpfspy; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

iii. ntg;gkpd;dpul;il kw;Wk; ntg;gkpd;dpul;il mLf;Ffspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;

nghUl;fSf;fpilNa cs;s ntg;gepiy NtWghl;il mstplgad;gLfpwJ.

[18]
5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh -tpil:

1. kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; Ez;khjpupf; nfhs;ifia tptupj;J mjpypUe;J Xk; tpjpapd; Ez;tbtj;ijg;

ngWf.

 flj;jpapd; XuyF gUkdpy; cs;s fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhd;fspd; vz;zpf;if = n

 flj;jpapd; FWf;F ntl;Lg;gug;G = A
 vyf;l;uhdpd; ,Og;Gj; jpirNtfk; = Vd
 dx njhiyitf; flf;f MFk; fhyk; = dt
 Fwpg;gpl;l gUkdpy; (Adx)cs;s vyf;l;uhdpd; vz;zpf;if= n A Vd dt
 vyf;l;uhdpd; kpd;D}l;lk; = e.
 rpwpa gUkdpy; cs;s nkhj;jkpd;D}l;lk; dQ = (n AVd dt) e
 / kpd;Ndhl;lk; I = dQ /d t

I = (nAVd dt) e / dt

I = n A Vd e

𝐼
 kpd;Ndhl;lmlHj;jp 𝑱 = 𝐴

𝑛 𝐴 𝑽𝒅 𝑒
 𝐽= = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑽𝒅
𝐴
𝑒𝜏
kw;Wk; 𝑉𝑑 = − 𝑚 𝐸 vdpy;
𝑒𝜏
 𝐽 = − 𝑛 𝑒 (𝑚 𝐸)
𝑒2𝜏
𝐽= −𝑛 𝐸 my;yJ
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
 𝐽 = − 𝜍 𝐸 . ,q;F 𝜍 = vd;gJ kpd;flj;J vz;.
𝑚

 kuGg;gb> NeHkpd;Jfspd; ,af;fj;jpw;F 𝐽 = 𝜍 𝐸 . ,JNt Xk; tpjpapd; Ez;tbtk; MFk;.

2. Xk; tpjpapd; Ez;khjpup mikg;gpypUe;J> Xk; tpjpapd; gad;ghl;L tbtj;ij ngWf.

i) Xk; tpjpapd; Ez;khjpup rkd;ghL 𝐽 = 𝜍𝐸 .
𝐼 𝑉
ii) ,jpy; kpd;Ndhl;lmlHj;jp 𝐽 = kw;Wk; kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 =
𝐴 𝑙
vd;gij gpujpapl>
𝐼 𝑉
iii) = 𝜍 my;yJ
𝐴 𝑙
𝑙 𝑙
iv) 𝑉 = 𝐼 . ,jpy; vd;gJ flj;jpapd; kpd;;jil R
𝜍𝐴 𝜍𝐴
vdf;nfhz;lhy;>
v) 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 . ,JNt Xk; tpjpapd; gad;ghl;L tbtk; MFk;.

[19]
3. kpd;jilahf;fpfs; njhlH ,izg;G kw;Wk; gf;f ,izg;Gfspy; ,izf;fg;gLk; NghJ mjd;
njhFgad; kpd;jil kjpg;Gfisj; jUtp.
t.v njhlH ,izg;G gf;f ,izg;G
1

2 𝑅1>𝑅2>𝑅3 Mfpa kpd;jil kjpg;G nfhz;l 𝑅1>𝑅2>𝑅3 Mfpa kpd;jil kjpg;G nfhz;l
%d;W kpd;jilahf;fpfs; kpd;fyj;Jld; %d;W kpd;jilahf;fpfs; kpd;fyj;Jld;
njhluhf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. gf;f ,izg;gpy; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
3 vy;yh kpd;jilahf;fp topNa ghAk; vy;yh kpd;jilahf;fp ,ilg;gl;l
kpd;Ndhl;lk; (I) rkk;. kpd;dOj;j NtWghL rkk;.
4 kpd;dOj;j NtWghL khWgLk;. kpd;Ndhl;lk; (I) khWgLk;.
5 V = V1 + V2 + V3 I = I 1 + I2 + I3
6 V = IRS I = V/ RP
V1= IR1 ; V2= IR2 ; V3= IR3 I1 = V / R1 ; I2 = V / R2 ; I3 = V / R3
7 IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 V V V V
= + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3
8 RS = R1 + R2 + R3 1 1 1 1
= + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3

4. Nthy;l; kPl;liug; gad;gLj;jp kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil fzf;fpLk; Kiwia tpsf;Ff.

(i) kpd;Rw;W jpwe;j epiyapy; cs;sNghJ> Nthy;l; kPl;lH fhl;Lk;
mstPL (V)> kpd;fyj;jpd; kpd;dpaf;F tpirf;F () rkkhf mikAk;.
mjhtJ V =  - - - - - (1)
(ii) R vd;w kpd;jil ntspr;Rw;wpy; ,izf;fg;gLfpwJ. kpd;Rw;W %ba
epiyapy; kpd;Rw;wpy; I vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk;.
(iii)R-f;F ,ilg;gl;l kpd;dOj;j NtWghL V=IR
my;yJ IR = V - - - - - (2)
(iv) kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil r fhuzkhf> Nthy;l;kPl;lH fhl;Lk; mstPL
V MdJ kpd;fyj;jpd; kpd;dpaf;F tpir  tpl Ir msT Fiwthf
mikAk;. mjhtJ V =  - Ir
my;yJ Ir =  - V - - - - - - (3)
(3) Ir −V
(v) rkd;ghL  =
(2) 𝐼𝑅 V
−𝐕
mfkpd;jil 𝒓= 𝑹.
𝑽

[20]
5. kpd;fyd;fspd; njhlupizg;G kw;Wk; gf;f ,izg;G Kiwfis tptup.

t.v kpd;fyd;fs; njhlupizg;G kpd;fyd;fs; gf;f ,izg;G

r-mfkpd;jilAk;> -kpd;dpaf;F tpirAk; r-mfkpd;;jilAk;> -kpd;dpaf;F tpirAk;

1
nfhz;l n kpd;fyd;fs; Gwkpd;jil R nfhz;l n kpd;fyd;fs; Gwkpd;jil R

cld; njhlupizg;gpy; cs;sJ. cld; gf;f ,izg;gpy; cs;sJ.

2 nkhj;j kpd;dpaf;F tpir = n nkhj;j kpd;dpaf;F tpir = 

𝑟
3 nkhj;j kpd;;jil = nr +R nkhj;j kpd;;jil = + 𝑅
𝑛

𝑛 𝑛
4 kpd;Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼 = kpd;Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼 =
𝑛𝑟 +𝑅 𝑟+𝑛𝑅

𝑛
r <<R ,vdpy; 𝐼 = . 
𝑅
r <<R ,vdpy; 𝐼 =
𝑅
mjhtJ> kpd;fyj;njhFg;G Vw;gLj;Jk;
mjhtJ> kpd;fyj;njhFg;G Vw;gLj;Jk;
5 kpd;Ndhl;lk; xU kpd;fyd; Vw;gLj;Jk;
kpd;Ndhl;lKk; xU kpd;fyd; Vw;gLj;Jk;
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijg; Nghd;W n klq;fhf
kpd;Ndhl;lKk; rkk;.
mikAk;

6  𝑛
r >>R ,vdpy; 𝐼 = r >>R ,vdpy; 𝐼 =
𝑟 𝑟
mjhtJ> kpd;fyj;njhFg;G Vw;gLj;Jk; mjhtJ> kpd;fyj;njhFg;G Vw;gLj;Jk;
kpd;Ndhl;lKk; xU kpd;fyd; Vw;gLj;Jk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; xU kpd;fyd; Vw;gLj;Jk;
kpd;Ndhl;lKk; rkk;. kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijg; Nghd;W n klq;fhf
mikAk;

6. fpHf;fh/g; tpjpfis $wp tpsf;Ff.

fpHf;fh/g; Kjy; tpjp:

 ve;j xU re;jpapYk; re;jpf;fpd;w kpd;Ndhl;lq;fspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhif RopahFk;

( Σ𝐼 = 0 ).

 ,J kpd;D}l;lq;fspd; moptpd;ik tpjpapd; mbg;gilapy; mikfpwJ.

[21]
 FwpaPL kuG:

 re;jpia Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; - NeHFwp

 re;jpia tpl;L ntspNaWk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; - vjpHFwp

 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0

fpHf;fh/g; ,uz;lhk; tpjp:

 ve;jnthU %ba Rw;wpd; xt;nthU gFjpapYk; cs;s kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; kpd;jil

Mfpatw;wpd; ngUf;fw;gyd;fspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhifahdJ> me;j kpd;Rw;wpy cs;s

kpd;dpaf;F tpirfspd; Fwpapay; $l;Lj;njhiff;F rkk.; Σ𝑰𝑹= Σ

 ,J jdpj;j mikg;gpd; Mw;wy; khwh tpjpg;gb mikfpwJ.

FwpaPL kuG:

1 %ba Rw;wpy;> ehk; nry;Yk; jpir topNa

kpd;Ndhl;lk; nrd;why;>kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk;

kpd;jilapd; ngUf;fw;gydpd; kjpg;G - NeHFwp

2 %ba Rw;wpy;> ehk; nry;Yk; jpirf;F

vjpHj;jpirapy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; nrd;why;>

kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; kpd;jilapd;

ngUf;fw;gydpd; kjpg;G - vjpHFwp

3 %ba Rw;wpy;> ehk; nry;Yk; jpir topNa

cs;s kpd;fyj;jpd; vjpHkpd; KidapypUe;J

NeHkpd; Kid topahfr; nrd;why;>kpd;dpaf;F

tpir - NeHFwp

4 %baRw;wpy;>ehk; nry;Yk; jpir topNa cs;s

kpd;fyj;jpd; NeHkpd; KidapypUe;J vjpHkpd;

Kid topahfr; nrd;why;> kpd;dpaf;F tpir –

vjpHFwp

[22]
7. tPl;];ld; rkdr;Rw;wpy; rkepiyf;fhd epge;jidiag; ngWf.

i) tPl;];ld; rkdr;Rw;wpy; P,Q,R,S vd;w kpd;jilfs; xU %ba Rw;iw cUthf;FkhW

,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. A kw;Wk; C Gs;spfSf;F ,ilNa kpd;fyk; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
fhy;tdhkPl;lH topNa nry;Yk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; IG. fhy;tdhkPl;lupd; kpd;jil G.
ii) fpHf;fh/g; Kjy; tpjpia B re;jpf;F gad;gLj;j >

𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − I3 = 0 - - - - - - (1)

fpHf;fh/g; Kjy; tpjpia D re;jpf;F gad;gLj;j >

𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − I4 = 0 - - - - - - (2)

iii) fpHf;fh/g; ,uz;lhk; tpjpia A B D A vd;w %ba ghijf;F gad;gLj;j>

𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − I2 𝑅 = 0 - - - - - (3)

fpHf;fh/g; ,uz;lhk; tpjpia B C D B vd;w %ba ghijf;F gad;gLj;j >

𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − I4 𝑆 = 0 - - - - - (4)

iv) IG = 0 vd rkd;ghL (1)>(2)>(3)>(4) - apy; gpujpapl

𝐼1 = I3 - - - - (5)
𝐼2 = I4 - - - - (6)
𝐼1 𝑃 = I2 𝑅 - - - (7)
𝐼3 𝑄 = I4 𝑆 - - - (8)

𝐼1 𝑃 I2 𝑅
v) rkd;ghL (7) (8) =
𝐼3 𝑄 I4 𝑆

𝑷 𝑹
vi) rkd;ghL (5)> (6)-Ig; gad;gLj;j =
𝑸 𝑺

[23]
8. kPl;lH rkdr;Rw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp njupahj kpd;;jilia fhz;gij tpsf;Ff.

mikg;G:

 xU kPl;lH ePsKs;s AB vd;w Nkq;fdpd; fk;gp

kug;gyifapy; jhkpu gl;ilfSf;F ,ilNa nghUj;jg;

gl;Ls;sJ.

 G1 ,ilntspapy; njupahj kpd;jil P-Ak; G2

,ilntspapy; njupe;j kpd;jil Q-Ak;; ,izf;fg;

gl;Ls;sJ.

 njhLrhtp>E vd;w KidapypUe;J fhy;thdhkPl;lH kw;Wk; caH kpd;jiltopahf

,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

 fk;gpapd; Kizfspd; FWf;Nf xU nyf;yhQ;rp kpd;fyKk; rhtpAk; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

nray;ghL:

 fk;gpapd; kPJ njhLrhtp efHj;Jk; NghJ J vd;w epiyapy; fhy;thdhkPl;lH Rop tpyf;fk;

fhl;LfpwJ.

 AJ (𝑙1) kw;Wk; JB (𝑙2) vDk; ePsq;fs; KiwNa tPl;];dN

; lhd; rkdr;Rw;wpd; kpd;;jilfs; R

kw;Wk; Sf;F gjpyhf mike;Js;sJ.

𝑃 𝑅 𝑟 𝐴𝐽
= = ( 𝑟 −XuyF ePsj;jpw;fhd kpd;;jil )
𝑄 𝑆 𝑟 𝐽𝐵

𝑃 𝐴𝐽 𝑙1
= =
𝑄 𝐽𝐵 𝑙2
𝑙1
 njupahj kpd;jil 𝑃 = 𝑄
𝑙2

 jhkpug; gl;ilapy; fk;gpKidfs; gw;witf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhy; Vw;gLk; Kid kpd;jil

gpioia jLf;f> P kw;Wk; Q ,lkhw;wk; nra;J Nrhjid jpUk;gr; nra;J P-apd; ruhrup

kjpg;G fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ. ruhrup P-apd; kjpg;Ng njupahj kpd;;jilapd; rupahd kjpg;G

MFk;.

𝑃𝜋𝑎 2
 fk;gpg;nghUspd; kpd;jil vz; 𝜌 = .
𝑙

[24]
9. kpd;dOj;jkhdpia gad;gLj;jp kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil fzf;fpLk; Kiwia tpsf;Ff.

(i) Kjd;ik Rw;W : kpd;dOj;jkhdp fk;gp CD MdJ kpd;fyj;

njhFg;G (Bt) kw;Wk; rhtp K1 cld; njhlupizg;gpy;

,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

(ii) JizRw;W : mfkpd;jil fhzNtz;ba kpd;fyk;> fhy;tdh

kPl;lH> caHkpd;;jil> njhLNfhy; Mfpait njhluhf

cs;sJ. xU kpd;jilngl;b R kw;Wk; rhtp K2 Mfpait

kpd;fyd; cld; gf;f ,izg;gpy; cs;sJ.

(iii) Kjypy; rhtp K2 jpwe;j epiyapy;> rkd;nra; ePsk; 𝑙1 mstplgLfpwJ. kpd;dOj;jkhdpapd;

jj;Jtj;jpd;gb>

 ∝ 𝑙1−−−−(1)

(iv) rhtp K2 %lg;gl;L> kPz;Lk; rkd;nra; ePsk; 𝑙2mstplgLfpwJ. kpd;dOj;jkhdpapd;

jj;Jtj;jpd;gb>
𝑅
𝛼 𝑙2 −−−−(2) (𝑟 - kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jil)
𝑅+𝑟

𝑙 1 −𝑙2
(v) (1)  (2) 𝑟= 𝑅 −−−−(3)
𝑙2

 𝑅> 𝑙1 > 𝑙2 kjpg;Gfis rkd;ghL (3) -y; gpujpapl;L kpd;fyj;jpd; mfkpd;jilia

fzf;fplyhk;.

[25]
 3. fhe;jtpay; kw;Wk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisTfs;
2 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :

1. fhe;e ,UKid jpUg;G jpwd; tiuaW.

 fhe;jj;jpd; Kidtypik (𝑞𝑚) kw;wk; fhe;j ePsk; (2𝑙) Mfpatw;wpd; ngUf;fw;gyd; fhe;j
,UKid jpUg;Gjpwd; (𝑝𝑚) vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. 𝒑𝒎= 𝒒𝒎 𝟐𝒍.
 ,jd; S.I myF A m𝟐 . ,jd; jpir njd;KidapypUe;J tlKidia Nehf;fp ,Uf;Fk;.
2. fhe;jg; ghak; tiuaW.
 XuyF gug;gpw;F Fj;jhfr; nry;Yk; fhe;jg;Gyf; NfhLfspd; vz;zpf;if fhe;jg;ghak; (Φ𝐵 )
vdg;gLk;.

 𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴
 fhe;jg;ghaj;jpd; S.I myF ntgH (Wb) kw;Wk; gupkhzk; [ M L2 T-2 A-1]
3. fhe;jtpaypy; $Y}k; vjpHjfT ,Ukb tpjpia $W.
 ,uz;L fhe;j KidfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s <Hg;G tpir my;yJ tpyf;F tpirahdJ> mtw;wpd;
Kid typikfspd; ngUf;fy; gyDf;F NeHj;jftpYk; mtw;wpw;F ,ilNa cs;s njhiytpd;
𝒒𝒎𝑨 𝒒𝒎𝑩
,Ukbf;F vjpHj;jftpYk; ,Uf;Fk;. (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝑭 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒓𝟐
4. kpd;Ndhl;l tisaj;jpd; fhe;j ,UKid jpUg;Gjpwd; tiuaW.
 kpd;Ndhl;l tisaj;jpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; kpd;Ndhl;l tisaj;jpd; gug;G
,tw;wpf;fpilNaahd ngUf;fy; gyd; kpd;dNdhl;l tisaj;jpd; fhe;j ,UKid jpUg;GjpwDf;F
rkkhFk;.
 S.I myF : Am2
5. gpnskpq; ,lf;if tpjpiaf; $W.
,lJ ifapd; Ms;fhl;b tpuy;> eLtpuy;> ngUtpuy; Mfpatw;iw xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd jpirapy;
ePl;bitf;Fk;NghJ> Ms;fhl;btpuy; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; jpiriaAk;> eLtpuy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpiriaAk;
Fwpj;jhy;> ngUtpuy; flj;jp czUk; tpirapd; jpiria fhl;Lk;.
6. fhy;tdhkPl;lupd; kpd;Ndhl;l czH jpwd; tiuaW.
fhy;tdhkPl;lH topNa ghAk; XuyF kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F Vw;gLk; tpyfNy mjd; kpd;Ndhl;l czHjpwd;
𝜃 𝑁𝐵𝐴
vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. (𝑖. 𝑒) =
𝐼 𝐾
7. fhy;tdhkPl;lupd; kpd;Ndhl;l cz;HT El;gj;ij vt;thW mjpfupf;fyhk;?
 Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifia (𝑁) mjpfupg;gjd; %yk;
 fhe;jg;Gyj;ij (𝐵) mjpfupg;gjd; %yk;
 fk;gpr;RUspd; gug;ig (𝐴) mjpfupg;gjd; %yk;
 njhq;F ,ioapd; XuyF KWf;fj;jpw;fhd ,ul;ilia (K) Fiwg;gjd; %yk;
8. fhy;tdhkPl;lupy; fk;gpr;RUis njhq;ftpl gh];gH-ntz;fy ,io gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Vd;?
 gh];gH - ntz;fy cNyhf fyitapyhd ,ioapd; XuyF KWf;fj;jpw;fhd ,ul;ilapd; kjpg;G
kpff; FiwthFk;. vdNt mJ njhq;F ,ioahf gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ

[26]
9. kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;L czHjpwd; tiuaW.
 fhy;tNdhkPl;lupd; KidfSf;F ,ilNa mspf;fg;gLk; XuyF kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bw;fhd
𝜃 𝜃 𝑁𝐵𝐴
tpyfNy> mjd; kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;L cz;Hjpwd; vdg;gLk;. 𝑖. 𝑒 = = .
𝑉 𝐼𝑅𝑔 𝐾𝑅𝑔

10. jpirNtfj; NjHe;njLg;ghdpd; fUj;ij tpsf;Ff?

 Kiwahd kpd;Gyk; kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gyq;fis NjHT nra;tjd; %yk; Fwpg;gpl;l Ntfj;jpy;
nry;Yk; kpd;Jfis NjHT nra;a ,aYk;. ,J Nghd;w Gyq;fspd; mikg;gpw;F jpirNtfj;
NjHe;njLg;ghd; vd;W ngaH..
E
 nfhLf;fg;gl;l kpd;Gyk; 𝐸 kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gyk; 𝐵 -apd; vz;kjpg;gpw;F> v0 = vd;w
B
Fwpg;gpl;l Ntfk; nfhz;l kpd;Jfspd; kPJ kl;LNk tpirfs; nray;gLfpd;wd.
11. Mk;gpaH - tiuaW.
 ntw;wplj;jpy; xU kPl;lH ,ilntspapy; gpupj;J itf;fg;lgl;Ls;s Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l ,U
,izf;flj;jpfs; topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jhy;> xt;nthU flj;jpAk; XuyF ePsj;jpw;F
2 X 10-7 𝑁 tpiria czHe;jhy;> xt;nthU flj;jpapd; topahfTk; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd;
msT xU Mk;gpauhFk;.

3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :

1. fhe;jg;Gyf; NfhLfspd; gz;Gfis jUf?

i) ,it njhlHr;rpahd %lg;gl;l tisNfhLfs; MFk;.
ii) fhe;jg;Gyf;NfhLfspd; jpir fhe;jj;jpw;F ntspNa tl KidapypUe;J njd; Kid Nehf;fpAk;>
fhe;jj;jpw;F cs;Ns njd; KidapypUe;J tl Kid Nehf;fpAk; ,Uf;Fk;.
iii) %lg;gl;l tisNfhl;bd; ve;j xU Gs;spapYk; cs;s fhe;jGyj;jpd; jpiria> mg;Gs;spapy;
cs;s fhe;jg;Gyf;Nfhl;bw;F tiuag;gLk; njhLNfhl;bd; jpirapypUe;J mwpayhk;.
iv) fhe;jg;Gyf;NfhLfs; vg;NghJk; xd;iw xd;W ntl;lhJ.
v) typikahd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F NfhLfs; kpf neUf;fkhfTk;> typik Fiwe;j fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F
NfhLfs; ,ilntsp tpl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.

2. gNahl; - rhtHl; tpjpia $wp tpsf;Ff.

gNahl; - rhtHl; tpjpapd;gb> kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; ePsf;$wpdhy; cUthFk;
fhe;jGyj;jpd; vz;kjpg;ghdJ>
i) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ I (kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; typikf;F NeHj;jfT)

ii) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝑙 (ePsf;$wpd; vz;kjpg;Gf;F NeHj;jfT)

iii) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ sin 𝜃 ( 𝑑𝑙 kw;W}k; 𝑟 f;F ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzj;jpd; ird; kjpg;gpw;F NeHj;jfT)
iv) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 1/𝑟2 (Gs;spf;Fk; ePsf;$Wf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l njhiytpd; ,Ukbf;F vjpHj;jfT )

𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃

vdNt> 𝑑𝐵 ∝ (my;yJ) 𝑑𝐵 =
𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟2

𝜇 0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
v) ntf;lH tbtpy;> 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

[27]
3. fhy;tdhkPl;lH xd;iw mk;kPl;luhf khw;Wk; Kiwia tptupf;fTk;.

i) xU fhy;tdhkPl;lUld; gf;f ,izg;gpy; Fiwe;j kpd;jilia ,izjlkhf ,izg;gjd; %yk;

mjid mk;kPl;luhf khw;wyhk;.
ii) ,izjl kpd;jil topNa ghak; kpd;Ndhl;lk; = 𝐼 - 𝐼g
,izjlj;jpd; kpd;jil = 𝑆
fhy;tdh kPl;lH topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; = 𝐼g
fhy;tdhkPl;lH kpd;jil = 𝑅g
iii) ,q;F> 𝑉 ,izjlk; = 𝑉 fhy;tdhkPl;lH

𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 𝑆 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
𝑆= 𝑅𝑔
(𝐼 −𝐼𝑔 )
1 1 1
 mk;kPl;lupd; kpd;jil 𝑅𝑎 − vdpy;> = +
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑔 𝑆

iv) mk;kPl;lH kpff;Fiwe;j kpd;jil nfhz;l fUtp vd;gjhy;> ,jid vg;NghJk; kpd;Rw;wpy; njhluhf
,izf;fNtz;Lk;.
v) XH ey;ypay;G mk;kPl;lH Rop kpd;jilia ngw;wpUf;Fk;.

4. fhy;tdhkPl;lH xd;iw Nthy;l;kPl;luhf khw;Wk; Kiwia tptupf;fTk;.

i) xU fhy;tdhkPl;lUld; njhlH ,izg;gpy; caHe;j kpd;jilia ,izg;gjd; %yk; mjid
Nthy;l;kPl;luhf khw;wyhk;.
ii) mstpl Ntz;ba kpd;dOj;jNtWghL = 𝑉
fhy;tdh kPl;lH topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; = 𝐼g
nkhj;j kpd;jil = ( 𝑅𝑕 + 𝑅𝑔 )

mstpl Ntz;ba kpd;dOj;jNtWghL 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 ( 𝑅𝑕 + 𝑅𝑔 )

𝑉
𝑅𝑕 + 𝑅𝑔 = (OR)
𝐼𝑔
𝑉
𝑅𝑕 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔

iii) Rw;wpd; nkhj;j kpd;jil kjpg;G 𝑅V = 𝑅𝑕 + 𝑅g .

iv) Nthy;l; kPl;lupd; kpf kpf caHe;j kpd;jil nfhz;l fUtp vd;gjhy;> ,jid kpd;Rw;wpy;; gf;f
,izg;gpy; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.
v) XH ey;ypay;G Nthy;l;kPl;lH Kbtpyh kpd;jilia ngw;wpUf;Fk;.
[28]
5. yhud;]; tpiria tpsf;Ff.
 fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy;> kpd;D}l;lk; nfhz;l kpd;JfshdJ>Fwpg;gpl;l jpirNtfj;jpy; ,aq;Fk;NghJ mJ
xU tpiria czHfpwJ. mt;tpirf;F yhud;]; tpir(𝐹𝑚 ) vd;W ngaH.
 vz; kjpg;gpy;> 𝑭𝒎 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽.
NkYk;
i) 𝐹𝑚 MdJ q- f;F NeHj;jfT. (q - kpd;D}l;lj;jpd; vz;kjpg;G)
ii) 𝐹𝑚 MdJ; v-f;F NeHj;jfT. (v - jpirNtfk;)
iii) 𝐹𝑚 MdJ 𝐵-f;F NeHj;jfT. (𝐵 - fhe;jg;Gyk;)
iv) 𝐹𝑚 MdJ sin 𝜃 -f;F NeHj;jfT. ( v kw;Wk; 𝐵 ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk; )
v) vjpHkpd;Jfs; czUk; tpirapd;; jpirahdJ> NeHkpd;Jfs; czUk;; jpirf;F vjpHj;jpirapy;
,Uf;Fk;.
vi) kpd;JfshdJ fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; jpirapy; ,aq;fpdhy;; 𝐹𝑚 RopahFk;.

5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :

1. kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l NeHf;flj;jpapdhy; xU Gs;spapy; tpisAk; fhe;jg;

Gyj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWf.
 NM - vd;w ePz;l Neuhd flj;jpapd; topNa I -vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; gha;fpwJ.
 OP = a vd;f.
 O - Gs;spapypUe;J 𝑙 - ePsKs;s flj;jpapy;> 𝑑𝑙 - ePsKs;s rpW $W xd;iw fUJNthk;.
 gNahl;-rhtHl;tpjpg;gb> ,r;rpW $wpdhy; Gs;sp 𝑃 -apy; fhe;jg;Gyk;>

𝝁𝟎 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒏 - - - - (1)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

𝑎
 dl sin  = 𝑟 𝑑𝜙 kw;Wk; 𝑟= vd;gij rkd;ghL (1) -y; gpujpapl>
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝜇0 I
𝑑𝐵 = cosϕ dϕ 𝑛
4𝜋𝑎
 vdNt Gs;sp 𝑃 -apy; Vw;gLk; epfu fhe;jg;Gyk;>

𝜇0 I 𝜙2
𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 = −𝜙 1
cosϕ dϕ 𝑛
4𝜋𝑎

𝜇0𝐼
𝐵= (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙2 ) 𝑛
4𝜋𝑎

 Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l NeHflj;jpf;F> 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 900 vdpy;

𝜇0𝐼
epfu fhe;jg;Gyk;> 𝐵 = ×2𝑛
4𝜋𝑎
𝜇0𝐼
 𝐵= 𝑛
2𝜋𝑎

[29]
2. kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; tl;ltbtf; fk;gpr;RUspd; mr;rpy; xU Gs;spapy; Vw;gLk; fhe;jg;Gyj;Jf;fhd
Nfhitia ngWf.
 R −MuKila tl;l tisaf;fk;gp topNa 𝐼−vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; gha;fpwJ vd;f.
 ,jd; ikak; O -tpypUe;J z -njhiytpy;; x -mr;rpy; mike;j Gs;sp P -ia fUJNthk;.
 Gs;sp P -apy; fhe;jg;Gyj;ijf; fzf;fpl> > tl;l tisaj;jpd;
kPJ vjpnujpuhf mike;Js;s C kw;Wk; D Gs;spfspy; cs;s 𝑑𝑙
ePsKila ,U ePsf;$Wfis fUJNthk;.
 ,k;kpd;Ndhl;l $iwAk; (𝐼𝑑𝑙 ) Gs;sp P -iaAk; ,izf;Fk;
ntf;liu 𝑟 vd;f.
 gNahl; - rhtHl; tpjpapd;gb> C kw;Wk; D Gs;spfspy; cs;s
kpd;Ndhl;l $Wfshy; Gs;sp P -apy; vw;gLk; fhe;jg;Gyq;fspd;
vz;kjpg;G rkkhFk;. mjhtJ
𝝁𝟎 𝑰 𝒅𝒍
𝒅𝑩 = [ ∵ 𝜃 = 900 ] - - - - - - - - (1)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

 xt;nthU kpd;Ndhl;l $why; Vw;gLk; fhe;jg;Gyk; 𝑑𝐵 -I> ,U $Wfshfg; gpupf;fyhk;.

 ,jpy; fpilj;js $Wfs; xd;iw xd;W rkd;nra;J nfhs;Sk;. xNu jpirapy; nray;gLk;
nrq;Fj;J $Wfs; ( dB sinϕ 𝑘) > Gs;sp P - apy; Vw;gLk; nkhj;j fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F
fhuzkhfpd;wd.
 Gs;sp P-apy; Vw;gLk; epfu fhe;jg;Gyk;>

𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵 sin ∅ 𝑘 − − − − − (2)
 rkd;ghL (1) I (2)-y; gpujpapl
𝜇0𝐼 𝑑𝑙
 𝐵= sin ∅ 𝑘 - - - - - - (3)
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝑅
sin ∅ = 1
𝑅 2 +𝑍 2 2
vd;gij rkd;ghL (3)-y; gpujpapl
𝑟2 = 𝑅 + 𝑧 2 2

dl = 2πR
𝜇0𝐼 2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
 𝐵= 1 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑅 2 +𝑧 2 𝑅 2 +𝑍 2 2

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑅2
𝐵= 3 𝑘
2
(𝑅 2 + 𝑍 2 )2
 tl;lr;RUs; N Rw;Wf;fisf; nfhz;lJ vdpy;
𝜇0 𝑁 𝐼 𝑅2
𝐵= 3 𝑘
2
(𝑅 2 + 𝑍2 ) 2
𝜇 0 𝐼𝑁
 RUspd; ikaj;jpy; fhe;jg;Gyk;> 𝐵 = 𝑘 [ ∵ z = 0 ]
2𝑅

[30]
3. Mk;gpaupd; tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l fk;gpapdhy; Vw;gLk;
fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia jUtp.
Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjp : xU %ba tisaj;jpd; kPJs;s fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; Nfhl;L topj; njhifaPl;L
kjpg;G Rw;W mt;tisaj;jpdhy; %lg;gl;l epfu kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; μ0 klq;fpw;Fr; rkk;.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
 I - vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l Neuhd flj;jp xd;iwf; fUJNthk;.
 flj;jpapd; ikaj;jpypUe;J 𝑟 − njhiytpy; tl;l tbtpyhd Mk;gpaupd; tisaj;ij fUJNthk;.

 vdNt Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpg;gb> 𝐶

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
my;yJ 𝐶 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 (∵ 𝜃 = 0 )

 𝐶
𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 vdpy; 𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝜇0𝐼
my;yJ 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0𝐼
 ntf;lH tbtpy;> 𝐵 = 𝑛
2𝜋𝑟
𝑛 - njhLNfhl;bd; topNa Mk;gpaupd; tisaj;jpw;Fr; nry;Yk; XuyF ntf;lH.
4. kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; ePz;l tupr;RUspdhy; Vw;gLk; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia jUtp.
 L - ePsKk;> N - Rw;WfSk; nfhz;l ePz;l tupr;RUs;
xd;iwf; fUJNthk;.
 tupr;RUspd; cs;Ns cs;s xU Gs;spapy; fhe;jg; Gyj;ij
fzf;fpl > ‘abcd’ - vd;w xU nrt;tf tbt Rw;iwf;
fUJf.

 Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpg;gb> 𝐶

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 I%lg;gl;l− − − − (1)

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
,q;F 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑏
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑐
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑑
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙

 ,jpy;> bc,da ghijfspy; 𝐵 kw;Wk; 𝑑𝑙 nrq;Fj;J vd;gjhYk;> cd ghij tupr;RUSf;F ntspNa

miktjhYk; fhe;jGyk; RopahFk;.

𝑏
MfNt 𝐶
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝐿 − − − − − (2)

 N- Rw;Wfspy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; I vdpy;> nkhj;j kpd;Ndhl;lk;

I%lg;gl;l= NI − − − − − (3)
 rkd;ghL (2) kw;Wk; (3) -I rkd;ghL (1) y; gpujpapl
𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝑁
my;yJ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐼 − − − − (4)
𝐿
𝑁
 𝑛= vdpy;> kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; ePz;l tupr;RUspdhy; Vw;gLk; fhe;jg;Gyk;> 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 .
𝐿
[31]
5. fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; flj;jpkPJ nray;gLk; tpirf;fhd Nfhitia ngWf.

 𝐿 − ePsKk;> 𝐴 − gug;Gk; nfhz;l flj;jpahdJ fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> flj;jp topNa

𝐼 − vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; gha;fpwJ vd;f.

 ,f;flj;jpapy; 𝑑𝑙 − ePsKs;s rpWgFjpiaf; fUJNthk;.

 kpd;Ndhl;lk; kw;Wk; ,Og;G jpirNtfj;jpw;fhd njhlHG> 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑 − − − − − (1)

flj;jpapd; kpd;Ndhl;lf;$W > 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑙 − − − − − (2)

 flj;jpapYs;s vyf;l;uhd; czUk; ruhrup tpir 𝑓 = −𝑒 (𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 )

 flj;jpapy; cs;s nkhj;j vyf;l;ud;fspd; vz;zpf;if> 𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙

 vdNt>𝑑𝑙 gFjpapy; cs;s vyf;l;uhd;fs; kPJ nray;gLk; tpir>

𝑑𝐹 = − 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑙 𝑒( 𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 ) − − − − (3)

rkd;ghL (2) I gpujpapl 𝑑𝐹 = (𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵 ) − − − − − (4)

 𝑙− ePsKs;s; flj;jp kPJ nray;gLk; nkhj;j tpir 𝐹 = (𝐼 𝑙 × 𝐵 )

 vz;kjpg;gpy;> 𝑭 = 𝑩𝐈𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 − − − (5)

rpwg;G NeHTfs; :

1) kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; flj;jp> fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F ,izahf itf;fg;gl;lhy;  = 00. vdNt 𝑭 = 𝟎

2) kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; flj;jp> fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf itf;fg;gl;lhy; =900. vdNt 𝑭 =𝑩𝐈𝒍

[32]
6. ePz;l> ,izahd ,U kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; flj;jpfSf;fpilNa nray;gLk; tpiria fzf;fpLf.

 𝑟 −,ilntsptpy; gpupj;J itf;fg;gl;l A kw;Wk; B vd;w ePz;l> ,izahd flj;jpd; topNa

xNu jpirapy; I1 kw;Wk; I2 kpd;Ndhl;lq;fs; ( z -mr;R jpir) gha;fpwJ vd;f.

flj;jp A flj;jp B
flj;jpd; topNa kpd;Ndhl;lk; I1 flj;jpd; topNa kpd;Ndhl;lk; I2
𝑟 njhiytpy; cUthFk; fhe;jg;Gyk;> 𝑟 njhiytpy; cUthFk; fhe;jg;Gyk;>
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝜇 0 𝐼1
𝐵1 = − 𝑖 𝐵2 = 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
B flj;jpapYs;s 𝑑𝑙 ePs rpW $W kPJ A flj;jpapYs;s 𝑑𝑙 ePs rpW $W kPJ
nray;gLk; tpir> nray;gLk; tpir>

𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 𝑙 × 𝐵1 = −
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑗 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑙 × 𝐵2 = 𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
A flj;jpapdhy; B flj;jpapd; XuyF ePsj;jpy; B flj;jpapdhy;> A flj;jpapd; XuyF
𝐹 𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐹 𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2
nray;gLk;tpir> = − 𝑗 ePsj;jpy; nray;gLk;tpir> = 𝑗
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 2𝜋𝑟

 ,U ,izf;flj;jpfs; topNa xNu jpirapy; kpd;Ndhl;k; gha;e;jhy;> mtw;wpf;fpilNa <Hg;G tpir

Njhd;WfpwJ.

 khwhf> ,U ,izf;flj;jpfs; topNa vjpnujpH jpirfspy; kpd;Ndhl;k; gha;e;jhy;>

mtw;wpf;fpilNa tpyf;F tpir Njhd;Wk;.

Mk;gpaH tiuaiw :

 ntw;wplj;jpy; xU kPl;lH ,ilntspapy; gpupj;J itf;fg;lgl;Ls;s Kbtpyh ePsk; nfhz;l ,U

,izf;flj;jpfs; topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jhy;> xt;nthU flj;jpAk; XuyF ePsj;jpw;F

2 X 10-7 𝑁 tpiria czHe;jhy;> xt;nthU flj;jpapd; topahfTk; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; msT

xU Mk;gpauhFk;.

[33]
 4. kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;lYk; khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lKk;.

2 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :

1. kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;ly; vd;why; vd;d? (my;yJ) ghuNlapd; Kjy; tpjpapidf; $Wf.

xU %ba fk;gpr;RUSld; njhlHGila fhe;jg;ghak; khWk; Nghnjy;yhk;> kpd;dpaf;Ftpir J}z;lg;gLk;.

2. kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;lypd; ghuNl tpjpfisf; $Wf?
 Kjy; tpjp: %ba fk;gpr;RUSld; njhlHGila fhe;jg;ghak; khWk; Nghnjy;yhk;> kpd;dpaf;F tpir
J}z;lg;gLk;.
 ,uz;lhtJ tpjp: xU %ba Rw;wpy; J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpirapd; vz;kjpg;G fhyj;ijg;
𝑑𝜑 𝐵
nghWj;J Rw;Wld; njhlHGila fhe;jg;ghak; khWk; tPjj;jpw;F rkkhFk.; 𝑖. 𝑒 𝜀 = 𝑑𝑡
3. kpd;dpaw;wp tpjpiaf; $Wf (my;yJ) gpskpq; tyf;if tpjpiaf; $Wf.
 tyJ ifapd; ngUtpuy;> Rl;Ltpuy; kw;Wk; eLtpuy; Mfpait xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd
jpirfspy; ePl;lg;gLfpd;wd .
Rl;Ltpuy; - fhe;jg; Gyj;jpd; jpir
ngUtpuy; - flj;jp ,aq;Fk; jpir
eLtpuy; - J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpiria Fwpf;Fk;.
4. J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpiria cUthf;Fk; topfisf; $Wf.
i) fhe;jg;Gyj;ij (B) khw;Wtjd; %yk;
ii) fk;gpr;RUspd; gug;ig (A) khw;Wtjd; %yk;
iii) fhe;jg;Gyj;ijr; rhHe;j fk;gpr;RUspd; jpiraikg;ig () khw;Wtjd; %yk; J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F
tpiria cUthf;fyhk;.
5. jpwd; fhuzp tiuaW.
 cz;ikj; jpwDf;Fk;> Njhw;wj; jpwDf;Fk; cs;s jfT jpwd; fhuzp vdg;gLk;.
 jpwd; fhuzp (cos ) = cz;ikj;jpwd;
Njhw;wj;jpwd;
6. kpd;khw;wpapd; gaDWjpwd; tiuaW.
 gaDs;s ntspaPL jpwDf;Fk;> cs;sPL jpwDf;Fk; cs;s jfT kpd;khw;wpapd; gaDWjpwd; vdg;gLk;.
 gaDWjpwd; = ntspaPL jpwd;
X 100 %
cs;sPL jpwd;
7. xUkpd;Njf;fp DC-I jLf;fpwJ Vd;?
 NeHj;jpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; mjpHntz; f = 0 .
 vdNt kpd;Njf;fpr; Rw;W NeHj;jpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F Kbtpyh kpd;kWg;ig mspg;gjhy; DC-I
jLf;fpwJ. (i. e) XC = ∞.
8. RLC Rw;wpd; gad;fs; ahit?
 tbg;ghd; Rw;Wfs;> miyapaw;wpfs;> kpd;dOj;j ngUf;fpfs; Kjypatw;wpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 thndhyp kw;Wk; njhiyf;fhl;rp mikg;Gfspd; xj;jpirTr; Rw;Wf;fspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
9. Ropj;jpwd; kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;why; vd;d ?
 xU khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lr; Rw;wpy; Efug;gl;l jpwd; Ropnadpy;> me;jr; Rw;wpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk;
Ropj;jpwd; kpd;Ndhl;lk; vdg;gLk;.

[34]
10. Vw;W kpd;khw;wp> ,wf;F kpd;khw;wp NtWgLj;Jf.

t.v Vw;W kpd;khw;wp ,wf;F kpd;khw;wp

1 ,it kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;il mjpfupf;Fk;. ,it kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;il Fiwf;Fk;.
2 njhlHGila kpd;Ndhl;lk; FiwAk;. njhlHGila kpd;Ndhl;lk; mjpfupf;Fk;.
3 Jizr;RUspd; Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfk; Jizr;RUspd; Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if FiwT.
4 kpd;dOj;j khw;w tpfpjk; xd;iw tpl mjpfk; kpd;dOj;j khw;w tpfpjk; xd;iw tpl FiwT

11. jd; kpd;J}z;ly; vd;why; vd;d?

 fk;gpr;RUNshL njhlHGila fhe;jg;ghak; khwpdhy;> mNj fk;gpr;RUspy; xU kpd;dpaf;F tpir
J}z;lg;gLk;.
12. gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vd;why; vd;d?
 xU RUspd; topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; Neuj;ijg; nghUj;J khwpdhy;> mUfpy; cs;s Rw;wpy;
kpd;dpaf;F tpir J}z;lg;gLk;.
13. xU khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ruhrup kjpg;ig tiuaW.
 xU NeH miur;Rw;W my;yJ vjpH miur;Rw;wpy; cs;s kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; midj;J kjpg;Gfspd; ruhrup.
14. xU khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; RMS kjpg;ig tiuaW.
 xU Rw;wpy; cs;s midj;J kpd;Ndhl;lq;fspd; ,Ukbfspd; ruhrupapd; ,Ukb%yk;.
15. fl;l ntf;lHfs; vd;why; vd;d ?
 xU ird; tbt khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghldJ (my;yJ) kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ njhlf;fg; Gs;spiag;
nghUj;J> ,lQ;Ropahf khwh Nfhz jpirNtfj;Jld; RoYk; xU ntf;luhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.
 mj;jifa xU RoYk; ntf;lH fl;l ntf;lH vdg;gLk;.
16. kpd; xj;jjpHT - tiuaW.
 nrYj;jg;gLk; khWjpir kpd;%yj;jpd; mjpHntz; MdJ> RLC - Rw;wpd; ,ay;G mjpHntz;zpw;F
rkkhf mike;jhy;> mr;Rw;whdJ kpd; xj;jjpHtpy; cs;sJ vdyhk;.
17. xj;jjpHT mjpHntz; vd;why; vd;d ?
 nrYj;jg;gLk; khWjpir kpd;%yj;jpd; ve;j mjpHntz;zpw;F > RLC - Rw;wpd; kpd;Ndhl;lk; ngUkkhf
cs;sNjh>me;j mjpHntz;zpw;F xj;jjpHT mjpHntz; vdg;gLk;.
18. LC miyTfs; vd;why; vd;d ?
 XU LC Rw;wpw;F Mw;wy; mspf;fg;gLk; Nghnjy;yhk;> xU tiuaWf;fg;gl;l mjpHntz; nfhz;l kpd;
miyTfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j miyTfs; LC -miyTfs; vdg;gLfpwJ.
19. jd; kpd;J}z;lypd; myfpid tiuaW (my;yJ) 1 n`d;wp tiuaW.
 fk;gpr;RUs; xd;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; khWk; tPjk; 1 AS-1 vDk; NghJ>mjpy; J}z;lg;gLk; vjpH kpd;dpaf;F
tpir 1V vdpy;> mf;fk;gpr;RUspd; jd;kpd;J}z;ly; vz; 1 n`d;wp MFk;
20. Q fhuzp tiuaW.
 Q fhuzp = xj;jjpHtpd; NghJ L my;yJ C-f;F FWf;Nf cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL
 nrYj;jg;gLk; kpd;dOj;j NtWghL

21. xU kpd;J}z;b AC-I vjpHf;fpwJ. Mdhy; DC-I mDkjpf;fpwJ. Vd;?

 kpd;J}z;bapd; kpd;kWg;ghdJ khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; mjpHntz;zpw;F NeHjftpy; cs;sjhy;> mJ
AC kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij vjpHfpwJ.
 khwhf NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F mjpHntz; f = 0. vdNt 𝑋𝐿= 0. ,jdhy; NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F
xU ,yl;rpa kpd;J}z;b kpd;kWg;ig mspf;fhJ.

[35]
3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh- tpil:

1. ePz;l tupr;RUspd; jd; kpd;J}z;ly; vz;izf; fhz;f.

 𝑙 ePsKk; A FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;Gk; க ொண்ட ePz;l tupr;RUs; xd;iw
fUJf. XuyF ePsj;jpy; cs;s Rw;Wf;fspd; vz;zpf;if (Rw;W mlHj;jp)
n vd;f.
 i vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; NghJ RUspDs; cUthFk; fhe;jg;Gyk; 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 - - - - - (1)
 xU Rw;Wld; njhlHG nfhz;l fhe;jg;பொak; Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 𝐴. - - - - (2)

 nkhj;jr; Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑙

 nkhj;jf; fhe;jg; பொaj; njhlHG 𝑁Φ𝐵 = 𝑛𝑙 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝑖 - - - -( 3)

 tiuaiwg;gb> 𝑁Φ𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖- - - - - 4

(3) .(4 ) -I xg;gpl 𝐿𝑖 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝑖
 ePz;l tupr;RUspd; jd;kpd;J}z;ly; vz; 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙

2. xU N[hb fk;gpRUs;fs; ,ilNa cs;s gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vz;izf; fhz;f. (my;yJ) xU N[hb
fk;gpRUs;fs; ,ilNa cs;s gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vz; rkkhFk; vd;gijf; fhl;Lf. (5-MARK)
 rkePsk; 𝑙 , A1 kw;Wk; A2 FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;Gfs;> n1, n2 Rw;W mlHj;jpfs; nfhz;l ,uz;L nghJ mr;R
tupr;RUs;fisf; fUJf.
 i1 vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; tupr;RUs;-1-ல் ghAk; NghJ cUthFk; fhe;jg;Gyk;
𝐵1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖1 - - - - (1)
 tupr;RUs; 1-Ig; nghUj;J tupr;RUs; -2 d; xU Rw;Wf;fhd fhe;jg;ghak;
Φ21 = 𝐵1 𝐴2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖1 𝐴2 - - - - - - (2)
 tupr;RUs;-2d; nkhj;jr; Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if 𝑁2 = 𝑛2 𝑙
 tupr;RUs;-2d; nkhj;j fhe;jg;ghak; njhlHG 𝑁2 Φ21 = 𝑛2 𝑙 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖1 𝐴2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑖1 𝐴2 𝑙 - - - -(3)
 tiuaiwg;gb 𝑁2 Φ21 = 𝑀21 𝑖1 - - - - - - (4)
 (3).(4)-I xg;gpl 𝑀21 𝑖1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑖1 𝐴2 𝑙
 tupr;RUs; 1-Ig; nghUj;J tupr;RUs; 2-,d; gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vz; 𝑀21 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 - - - -(5)

 i2 vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lk; tupr;RUs;-2-,ல் ghAk; NghJ cUthFk; fhe;jg;Gyk; 𝐵2 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖2 - - - - (6)

 tupr;RUs; -1 d; xU Rw;Wf;fhd fhe;jg;ghak;

Φ12 = 𝐵2 𝐴2 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝐴2 - - - - - - (7)
 tupr;RUs;-1-,d; nkhj;jr; Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if 𝑁1 = 𝑛1 𝑙

 tupr;RUs;-1-,d; nkhj;j fhe;jg;ghak; njhlHG 𝑁1 Φ12 = 𝑛1 𝑙 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝐴2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝐴2 𝑙 - - - -(8)

 tiuaiwg;gb 𝑁1 Φ12 = 𝑀12 𝑖2 - - - - - - (9)

 (8),(9)-I xg;gpl 𝑀12 𝑖2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑖2 𝐴2 𝑙
 tupr;RUs; 2-Ig; nghUj;J tupr;RUs; 1-,d; gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vz; 𝑀12 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 - - - -(10)

 rkd; (5),(10)-,Ue;J 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 . ,JNt ,U ePz;l nghJ mr;R tupr;RUs;fSf;F

,ilNaahd gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly; vz; MFk;.
[36]
3. kpd;J}z;ly; vz; L nfhz;l xU kpd;J}z;b i vd;w kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij nfhz;Ls;sJ. mjpy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij
epWt Nrkpf;fg;gl;l Mw;wy; ahJ?
 kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij Vw;gLj;Jtjw;F vjpHg;G tpirf;F vjpuhf nra;ag;gl;l Ntiy Rw;wpy; fhe;jepiy
Mw;wyhf Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
𝑑𝑖
 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;Ftpir  = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡

 dq kpd;D}l;lj;ij efHj;j nra;ag;gLk; Ntiy 𝑑𝑤 = −  𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 (∵ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡)

𝑖 1
𝑊= 0
𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 2
𝐿 𝑖2
1
 mjhtJ fhe;jepiy Mw;wல் 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿 𝑖 2
4. xU RUs; cs;slf;fpa gug;ig khw;Wtjd; %yk; kpd;dpaf;F tpir vt;thW J}z;lyhk;?
 𝑙 ePsKs;s flj;Jk; jz;L xU nrt;tf cNyhf rl;lj;jpy; v - jpirNtfj;jpy; ,lJ Gwkhf
efHtjhff; nfhs;f.
 jsj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf B vd;w fhe;jg;Gyk; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. dt Neuj;jpw;F jz;lhdJ efUk; NghJ
rl;lk; cs;slf;fpa gug;G FiwfpwJ. fhe;jghaKk; FiwfpwJ.
 gug;gpy; Vw;gl;l khw;wk; 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙𝑣 𝑑𝑡
 dB = B  gug;gpy; Vw;gl;l khw;wk;.
𝑑𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝑙𝑣 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝜙 𝐵 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝑑𝑡
 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpirapd; vz;kjpg;G  = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝑙 𝑣
5. kpd;khw;wpapy; Vw;gLk; gy;NtW Mw;wy; ,og;Gfis tpsf;Ff.
t.v ,og;gpd; ngaH cUthff; fhuzk; jtpHf;Fk; Kiw
,Uk;G ,og;G rpypf;fd; nfhz;l v/fpdhy;
cs;sfk; - fhe;jkhf;fy; kw;Wk;
(i) fhe;jj; jaf;f nra;ag;gl;l cs;sfj;தைg;
fhe;jePf;fk; miltJ.
1 ,og;G gad;gLj;Jjy;.
(ii) Roy; kpd;Ndhl;l khWfpd;w fhe;jg;ghak; cs;sfj;jpy; nky;ypa jfLfshy; Md
,og;G Roy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij J}z;LfpwJ. cs;sfj;ijg; gad;gLj;Jjy;
Rw;Wfspy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; NghJ Rw;WfSf;F mjpf tpl;lk; nfhz;l
2 jhkpu ,og;G
Vw;gLk; [_y; ntg;g ,og;G fk;gpfisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
Kjd;ikr; RUspd; fhe;jg;Gyf;
Rw;Wfis xd;wpd; kPJ xd;whf
3 ghaf;frpT NfhLfs; Jizr;RUNshL முழுவதும்
Rw;Wjy;.
njhlHG nfhs;shj NghJ

6. kpd;jil Rw;wpy; kpd;dOj;j NtWghL kw;Wk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; ,ilNa cs;s fl;lj; njhlHig fhz;f.
 xU khWjpir kpd;dOj;j %yj;Jld; R kpd;jil nfhz;l kpd;jilahf;fp
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s Rw;W xd;iwf; fUJf.
khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghL 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 - - - - - (1)
 Xk; tpjpg;gb> 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅
 fpHf;fh/gpd; tpjpg;gb 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0  𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= 𝑅
sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚
 = 𝐼𝑚 vdpy; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 - - - - - - (2)
𝑅
 kpd;dOj;j NtWghL kw;Wk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; xNu fl;lj;jpy; cs;sij miy
tiuglk; fhl;LfpwJ.

[37]
7. yhud;]; tpirapypUe;J vt;thW kpd;dpaf;F tpiria ngwyhk;?
 𝑙 ePsKs;s Neuhd flj;Jk; jz;L AB-ahdJ rPuhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; (B) vd;w khwhj jpirNtfj;jpy;
,aq;Ftjhf nfhs;f.
 jz;by; cs;s fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhd;fspd; kPJ nray;gLk; yhud;]; tpir
𝐹𝐵 = −𝑒 𝑣 𝑋 𝐵
 ,e;j tpirahy; fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhd;fs; Kid A-,y; Ftpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
BA jpirapy; kpd;Gyj;ij Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ. ,tw;why; fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhdpd;
kPJ nray;gLk; $Yk; tpir 𝐹𝐸 = −𝑒 𝐸
 $Yk; tpirAk; yhud;]; tpirAk; rkkhFk; NghJ vyf;l;uhd;fs; Nkw;nfhz;L FtpahJ.
mjhtJ
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = 𝑒𝐸
𝐵𝑣 = 𝐸.
 jz;bd; KidfSf;fpilNa cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙.
mjhtJ 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙. (∵ 𝐸 = 𝐵𝑣)
 ,e;j kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bw;F fhuzk; yhud;]; tpirNa. vdNt mJ cUthf;Fk; kpd;dpaf;F tpir
𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
8. NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij tpl khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ed;ikfs; kw;Wk; FiwghLfs; ahit?
ed;ikfs;
 NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij tpl khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; cw;gj;jpr; nryT FiwthFk;.
 khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;l caH kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;by; tpepNahfpf;fg;gl;lhy; mDg;Gif ,og;Gfs;
FiwAk;.
 jpUj;jpfspd; cjtpahy; khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij vspjhf NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;wyhk;.
FiwghLfs;
 khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghLfis rpy gad;ghLfspy; gad;gLj;j ,ayhJ.
 caH kpd;dOj;j NtWghLfspy; khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;Jld; Ntiy nra;tJ mjpf Mgj;jhdJ.
9. LC miyTfspd; NghJ nkhj;j Mw;wy; khwhJ vdf; fhl;Lf.
 LC miyTfspd; NghJ mikg;gpd; Mw;wyhdJ> kpd;Njf;fpapd; kpd;Gyk; kw;Wk; kpd;J}z;bapd;
fhe;jGyk; ,ilNa miyTfpwJ.
 Mw;wy; khwhtpjpf;F Vw;g LC miyTfs; nkhj;j Mw;wy;
𝑞2 1
𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = + 𝐿𝑖 2
2𝐶 2
kpd;Njf;fpapd; kpd;J}z;bapd; kpd; Mw;wy; fhe;j Mw;wy; nkhj;j Mw;wy;
t.v (𝑈𝐸 ) (𝑈𝐵 )
kpd;D}l;lk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝑈
2 2
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚
1 q = Qm i =0 0
2𝐶 2𝐶
2
1 2 𝑄𝑚
2 q = 0 i = Im 0 𝐿𝐼
2 𝑚 2𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 1 2 2
2
𝑄𝑚
3 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 Cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑄𝑚 ω Sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐿𝑄𝑚 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
2𝐶 2 2𝐶

[38]
5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh- tpil:

1. fhe;jg;Gyj;ijr; rhHe;J fk;gpr;RUspd; jpiraikg;ig khw;Wtjd; %yk; kpd;dpaf;f tpiria vt;thW

ngwyhk;?

 B vd;w rPuhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; N Rw;Wfs; nfhz;l nrt;tf fk;gpr;RUs; xd;W  vd;w

Nfhzj;jpirNtfj;Jld; ,lQ;Ropahfr; RoYfpwJ.

 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡. ,J RUspd; jsj;jpw;F ,izahf cs;s ghaf;$W MFk;. ,J kpd;fhe;j J}z;lypy;

gq;Nfw;gjpy;iy.

 𝑁𝜙𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ( ∵ 𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 )

 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpir

𝑑(𝑁𝜙 𝑚 ) 𝑑 (𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 )

𝜀= − = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpirapd; ngUk kjpg;G 𝜀𝑚 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 vdpy;

 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpir 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.

 fzNeu kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; kjpg;G 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.

[39]
2. kpd;khw;wpapd; mikg;G kw;Wk; nray;ghLfis glk; tiue;J tpsf;Ff.
jj;Jtk; : gupkhw;W kpd;J}z;ly;
mikg;G :
 kpd;khw;wp cs;sfj;jpd; kPJ ,U fk;gpr;RUs;fs; Rw;wg;gl;Ls;sd.
cs;sfkhdJ rpypf;fd; v/F Nghd;w nky;ypa jfLfshy;
nra;ag;gl;lJ.
 khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghL mspf;fg;gLk; fk;gpr;RUs;
Kjd;ikr;RUs; (P) vdg;gLk;.
 ntspaPL jpwd; vLf;fg;gLk; fk;gpr;RUs; Jizr;RUs; (S)
vdg;gLk;.
nray;ghL :
 Kjd;ikr;RUspy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; khWk; NghJ fhe;jg;ghak; khWgLfpwJ.
 Jizr;RUspy; njhlHG nfhz;l fhe;jg;ghaKk; khWgLfpwJ. ,jdhy; Jizr;RUspy; kpd;dpaf;F
tpir J}z;lg;gLk;.
 Kjd;ikr;RUSf;F mspf;fg;gLk; kpd;dOj;jk;> J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpir> Rw;Wfspd;
vz;zpf;if KiwNa 𝑉𝑃 , 𝜀𝑃 , 𝑁𝑃 vdpy;

𝑑𝜙 𝐵
𝑉𝑃 = 𝜀𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃 - - - - - - - (1)
𝑑𝑡

 Jizr;RUSf;F mspf;fg;gLk; kpd;dOj;jk;> J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpir> Rw;Wfspd; vz;zpf;if

KiwNa 𝑉𝑠 , 𝜀𝑠 , 𝑁𝑠 vdpy;

𝑑𝜙 𝐵
𝑉𝑠 = 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠 - - - - (2)
𝑑𝑡
 xU Rw;wpd; topNa nry;Yk; fhe;jghak; khWk; tPjk; Kjd;ikr;RUs; kw;Wk; Jizr;RUSf;F xNu
msthf cs;sJ.
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
 = = 𝐾- - - - (3) ( K - kpd;dOj;j khw;w tpfpjk;.)
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃

 xU ,yl;rpa kpd;khw;wpf;F cs;sPLjpwd; = ntspaPLjpwd;

𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑃
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ( my;yJ ) =
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑠

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑃
 kpd;khw;wp xd;wpw;F = = = 𝐾
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑠

 K > 1 vdpy; Vw;W kpd;khw;wp.

 K < 1 vdpy; ,wf;F kpd;khw;wp.

 gaDs;s ntspaPL jpwDf;Fk;> cs;sPL jpwDf;Fk; cs;s jfT kpd;khw;wpapd; gaDW jpwd; vdg;gLk;.

 gaDWjpwd; = ntspaPL jpwd;

X 100
cs;sPL jpwd;
%

[40]
3. njhlH RLC Rw;wpy; > njhFgad; kpd;dOj;j NtWghL> kpd;vjpHg;G kw;Wk; nrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;dOj;j
NtWghl;bw;Fk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s fl;l Nfhzk; Mfptw;wpw;fhd rkd;ghl;ilj; jUtp.

 xU khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;l %yj;jpw;F FWf;fhf R kpd;jil nfhz;l kpd;jilahf;fp, L kpd;J}z;ly;

vz; nfhz;l kpd;J}z;b kw;Wk; C kpd;Njf;Fj;jpwd; nfhz;l kpd;Njf;fp Mfpait njhlupizg;gpy;

,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Rw;wpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; ‘i’ vd;f.

 nrYj;jg;gl;l khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bd; rkd;ghlhdJ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.

 R f;F FWf;NfAs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL VR = Im R ( ,J ‘i’ cld; xj;j fl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.)

 L f;F FWf;NfAs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL VL = Im XL ( ,J ‘i’ tpl 𝜋 2 fl;lk; Ke;jp cs;sJ.)

 C f;F FWf;NfAs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL VC = Im XC ( ,J ‘i’ tpl 𝜋 2 fl;lk; gpd;jq;fp cs;sJ.)

 njhFgad; kpd;dOj;j NtWghL 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 2

𝑉𝑚 = Im 𝑅 2 + Im 𝑋𝐿 − Im 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑉𝑚 = Im 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑉𝑚
 kpd;vjpHg;G 𝑍= = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2
Im

 V kw;Wk; I ,ilNaahd fl;lNfhzk;

𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
tan 𝜙 = 𝑉𝑅
=
𝑅

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
 kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼𝑚 = =
𝑍 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 2

[41]
4. kpd;J}z;b / kpd;Njf;fp Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk;> kpd;dOj;j NtWghL ,ilNa cs;s fl;lj; njhlHigf;
fhz;f.

kpd;J}z;b kl;Lk; cs;s AC Rw;W kpd;Njf;fp kl;Lk; cs;s AC Rw;W

nrYj;jg;gLk; khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghL nrYj;jg;gLk; khWjpir kpd;dOj;j NtWghL

2
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
3 J}z;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;F tpir 𝜀 = −𝐿 kpd;Njf;fpapy; cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑣 = −𝜀 𝑞
𝑣=
𝑑𝑖 𝐶
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑞
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑖= =
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑖=− cos 𝜔𝑡 = −𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐶𝜔𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐿𝜔 1
𝐶𝜔
𝜋 𝜋
4 kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
5 𝐼𝑚 = = 𝐼𝑚 =
1
=
𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
𝐶𝜔
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 = 𝐿(2𝜋𝑓) vd;gJ kpd;J}z;bapd; 𝑋𝐶 = 1 1
𝐶𝜔 = 𝐶 (2𝜋𝑓 )kpd;Njf;fpapd;; kpd;kWg;G.
kpd;kWg;G myF : Xk;
myF : Xk;
6 (1) NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F 𝑋𝐿 = 0.
(1) NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F 𝑋𝐶 = ∞.
(2) khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F 𝑋𝐿 𝛼 𝑓.
(2) khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F 𝑋𝐶 𝛼 1 𝑓 .
kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJnrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;dOj;j kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ nrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;dOj;j
7 NtWghl;il tpl 𝜋 𝜋
2 fl;l mstpy; gpd;jq;fp NtWghl;il tpl 2 fl;l mstpy; Ke;jp cs;sJ.
cs;sJ
fl;lg;glk; : fl;lg;glk; :

miytiuglk;: miytiuglk;:

[42]
 5. kpd;fhe;j miyfs;
2 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1. ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;why; vd;d?

 Neuj;ijg; nghUj;J kpd;Gyk; (my;yJ kpd;ghak;) khw;wkilAk; ,lj;jpy; Njhd;Wk;
kpd;Ndhl;lk;> ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; vdg;gLk.;
2 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; vd;why; vd;d?
 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; vd;git ,ae;jpu miyfspypUe;J khWgl;l ntw;wplj;jpy; xspapd;
Ntfj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd Ntfj;jpy; nry;Yk; miyfs; MFk;.
3. /gpudh/gH tupfs; vd;why; vd;d?
 #upa cl;ftH epwkhiyapy; fhzg;gLk; fUik tupfSf;F /gpudh/gH tupfs; vdg;gLk;.
4. rPuikf;fg;gl;l Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpapd; njhifaPl;L tbtj;ij vOJf.
 Nkf;];nty; rPuikj;j Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpahdJ

 𝑙
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = o i = o (ic+id)

 i = iC + id . ,q;F iC – flj;Jk; kpd;Ndhl;lk;. id – ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk;.

5. fhe;jtpaypd; fh]; tpjpiag; gw;wp Fwpg;G tiuf.

 𝑠
𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 0
 %ba gug;gpd; kPjhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; gug;G top njhifaPl;L kjpg;G Rop MFk;.
 ,J fhe;j tpirf; NfhLfs; njhlHr;rpahd %ba ghijia cUthf;Fk; vd;fpwJ.
mjhtJ> jdpj;j fhe;j xUKid ,Uf;fhJ vdf; $WfpwJ.
6. kpd;fhe;j miyfs; Vd; ,ae;jpu miyfs; my;y?
 kpd;fhe;j miyfs; guTtjw;F ve;j ClfKk; Njitapy;iy. vdNt ,J xU ,ae;jpu
miy my;y.
7. Mk;gpaH-Nkf;];nty; tpjpiag; gw;wpf; Fwpg;G tiuf.
𝑑
 𝑙
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙= 0 ic+ 0 0 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑠

 ,J %ba ghijiar; Rw;wpa fhe;jg;Gyj;ij> mg;ghij topNaahd flj;J kpd;Ndhl;lk;

kw;Wk; ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGg;gLj;JfpwJ.
8. gpd;tUtdtw;wpd; VNjDk; ,uz;L gad;ghLfis $Wf. (1).mfr;rptg;Gf; fjpHfs;
(2).ikf;Nuhmiyfs; (3).GwCjhf; fjpHfs;

1. mfr;rptg;Gf; fjpHfs;:
 ,J nraw;iff; Nfhs;fSf;F kpd;dhw;wiy toq;FfpwJ.
 ePH ePf;fg;gl;l cyH goq;fis jahupf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
2. ikf;Nuh miyfs;:
 ikf;Nuhmiy rikaw;fydpy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 nraw;iff;Nfhs; topNaahd ePz;l J}u fk;gpapy;yh nra;jpj;njhlHgpw;F gad;gLfpwJ.

[43]
3. GwCjhf; fjpHfs;:
 jpUlH mwptpg;G kzpapy; gad;gLfpwJ.
 ghf;BuPahf;fis mopf;fTk;> mWitrpfpr;ir fUtpfspypUe;J Neha; fpUkpfis ePf;fTk;
gad;gLfpwJ.

3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :
1. kpd;fhe;j miyia Njhw;Wtpf;Fk; kw;Wk; mij fz;lwpAk; n`Hl;]; Ma;tpid RUf;fkhf
tpthjp.
 ,f;fUtpapy; rpwpa cNyhf Nfhsq;fshy; nra;ag;gl;l ,uz;L cNyhf kpd;tha;fs;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 ,it gug;gp kpd;tha;fspd; kWKidfs; kpf mjpf
Rw;WfSila J}z;L RUSld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
,t;tikg;G kpf mjpf kpd;dpaf;F tpiria cUthf;Fk;.
 kpf caHe;j kpd;dOj;ijj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sjhy; gug;gp
kpd;tha;fSf;F ,ilNa cs;s fhw;W madpahfp jPg;nghwp
Vw;gLfpd;wJ. Vw;gp kpd;tha;fSf;F ,ilNa cs;s rpwpa
,ilntspapYk; jPg;nghwp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. gug;gp kpd;thapypUe;J
Vw;Fk; Kidf;F Mw;wy; miy tbtpy; flj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
miyNa kpd;fhe;j miyahFk;.
 Vw;Fk; Kidia 900 Row;wpdhy; Vw;Fk; Kid jPg;nghwp
vijAk; ngwhJ. ,J Nkf;];nty; fzpg;Gg;gb kpd;fhe;j miyfs; FWf;fiyfs; jhd;
vd;gij cWjpg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 n`Hl;]; ,e;j Ma;tpypUe;J NubNah miyfis cUthf;fpdhH. NkYk; ,it xspapd;
Ntfj;jpw;F rkkhd Ntfj;jpy; nry;tij cWjpg;gLj;jpdhH.

2.rpW Fwpg;G tiuf (1). ikf;Nuh miyfs; (2).X-fjpHfs; (3). NubNah miyfs; (4).fz;ZW
xsp miyfs;.
1.ikf;Nuh miyfs;:
 ,J rpwg;G ntw;wplf; Foha;fshy;; ( Nkf;Ndl;uhd;> fd; ilNahL) cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,J vjpnuhspj;jy; kw;Wk; jstpistpw;F cl;gLk;.
2. X - fjpHfs; :
 mjpNtf vyf;l;uhd;fs; mjpf mZvz; nfhz;l ,yf;fpy; jpBnud vjpHKLf;fk; ngWk;
NghJk; NkYk; cl;Gw Rw;Wg;ghijfSf;fpilNa vyf;l;uhd; ngaHT Vw;gLk;NghJk;
X - fjpHfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 X - fjpHfs;> GwCjh fjpHfisf; fhl;bYk; mjpf CLUTj;jpwd; nfhz;lJ.
3. NubNah miyfs;:
 ,J miyapaw;wp kpd;Rw;Wfs; %yk; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,J vjpnuhspj;jy; kw;Wk; tpspk;G tpistpw;F cl;gLk;.

[44]
4. fz;ZW xsp miyfs;:
 ,J ntg;gj;jhy; xspUk; nghUs;fspypUe;J cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk;> ,J fpsHr;rpAw;w
thA mZf;fspypUe;Jk; fjpHtPrg;gLfpwJ.
 vjpnuhspg;G> xsptpyfy;> FWf;fPl;L tpisT> tpspk;G tpisT> js tpisT> xspkpd;
tpisT tpjpfSf;F cl;gLfpwJ.
3. kpd;fhe;j miyfspd; gz;Gfis vOJf.
1) KLf;fptpf;fg;gl;l kpd;JfspypUe;J kpd;fhe;jmiyfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
2) kpd;fhe;j miyfs; guTtjw;F ve;j ClfKk; Njitapy;iy. vdNt ,J xU ,ae;jpu
miy my;y.
3) kpd;fhe;j miyfs; fhw;W my;yJ ntw;wplj;jpy; xspapd; Ntfj;jpy;; nry;fpwJ.
4) kpd;fhe;j miyfs; kpd;Gyj;jhYk;> fhe;jg;Gyj;jhYk; tpyfyilahJ.
5) kpd;fhe;j miyfs; FWf;fPl;L tpisT> tpspk;G tpisT kw;Wk; js tpisTfis
Vw;gLj;Jk;.
6) kpd;fhe;j miyfs; Mw;wy;> NeHNfhl;L ce;jk; kw;Wk; Nfhzce;jj;ijAk; Rke;J
nry;fpwJ.
5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :
1. ntsptpL epwkhiy vd;why; vd;d? ,jd; tiffis tpsf;Ff.
 Rakhf xsptpLk; %yj;jpd; epwkhiy ntsptpL epwkhiy vdg;gLk;. xt;nthU %yKk;
mjw;nfd;W jdpg;gl;l ntsptpL epwkhiyiag; ngw;wpUf;Fk;.
ntsptpL epwkhiyapd; tiffs;:
1) njhlH ntsptpL epwkhiy.
2) tup ntsptpL epwkhiy.
3) gl;il ntsptpL epwkhiy.
(1) njhlH ntsptpL epwkhiy:
 kpd;dpio tpsf;fpypUe;J tUk; xspia> Kg;gl;lfj;jpd; topNa nrYj;Jk;NghJ
gpupifaile;J> Cjh Kjy; rptg;G tiu midj;J fz;ZW tz;zq;fspd;
miyePsq;fisAk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
 v.fh: fhHgd; tpy; tpsf;fpd; epwkhiy> xspUk; jpl kw;Wk; jputq;fspd; epwkhiy.
(2) tup ntsptpL epwkhiy:
 #lhd thAtpypUe;J ntsptUk; xspia Kg;gl;lfj;jpd; topNa nrYj;jp ngwg;gLk;
epwkhiy tup epwkhiy MFk;.
 tiuaWf;fg;gl;l miyePsq;fs; my;yJ mjpHntz;fisf; nfhz;l $Hikahd tupfs; tup
epwkhiy MFk;.
 tup epwkhiy jdpkq;fspd; fpsHTw;w mZf;fshy; Vw;gLfpwJ.
 ,J jdpkq;fspd; rpwg;G ,ay;gpid ntspg;gLj;Jk;.
 v.fh: i`l;u[d;> `Pypak; mZf;fspd; epwkhiy.
(3) gl;il ntsptpL epwkhiy:
 gl;il epwkhiy xd;Nwhnwhd;W Nkw;nghUe;jpa mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd neUf;fkhd
epwkhiy tupfis cs;slf;fpa gl;ilfis nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,g;gl;ilfs; fUik
,ilntspfshy; gpupf;fg; gl;Ls;sd. ,e;epwkhiy gl;il epwkhiy vdg;gLk;.
 gl;il epwkhiy xUKidapy; $Hikahf njhlq;fp kWKidapy; kq;fyhf KbtilfpwJ.
 v.fh: kpd;dpwf;f Fohapy; cs;s mk;Nkhdpah thA ntspapLk; epwkhiyfs;.
[45]
2. cl;ftH epwkhiy vd;why; vd;d? ,jd; tiffis tpsf;Ff.
 xU Clfk; my;yJ cl;ftH nghUspd; topahf xsp nrYj;jg;gl;L ngwg;gLk; epwkhiy
cl;ftH epwkhiy vdg;gLk;. ,J cl;ftH nghUspd; jd;ikiar; rhHe;jJ.
cl;ftH epwkhiyapd; tiffs;:
1) njhlH cl;ftH epwkhiy.
2) tup cl;ftH epwkhiy.
3) gl;il cl;ftH epwkhiy.
(1) njhlH cl;ftH epwkhiy:
 xU ePyepwf; fz;zhb topNa nts;is xspia nrYj;Jk;NghJ mJ ePyepwj;ij jtpu
kw;w tz;zq;fs; midj;ijAk; cl;tHe;J ngwg;gLk; epwkhiy njhlH cl;ftH epwkhiy
MFk;.
(2) tup cl;ftH epwkhiy:
 xsptpLk; tpsf;fpypUe;J tUk; xspia FspHe;j thA Clfj;jpd; topNa nrYj;jp
Kg;gl;lfj;jhy; gpupifaila nra;Ak; NghJ ngwg;gLk; epwkhiy.
 v.fh: fhHgd; tpy; tpsf;fpypUe;J tUk; xspia Nrhba Mtpapd; topNa nrYj;Jk; NghJ
fpilf;Fk; epwkhiyapy; kQ;rs; gFjpapy; ,U fUik tupfs; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
(3) gl;il cl;ftH epwkhiy:
 mNahbd; Mtp topNa nts;is xspia nrYj;Jk; NghJ njhlHr;rpahf xspa+l;lg;gl;l
gpd;dzpapy; fUik gl;ilfs; ngwg;gLfpd;wd. ,itgl;il cl;ftH epwkhiy MFk;.
 v.fh: ePHj;j ,uj;jfiury; my;yJ FNshNuh/gpy; topNa nts;is xspia nrYj;Jk;
NghJ gl;il cl;ftH epwkhiy ngwg;gLfpwJ.
3. Nkf;];nty; rkd;ghLfis njhif Ez;fzpj tbtpy; vOJf.
(1) Nkf;];nty;ypd; Kjy; rkd;ghL (epiykpd;dpaypd; fh]; tpjp):
 ,J nkhj;j kpd;ghaj;ijAk; gug;G cs;slf;fpa kpd;Jfspd; nkhj;j kpd;D}l;lj;ijAk;
njhlHG gLj;JfpwJ.
𝑸ã¼ôÀð¼
 𝒔
𝑬 . 𝒅𝑨 =
Ɛ𝟎

𝑬 vd;gJ kpd;Gyk; 𝑸ã¼ôÀð¼ vd;gJ cs;slq;fpa kpd;Jfspd; kpd;D}l;lk;.

 ,J kpd;tpirf; NfhLfs; njhlHr;rpahd %ba ghijia cUthf;fhJ vd;fpwJ. mjhtJ>

jdpj;j NeH my;yJ vjpH kpd;Jfs; ,aw;ifapy; Njhd;Wfpd;wd vdf; $WfpwJ.
(2) Nkf;];nty;ypd; 2Mk; rkd;ghL (fhe;jtpaypd; fh]; tpjp):
 %ba gug;gpd; kPjhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; gug;G topj; njhifaPl;L kjpg;G Rop MFk;.

 𝒔
𝑩. 𝒅𝑨 = 𝟎 . ,q;F 𝑩. - vd;gJ fhe;jGyk;.
 ,J fhe;j tpirf; NfhLfs; njhlHr;rpahd %ba ghijia cUthf;Fk; vd;fpwJ.
mjhtJ> jdpj;j fhe;j xUKid ,aw;ifapy; ,Uf;fhJ vdf; $WfpwJ.
(3) Nkf;];nty;ypd; 3Mk; rkd;ghL (kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;lypd; ghuNltpjp):
 ve;jnthU %ba ghijiar; Rw;wpa kpd;Gyj;jpd; Nfhl;L topj; njhifaPl;L kjpg;ghdJ>
gug;G cs;slf;fpa %ba ghij topNaahd fhe;jg;ghak; khWk; tPjj;jpw;Fr; rkk;.
𝒅𝝋𝑩
 𝒍
𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = − . ,q;F 𝐸 − vd;gJ kpd;Gyk;.
𝒅𝒕
[46]
 (4) Nkf;];nty;ypd; 4k; rkd;ghL (Mk;gpaH-Nkf;];nty; tpjp):
 ,J %ba ghijiar; Rw;wpa fhe;jg;Gyj;ij> mg;ghij topNaahd flj;J kpd;Ndhl;lk;

kw;Wk; ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGg;gLj;JfpwJ.

𝒅
 𝒍
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 0 ic + 0 0 𝑬. 𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝒔

 ,e;j ehd;F rkd;ghLfSk; kpd;dpaf;ftpaypd; Nkf;];nty;ypd; rkd;ghLfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.

,r;rkd;ghLfs; kpd;fhe;jmiyfs; ,Ug;gij cWjp nra;fpwJ.

4. Nkf;];nty; nra;j jpUj;jj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpsf;Ff.

Mk;gpaH tpjp : kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpdhy; kl;LNk fhe;jGyj;ij cUthf;f KbAk;.

eilKiw epfo;T:

 g+kpahdJ #upad; kw;Wk; tpz;kPd;fspy; ,Ue;J kpd;JfNsh my;yJ kpd;Ndhl;lNkh

,y;yhj ntw;wpl Gwntspapd; topNa fjpHtPr;Rfisg; ngWfpwJ.

Nkf;];nty; nra;j jpUj;jk; :

 Neuj;ijg; nghWj;J khWgLk; kpd;Gyk; my;yJ ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; fhe;jg;Gyj;ij

𝑑𝜙 𝐸
cUthf;Fk; . ,jid 𝜇0 𝜀0 vd;w gjk; cWjp nra;fpwJ.
𝑑𝑡

Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:

 tpz;kPd;fspy; cs;s ntg;gf; fpsHtpdhy;> Neuj;ijg; nghWj;J khWgLk; kpd;G yk;

cUthfp>Neuj;ijg; nghWj;J khWgLk; fhe;jg;Gyj;ij cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.

 ghuNl tpjpg;gb khWgLk; fhe;jg;Gyk; kPz;Lk; khWgLk; kpd;Gyj;ij cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.

 njhlHe;J eilngWk; ,e;j epfo;tpdhy; Vw;gLk; khWgLk; kpd;GyKk;>fhe;jg;GyKk; ntw;wpl

ntspapy; xspapd; Ntfj;jpy; guTfpd;wd.,ijNa kpd;fhe;j miy vd;gH.

5. Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpapy;> Nkf;];nty; Nkw;nfhz;l jpUj;jq;fisg;gw;wp tptup.

i) Nkw;fz;l kpd;Rw;wpy;> fk;gpapd; topNa ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; flj;J kpd;Ndhl;lk; IC vdg;gLk;.

ii) ,k;kpd;Ndhl;lk; kpd;Njf;fpapd; ,U jfLfisAk; ,izf;Fk; flj;jpiar; Rw;wp
fhe;jg;Gyj;ij cUthf;FfpwJ.

[47]
 iii) kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; fk;gpapd; mUNf cs;s Gs;sp P-apy;
fhe;jg;Gyj;ijf; fz;lwpa 𝑆1 vd;w tl;lg;gug;ig cs;slf;fpa
Mk;gpaupd; tisaj;ijf; fUJf.

vdNt Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjpg;gb> 𝑆1

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐶 . - - - - - - - - - ( 1 )
𝐼𝐶 - vd;gJ flj;Jk; kpd;Ndhl;lk;. ,J gug;G 𝑆1 topahf gha;fpwJ.

iv) Nkw;fz;l kpd;Rw;wpy; Mk;gpaH tisak; 𝑆1−I gY}d; tbt kw;nwhU tisak; 𝑆2 −MdJ
%bAs;sJ.
v) 𝑆1 kw;Wk; 𝑆2 ,uz;L gug;Gfspd; vy;iyfSk; xd;Nw.Mdhy;> %lg;gl;l
gug;Gfspd; tbtq;fs; ntt;Ntwhdit. Mk;gpaupd; Rw;W tpjp tbtj;ijr;
rhHe;jJ my;y.vdNt ,uz;L gug;igr; Rw;wpAk; nra;ag;gLk; njhifaPLk;
xNu Kbitj;jhd; mspf;Fk;.
vi) Mdhy; %lg;gl;l 𝑆2 gug;Gf;F Mk;gpaH Rw;W tpjpiag; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ>

𝑆2
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 - - - - - - - ( 2 )
flj;Jk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; fk;gpia gug;G 𝑆2 vt;tplj;jpYk; njhltpy;iy.NkYk; ,izj;jl;L
kpd;Njf;fpapd; jfLfSf;fpilNa vt;tpj kpd;Ndhl;lKk; ghahjjhy;>Gs;sp P-apy; fhe;jg;Gyk;
RopahFk;.
vii) rkd;ghL ( 1 ) ypUe;J rkd;ghL ( 2 ) Kuz;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kuz;ghl;bw;F Nkf;];nty; gpd;tUkhW
jPHT fz;lhH.
viii) kpd;fyj;jhy; kpd;Rw;wpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhuzkhf kpd;Njf;fp kpd;Ndw;wk; milfpwJ.
vdNt> kpd;Njf;fpapd; jfLfSf;F ,ilapy; xU mjpfupf;Fk; kpd;Gyk; Njhd;WfpwJ.,t;thW
Neuj;ijg; nghWj;J khw;wkilAk; kpd;Gy ghak;> jfLfSf;F ,ilNa Njhd;wp>
xUkpd;Ndhl;lj;ij cUthf;FfpwJ. ,k;kpd;Ndhl;lk; ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lk; Id
𝑑𝜙 𝐸
vdg;gLk;. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 .
𝑑𝑡
ix) ,e;j ,lg;ngaHr;rp kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; mbg;ilapy; Mk;gpaH Rw;W tpjpia Nkf;];nty;

gpd;tUkhW khw;wp mikj;jhH. 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑 ).

,q;F nkhj;j kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼 = (𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑 ).

[48]
 6. fjpH xspapay;
2 -kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:
1. xsp vjpnuhspg;G tpjpfis $Wf.
 gLfjpH> vjpnuhspg;G fjpH kw;Wk; vjpnuhspf;Fk; gug;Gf;F tiuag;gLk; nrq;Fj;Jf;NfhL ,it
midj;Jk; xNujsj;jpy; mikAk;.
 gLNfhzk; = vjpnuhspg;G Nfhzk; mjhtJ i = r
2. xsp tpyfy; tpjpfis $Wf.
 gLfjpH> tpyFfjpH> tpyFjsk; kw;Wk; tpyFjsj;jpw;F tiuag;gl;l nrq;Fj;Jf;NfhL ,it
midj;Jk; xNujsj;jpy; mikAk;.
 n1 sin i = n2 sin r ( ];ney; tpjp )
3. kPSk; nfhs;if vd;gJ ahJ?
 Xsp nry;Yk; ghijapd; jpiria gpd;Ndhf;fpj; jpUg;Gk; NghJ> xsp kpfr;rhpahf jhd; fle;J
te;j ghijapd; topahfNt jpUk;gpr; nry;Yk;.
4. khWepiyf; Nfhzk; vd;why; vd;d?
 mlHkpF Clfj;jpy; ve;jg; gLNfhz kjpg;gpw;F> tpyFfjpH Clfq;fisg; gpupf;Fk;
vy;iyiaj; jOtpr; nry;fpwNjh> me;jg; gLNfhzNk khWepiyf; Nfhzk; vdg;gLk;.
5. KO mf vjpnuhspg;G vd;why; vd;d?
 Xsp mlHkpF Clfj;jpy; ,Ue;J mlHFiw Clfj;jpw;Fr; nry;Yk;NghJ>mlHkpF Clfj;jpy;
gLNfhzj;jpd; kjpg;G khWepiyf; Nfhzj;ijtpl mjpfkhdhy;> xsp KOtJk; mlHkpF
Clfj;jpNyNa vjpnuhspf;Fk;. ,e;epfo;r;rpf;F KO mf vjpnuhspg;G vd;W ngaH.
6. KO mf vjpnuhspg;gpw;fhd ,uz;L epge;jidfs; ahit?
1. Xsp mlHkpF Clfj;jpy; ,Ue;J> mlHFiw Clfj;jpw;Fr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;.
2. mlHkpF Clfj;jpy; gLNfhzj;jpd; kjpg;G khWepiy Nfhzj;ij tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
7. uhNy xspr;rpjwy; tpjpiaf; $Wf.
 xspapd; miyePsj;ij tpl Fiwthd msTila Jfs;fspdhy; Vw;gLk; xspr;rpjwYf;F
,uhNy xspr;rpjwy; vd;W ngah;.
1
 xspr;rpjwypd;; nrwpthdJ> miyePsj;jpd; ehd;F kb kjpg;gpw;F vjph;j;jftpy;; ,Uf;Fk;.I ∝ 𝜆 4
8. thdk; Vd; ePyepwkhf fhl;rpaspf;fpwJ?
 gfy; Neuj;jpy; Fiwe;j miyePsKila ePytz;zk; tspkz;lyj; Jfs;fspdhy;
tspkz;lyk; KOtJk; rpjwybf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ekJ fz;fspd; czHT El;gk; Cjh tz;zj;ijtpl ePy tz;zj;jpw;F mjpfk;.
9. #hpa cjak; kw;Wk; kiwtpd; NghJ thdk; Vd; rptg;ghf njhpfpwJ?
 #hpa xspahdJ tspkz;lyk; topahf kpf ePz;l J}uk; nry;tjhy;> mjpf miyePsk;
nfhz;l rptg;G xsp Fiwthf rpjwyile;J ekJ fz;fis milAk;.
10. kio Nkfk; fUikahf cs;sJ. Vd;?
 kio Nkfk; fUikahf ,Ug;gjw;F fhuzk;> mjpYs;s ePHj;Jspfs; xd;wpize;J kio
Nkfj;jpid xspGfhg; nghUshf khw;wptpLtNj MFk;.

[49]
11. Nkfq;fs; Vd; ntz;ik epwkhff; fhl;rpaspf;fpd;wd?
 tspkz;lyj;jpYs;s J}R kw;Wk; ePHj; Jspfspd; msT xspapd; miyePsj;ij tpl kpf
mjpfk;.
 ,j;jifa nghpa Jfs;fspdhy; xsp rpjwyilAk; NghJ rpjwyile;j xspapd; nrwpT
midj;J miyePsq;fSf;Fk; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;
 midj;J tz;zq;fSk; rk mstpy; rpjwyilfpd;wd.
12. mz;ik mr;Rf;fjpHfs; kw;Wk; Xuf;fjpHfs; vd;why; vd;d?
 Kjd;ik mr;Rf;F kpf neUf;fkhfTk;> Kjd;ik mr;NrhL kpfr; rpW Nfhzj;jpy; nry;Yk;
fjpHfSf;F mz;ik mr;Rf;fjpHfs; vd;W ngaH.
 Kjd;ik mr;rpypUe;J ntF J}uj;jpy; nry;Yk; fjpHfSf;F Xuf;fjpHfs; vd;W ngaH.
13. thdtpy; vt;thW Njhd;WfpwJ?
 kiof;fhyq;fspy;> fhw;wpy; kpje;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; ePHj;Jspfspdhy; #upa xsp epwg;gpupif
miltjhy;> VO tz;zq;fs; nfhz;l thdtpy; Njhd;WfpwJ.
 fhw;wpy; kpje;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; ePHj;Jspfs; fz;zhb Kg;gl;lfk; Nghd;W nray;gLfpwJ.
14. tpz;kPd;fs; Vd; kpd;Dfpd;wd?
 tpz;kPd;fs; cz;ikapy; kpd;Dtjpy;iy.
 ntt;NtW xsptpyfy; vz;fis nfhz;Ls;s tspkz;ly mLf;Ffspd; ,af;fj;jpdhy;
tpz;kPd;fs; kpd;DtJ Nghy Njhd;WfpwJ.
15. xspg;ghij vd;why; vd;d?
 Clfk; xd;wpy; xsp d - njhiyitf; flf;f vt;tsT Neuj;ij vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwNjh> mNj
Neu ,ilntspapy; ntw;wplj;jpd; topNa xspfle;J nry;Yk; njhiyT ( d` ) Clfj;jpd;
xspg;ghij vd;W tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. (i.e) 𝒅′ = n d.
16. tpz;ntsp tPuHfSf;F thdk; fUikahf njuptJ Vd;?
 tspkz;lyk; ,y;iynadpy; xspr;rpjwy; eilngwhJ. vdNt mt;ntspahdJ fUikahfj;
Njhd;Wk;.
3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:
1. Njhw;w Moj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.
 ePH epug;gg;gl;l njhl;bapDs; ghHf;Fk; NghJ> njhl;bapd; mbg;gug;G rw;W NkNy njhptJ
Nghy Njhd;Wk;.
 glj;jpy;> d - cz;ikahd Mok;
𝑑 ′ - Njhw;w Mok;
 glj;jpypUe;J
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
n1 tan i = n2 tan r (rpwpaNfhzj;jpw;F, sin θ = tan θ )
𝑛1 𝑛2
 =
𝑑 𝑑′
𝑛 1
 n1 = n, n2 = 1 (fhw;W) vd gpujpapl =
𝑑 𝑑′
𝑑
 Njhw;w Mok; 𝑑′ =
𝑛

[50]
2. Nfhsf Mbapy; f kw;Wk; R f;F ,ilNaahd njhlHigg; ngWf.
 C - tisTikak;, i - gLNfhzk;, F - Kjd;ikf; Ftpak; vd;f.
PM
 ∆𝐶𝑃𝑀 apypUe;J> tan i =
PC
PM
i = ( i - kpfr;rpwpaJ )
PC
PM
 ∆𝑀𝐹𝐵 apypUe;J tan 2𝑖 =
PF
PM
2𝑖 = ( i - kpfr;rpwpaJ )
PF
PM 2 PM 1 2
 vdNt =  =
PF PC PF PC
 PF = f, PC = R vd;gijg; gpujpapl
1 2 R
=  f= MFk;.
f R 2

5 -kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1. nyd;]; cUthf;FgtH rkd;ghL kw;Wk; nyd;]; rkd;ghl;bidj; jUf.

 R1, R2 Nfhsf gug;Gfspd; tisT Muq;fs;

 n2 nyd;]; nghUspd; xsptpyfy; vz;
 xsptpyF gug;G 1-y;>xspf;fjpH n1 -y; ,Ue;J n2f;F nry;fpwJ.

𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛 2 −𝑛 1 )
− = - - - - - - (1)
𝑣′ 𝑢 𝑅1

 xsptpyF gug;G 2-y>; xspf;fjpH n2 -y; ,Ue;J n1f;F nry;fpwJ.

𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛 1 −𝑛 2 )
− = - - - - - - (2)
𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑅2

 (1) + (2) I RUf;f

𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 𝑛2 1 1
 𝑛1 -y; tFf;f> − = −1 −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2

 n2 = n kw;Wk; n1 = 1 (fhw;W) vdpy;

1 1 1 1
 − = 𝑛−1 − - - - - - - (3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2

 nghUs; <wpy;yhj; njhiytpy; ,Ue;jhy;> u = ∞ , v = f . vdNt

1 1 1
= 𝑛−1 − - - - - - - (4). ,J nyd;]; cUthf;FgtH rkd;ghL vdg;gLk;.
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

 (3) kw;Wk; (4) xg;gpl

1 1 1
= − . ,J nyd;]; rkd;ghL MFk;.
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
[51]
2. Mbr;; rkd;ghl;bidj; jUtpj;J> gf;fthl;L cUg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWf.
 AB nghUs;
 𝐴′ 𝐵′ gpk;gk;
 glj;jpy;  ABP &  A’B’P xj;j Kf;Nfhzq;fs;
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝑃𝐴 ′
= - - - - - - (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴

 ,NjNghy;  DPF &  A’B’F xj;j Kf;Nfhzq;fs;>

𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
= - - - - - - (2)
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹

𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
 PD=AB vd;gjhy; = - - - - - - (3)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹

 rkd;ghL (1) & (3) I xg;gpl

𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃𝐴 ′ −𝑃𝐹
= - - - - - - (4) (∵ 𝐴′ 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴′ − 𝑃𝐹 )
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹

 PA = −𝑢 ; PA’ = −𝑣 ; PF = −𝑓 vd;gij (4)y; gpujpapl;L RUf;f>

1 1 1
 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 MFk;.
𝑓

 பக்கவாட்டு உருப்பபருக்கம்

பிம்பத்தின் உயரம் (h′ ) 𝑣 𝑓

m = = − 𝑢 = 𝑓−𝑢
பபாருளின் உயரம் (h)

3. xspapd; Ntfj;ij fz;lwptjw;fhd gp]pA Kiwia tptup.

 Xsp %yk; ‘S’ypUe;J tUk; xspahdJ

45o Nfhz rha;tpy; cs;s gFjp
nts;sp g+rg;gl;l fz;zhb jfL ‘G’
kPJ tpOe;J vjpnuhspf;fg;gl;l; gpd;>
gw;rf;fuj;jpd; xU ntl;L topahfr;
nrd;W rkjs Mbapdhy;
vjpnuhspf;fg;gl;l gpd;G mLj;j
gy;ypdhy; KOtJkhf jLf;fg;gLk;
tifapy; Ntfkhf Row;wg;gLfpwJ.
𝜃 𝜋 𝝅
 gw;rf;fuj;jpd; NfhzNtfk; 𝜔 = = (∵𝜽= )
𝑡 𝑁𝑡 𝑵
 gw;rf;fuj;jpy; N ntl;Lfs;>N gw;fs; cs;sJ.
 ‘t’fhyj;jpy; xsp fle;J te;j njhiyT ‘2d’.
𝝅
 mNj‘t’fhyj;jpy; gw;rf;fuj;jpd; Nfhz ,lg;ngah;r;rp ‘θ’. NkYk; t = .
𝑵𝝎
 xspapd; Ntfk; V = fle;jnjhiyT (2d) / fhyk; (t)
𝜋 𝜃
,jpy;> 𝑡 = 𝑁𝜔 vd gpujpapl> (∵ 𝑡 = 𝜔 )
2𝑑𝑁𝜔
 xspapd; Ntfk; 𝑉 = = 2.99792 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝜋

[52]
4. epwg;gphpif jpwDf;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWf.

 nts;is xsp Kg;gl;lfj;jpd; topahf nry;Yk; NghJ> nts;is xspapYs;s tz;zq;fs;

epwg;gphpif milAk;.

 A - Kg;gl;lff; Nfhzk; (10o vd;w mstpy; rpwpaJ)

D - rpWk jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk;.

 ,t;tifahd Kg;gl;lfj;jpd; topNa xspf;fjpH nry;Yk; NghJ jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk; ( )

rpwpaJ.
𝐴+𝐷
sin
2
 xsptpyfy; vz; 𝑛= 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

𝐴+ 𝛿
2 𝐴+ 𝛿
 θ – rpwpaJ vdpy; sin θ = θ, 𝑛 = 𝐴 =
𝐴
2

 ruhrup fjpupd; jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk;>  = 𝑛−1 A

 Cjh tz;zj;jpw;F> V = (nv-1) A

 rptg;G tz;zj;jpw;F> R = (nR-1) A

 vdNt Nfhz epwg;gphpif> v - R = (nV – nR) A

 kQ;rs; tz;zj;jpw;F epwg;gphpif (ika jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk;)>  = 𝑛 − 1 A

 epwg;gphpifjpwd; (m) gphpjpwd;  = Nfhz epwg;gphpif

ika jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk;
𝛿 𝑉 −𝛿 𝑅 𝑛 𝑉 −𝑛 𝑅
 vdNt> 𝜔 = =
𝛿 𝑛−1

[53]
5. Kg;gl;lfk; xd;wpd; jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;il tUtpj;J> mjpypUe;J xsptpyfy;
vz;izf; fhz;gjw;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.
 PQ vd;w gLfjpH tpyFKfk; ABapy; tpOfpwJ.
 i1 - gLNfhzk;> r2 - tpyFNfhzk;

 AB gug;gpd; jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk; d1 = i1 – r1

 AC gug;gpd; jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk; d2 = i2 – r2

 Kg;gl;lfj;jpd; nkhj;j jpirkhw;wf;Nfhzk;

 d = d1+d2 = (i1 – r1)+(i2 – r2) = ( i1 + i2 ) – ( r1 + r2 ) - - - - - - (1)

 ehw;fuk; AQNR-ypUe;J> ∠A + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180° - - - - - - - (2)

  QNR -ypUe;J> r1+ r2+ ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 - - - - - - - - - (3)

 (2) kw;Wk; (3) xg;gpl

r1 + r2 = A - - - - - - - - (4)

(4) I (1) y; gpujpapl

d = i1 + i2 − A. - - - - - - - - (5)

 rpWk jpirkhw;w epiyapy;

i2 = i1= i @ r1 = r2 = r kw;Wk; d = D vd;gij (5) > (4)y; gpujpapl>

𝐴+𝐷 𝐴
 D = 2i − A ⟹ i= kw;Wk; 𝑟 =
2 2

𝐴+𝐷
sin 𝑖 sin 2
 ];ney; tpjpapypUe;J 𝑛 = = 𝐴
sin 𝑟 sin
2

gpw Kf;fpa tpdhf;fs;:

1. fz;zhbg;gl;lfk; xd;wpd; topahfg; ghAk; xspapd; gf;fthl;L ,lg;ngah;r;rpf;fhd rkd;ghl;ilg;
ngWf.

[54]
 7. miy xspapay;
2 kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :

1. xUjsg; ghh;it - tiuaW.

 ,tuhy; midj;J jpirfspYk; njspthf xd;W Nghy; ghh;f;f ,ayhJ.
 tpopnyd;]; jirehh;fs; tYtpog;gjhy; tpopnyd;]pd; ntt;NtW jsq;fspy; ntt;NtW tisT
Muq;fs; cUthfpwJ.
 cUis tbt nyd;]; %yk; rhp nra;ayhk;.
2. FWf;fPl;L tpisT kw;Wk; tpspk;G tpisT - NtWgLj;Jf.

FWf;fPl;L tpisT tpspk;G tpisT

nghypT kw;Wk; fUik tupfs; xNu kw;w tupfis tpl ika tupapd; mfyk;
mfyk; nfhz;lit ,U klq;F
vy;yh nghypT tupfSk; fpl;lj;jl;l xNu caH tupir tpspk;G tpisT tupfspd;
xspr;nrwpitg; ngw;wpUf;Fk;. xspr;nrwpT Ntfkha;; FiwAk;.

xsp tupfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfk;. xsp tupfspd; vz;zpf;if FiwT.

3. i`nfd;]; jj;Jtijf; $Wf.

 miyKfg;gpy; cs;s xt;nthU Gs;spAk; ,uz;lhk; epiy miyf;Fl;bfis cUthf;Fk; xsp
%yq;fshf nray;gLk;.
 ,g;Gs;spfspypUe;J ntsptUk; ,uz;lhk; epiy miyf;Fl;bfs;> miyapd; Ntfj;jpy;
midj;J jpirfspYk; guTk;.
 ,uz;lhk; epiy miyf;Fl;bfspd; Kd;Gw ciwNa> Gjpa miyKfg;G MFk;.
4. Xhpay; %yq;fs; vd;why; vd;d?
,uz;L miy %yq;fs; Xhpay; %yq;fshf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lnkdpy;
 mit ,uz;Lk; xNu fl;l NtWghL (my;yJ) fl;l NtWghL mw;w miyfis cUthf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
 ,uz;L miyfSk; xNu tPr;R nfhz;ljha; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5. tpspk;G tpisT vd;why; vd;d?
 jilapd; tpspk;gpy; tise;J nrd;W> jilapd; tbtpay; hPjpahd epoYf;Fs; miy nry;Yk;
epfo;Tf;F tpspk;G tpisT vd;W ngaH.
6. g;nudy; njhiyT vd;why; vd;d? mjd; rkd;ghL ahJ?
 xsp> fjpH xspapay; tpjpfSf;F cl;gLk; njhiytpw;F g;nudy; njhiyT vd;W ngaH.
𝑎2
 g;nudy; njhiyT 𝑍 = 2𝜆 ( a - gpstpd; mfyk; ,  - miyePsk; )
7. ,uhNy epge;jid vd;why; vd;d?
 ,uhNyapd; epge;jidg;gb> xU gpk;gj;jpYs;s ,U mLj;jLj;j Gs;spfSs; xU Gs;spapDila
tpspk;G tpisT ikag; ngUkKk; kw;wjd; Kjy; rpWkKk; nghUe;jp te;jhNyh (my;yJ)
mjw;F kWjiyahf ,Ue;jhNyh> mg;Gs;spfs; rw;Nw gpupf;fg;gl;l Gs;spfs; vdg;gLk;.

[55]
8. khy]; tpjpiaf; $Wf.
 tpjp;: Io nrwpT nfhz;l KOtJk; jstpisT mile;j xsp> jstpisT Ma;tpapy; tpOe;J I
nrwpT nfhz;l xspahf jstpisT Ma;tpapypUe;J ntspNaWk; NghJ> mjd; nrwpT
jstpisT Mf;fp kw;Wk; jstpisT Ma;tpapd; guT jsq;fSf;F ,ilNa cs;s
Nfhzj;jpd; nfhird; kjpg;gpd; ,Ukbf;F Neh; tpfpj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. I = Io cos2θ
9. miyKfg;G vd;why; vd;d?
 xNu fl;lj;jpy; mjpHtilAk;; Gs;spfis ,izf;Fk; Kd;Gw ciwf;F miyKfg;G vd;W
ngaH.
10. njspthd kw;Wk; mfykhd FWf;fPl;L tupfisg; ngWtjw;fhd epge;jidfs; ahit?
i) xsp%yj;jpw;Fk; jpiuf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s njhiyT D kpf mjpfkhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
ii) gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xspapd; miyePsk; λ kpf mjpfkhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
iii) ,uz;L gpsTfSf;F ,ilNaAs;s njhiyT d kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
11. jstpisTf; Nfhzk; tiuaW.
 ve;jf; Fwpg;gpl;l gLNfhz kjpg;gpw;F vjpnuhspg;G mile;j fjpH Kw;wpYk; jstpisT
mile;jNjh> me;jg; gLNfhzNk jstpisTf; Nfhzk; vdg;gLk;.

3 -kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1. G&];lh; tpjpiaf; $wp epWTf.

 glj;jpypUe;J> ip + 90o + rp = 180o (m) 𝑟𝑝 = 900 − 𝑖𝑝
sin 𝑖
 ];ney; tpjp 𝑛 = sin 𝑟𝑝
𝑝

sin 𝑖 sin 𝑖 𝑝
 𝑛 = sin ( 900𝑝−𝑖 = = tan 𝑖𝑝
𝑝) cos 𝑖𝑝

 𝑛 = tan 𝑖𝑝
 tpjp : xspGFk; Clfj;jpd; jstpisT Nfhzj;jpd; NlQ;rz;l; kjpg;G> me;j Clfj;jpd;
xsptpyfy; vz;zpw;Fr; rkk;.

2. jl;lLf;Ffs; gw;wpr; rpWFwpg;G jUf.

 G&];lH tpjpapd; mbg;gilapy; jl;lLf;F nra;fpwJ.
 fpilkl;lj;Jld; 900 - ip Nfhzj;jpy; cs;sthW gy
fz;zhb jl;Lfs; xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf mLf;fp
itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 ip Nfhzj;jpy; gLk; jstpisT mw;w xsp>
mLj;jLj;j jl;Lfspd; topNa nry;Yk;NghJ> tpyfyile;j xspapy;; gug;gpw;F ,izahf
cs;s mjpHTfs; mLj;jLj;j jl;Lfspy; vjpnuhspg;G milfpd;wd.
 ,jd; %yk;> vjpnuhspg;G mile;j fjpUk; tpyfyile;j fjpUk; KOtJk; jstpisT
milfpd;wd.

[56]
3. Nghyhuha;bd; gad;fisj; jUf.

1. Kg;ghpkhz jpiug;gl fhl;rpfis (`hNyhfpuhgp) cUthf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

2. ntapy; fhg;G fz;zhbahfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
3. ,ij gad;gLj;jp miwapd; cs;Ns tUk; xspapd; nrwpit fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
4. gioa vz;nza; Xtpaq;fspd; epwq;fis NtWgLj;jp mwpag; gad;gLfpwJ.
5. LCD -y; gad;gLk; jstpisT mile;j xspia cUthf;fg; (jput gbfjpiu) gad;gLfpwJ.
6. xspj; jifT gFg;gha;tpy; gad;gLfpd;wd.

5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil:

1. aq; ,ul;ilg; gpsT Ma;tpy; ngwg;gLk; gl;il mfyj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.

 S1>S2 - Xhpay; %yq;fs;.

d - gpsTfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s njhiyT.
D - gpsTfSf;Fk;>jpiuf;Fk; ,ilNaahd njhiyT.
 S1>S2 -y; ,Ue;J p - Gs;spia milAk; xspmiyfSf;F ,ilNaahd ghijNtWghL .
 = S2P – S1P = d sin θ
 = θ.d ( ∵ θ - kpfr; rpwpaJ.)
𝑦 𝑦
 tan 𝜃 = my;yJ θ= ( ∵ θ - kpfr; rpwpaJ.)
𝐷 𝐷
𝑦
 = 𝐷
𝑑
nghypTg;gl;il (ngUknrwpT) :
 ghijNtWghL  = 𝑛 𝜆
𝑦
𝑑 =𝑛𝜆 (n = 0,1,2,3…….)
𝐷
n-tJ nghypTg;gl;ilapd; njhiyT
𝐷
 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜆
𝑑
fUk;gl;il (rpWknrwpT) :
𝜆
 ghijNtWghL  = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
𝑦 𝜆
𝑑 = (2𝑛 − 1) ( n = 1, 2 ,3 ……)
𝐷 2
n-MtJ fUk;gl;ilapd; njhiyT:
𝐷 𝜆
 𝑦𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑑 2

gl;ilmfyk;:
 ,uz;L mLj;jLj;j nghypTg;gl;il my;yJ fUk;gl;ilfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s njhiyT
gl;ilmfyk; MFk;.
𝜆𝐷
 𝛽=
𝑑
[57]
2. vspa Ez;Nzhf;fpia tptupj;J> cUg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;il ngWf.
 Fiwe;j FtpaJ}uk; nfhz;l Ftpf;Fk; nyd;rhdJ
nghUspd; Neuhd cUg;ngUf;fg;gl;l kha gpk;gj;ij
Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
cUg;ngUf;fk; (mz;ikg;Gs;sp Ftpag;gLj;Jjy;)
 nghUshdJ nyd;rpd; FtpaJ}uj;jpw;F ( f ) Fiwthd
njhiytpy; itf;fg;gLfpwJ.gpk;gk; kPr;rpW njhiytpy; (D) cUthfpwJ.
𝑣 −𝐷
 m= =
𝑢 −𝑢
1 1 1
 nyd;]; rkd;ghL - =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝑣 𝐷
 vdNt cUg;ngUf;fk; m = = 1+
𝑢 𝑓
cUg;ngUf;fk; (,ay;Gepiy Ftpag;gLj;Jjy;)
 gpk;gk; <wpy;yhj; njhiytpy; fpilf;fpwJ.
𝜃𝑖
 Nfhz cUg;ngUf;fk; 𝑚 = - - - - - (1)
𝜃0
ℎ ℎ
 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃0 ≈ 𝜃0 = kw;Wk; 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 = vdr;
𝐷 𝑓
rkd;ghL (1)y; gpujpapl
ℎ
𝜃𝑖 𝑓
 Nfhz cUg;ngUf;fk; 𝑚= =ℎ
𝜃0 𝐷
𝐷
m=
𝑓

3. $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpia tptupj;J> cUg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;ilg; ngWf.

 nghUsUFnyd;];> jiyfPohd cUg;ngUf;fg;gl;l nka; gpk;gj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.

 ,g;gpk;gk; fz;zUF nyd;rpd; Ftpag;gug;gpw;Fs; ,Uf;Fk; gb rup nra;Ak;NghJ <wpy;yhj;

njhiytpy; my;yJ mz;ikg;Gs;spapy; jiyfPohd cUg;ngUf;fkile;j cz;ik gpk;gk;

fpilf;Fk;.

 cUg; ngUf;fk; : nghUsUF nyd;rpd;

𝒉′ 𝐿
cUg;ngUf;fk; 𝑚0 = =𝑓
𝒉 0

𝐷
 fz;zUF nyd;rpd; cUg;ngUf;fk; me = 1+ 𝑓𝑒

 mz;ikg;Gs;sp Ftpag;bgLj;Jjy; :
𝐿 𝐷
nkhj;j cUg;ngUf;fk; m = mo me = ( 𝑓o ) (1+ )
𝑓𝑒

 ,ay;Gepiy Ftpag;gLj;Jjy; :
𝐿 𝐷
gpk;gk; <wpy;yhj; njhiytpy; mike;jhy;> nkhj;j cUg;ngUf;fk; m = ( 𝑓o ) (𝑓𝑒 ).

[58]
4. xw;iwg; gpstpy; Vw;gLk; tpspk;G tpistpid tpsf;Ff.

 AB = a - xw;iwg; gpstpd; mfyk;.

 C - xw;iwg; gpstpd; ikak;.
 D - gpstpw;Fk; jpiuf;Fk; cs;s njhiyT.
𝑎
 xg;G Gs;spfspypUe;J tUk; xsp miyfspd; ghijNtWghL 𝛿 = 2 sin 𝜃

 KjyhtJ rpWkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = 

 ,uz;lhtJ rpWkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = 2
 n - tJ rpWkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = n ,q;F> n = 1>2>3….
 KjyhtJ ngUkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = 3/2
 ,uz;lhtJ ngUkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = 5/2
 n - tJ ngUkj;jpw;fhd epge;jid> a sin = (2n + 1) /2 ,q;F> n = 0>1>2>3….

5. thdpay; njhiyNehf;fp gw;wp tptupj;J>mjd; cUg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWf.

 thd;nghUs;fis cUg;ngUf;fk; nra;J fhz;gjw;F gad;gLk; njhiyNehf;fpNa thdpay;
njhiyNehf;fpahFk;.
mikg;G : fz;zUF nyd;ir tpl mjpf Ftpaj;J}uk; > ngupa JisAk; nfhz;l nghUsUF
nyd;]; ,jpy; cs;sJ.
nray;ghL :
 kpfj; njhiytpYs;s nghUspypUe;J tUk; xsp>
nghUsUF nyd;rpd; topNa Eioe;J thdpay;
njhiyNehf;fpf; Foypd; Ftpag;Gs;spapy; xU nka;
gpk;gj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
 fz;zUF nyd;];> ,e;j gpk;gj;ij cUg;ngUf;fk; nra;J>
ngupjhd jiyfPohd ,Wjp gpk;gj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
 thdpay; njhiyNehf;fpapd; cUg;ngUf;fk; :
பிம்பம் முதன்மை அச்சுடன் ஏற்படுத்தும் க ோணம் β f0
m= = =
பபோருள் முதன்மை அச்சுடன் ஏற்படுத்தும் க ோணம் α fe

 thdpay; njhiyNehf;fpapd; Njhuha ePsk; L = f0 + fe .

[59]
 8. fjpHtPr;R kw;Wk; gUg;nghUspd; ,Uikg; gz;G
2 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :
1. epWj;J kpd;dOj;jk; tiuaW.
 ngUk ,af;fMw;wy; nfhz;l xspvyf;l;uhd;fis epWj;jp>xspkpd;Ndhl;lj;ij Ropahf;Ftjw;F
MNdhbw;F mspf;fg;gLk; vjpH kpd;dOj;jj;jpw;F epWj;J kpd;dOj;jk; vdg;gLk;.
2. xspkpd; ntspNaw;W Mw;wy; vd;gij tiuaW. mjd; myifj; jUf.
 cNyhfj;jpd; gug;gpypUe;J vyf;l;uhid ntspNaw;wj; Njitg;gLk; rpWk Mw;wy;>
cNyhfj;jpd; ntspNaw;W Mw;wy; (𝜙0 ) vdg;gLk;.
 ,jd; myFvyf;l;uhd; Nthy;l; (𝑒𝑉)
3. xspkpd; tpisT vd;why; vd;d?
 cNyhf jl;L xd;wpd; kPJ jFe;j miyePsk; nfhz;l kpd;fhe;j fjpHtPr;R gLk;NghJ
mjpypUe;J vyf;l;uhd;fs; ckpog;gLfpd;wd. ,JNt xspkpd; tpisT vdg;gLk;.
4. gug;G muz; tiuaW.
cNyhfj;jpd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J> fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhd;fis ntspNawtplhky; jLf;Fk; kpd;dOj;j
muz;> gug;G muz; vdg;gLk;.
5. xsp kpd;fyk; vd;why; vd;d? xsp kpd;fyj;jpd; tiffisf; Fwpg;gpLf.
 Xsp Mw;wiy kpd; Mw;wyhf khw;Wk; rhjdk; xsp kpd;fyk; vdg;gLk;.
 ,J xspkpd; tpisT jj;Jtj;jpy; nray;gLfpwJ.
 ,J %d;W tifg;gLk;.
(1) xsp ckpo;T kpd;fyk; (2) xsp Nthy;lh kpd;fyk; (3) xsp flj;Jk; kpd;fyk;
6. b g;uha; fUJNfhspidf; $Wf.
 ,aw;ifapd; rkr;rPH gz;gpd; tpisthf>xsp Nghd;w fjpHtPr;R rpy Neuq;fspy; Jfs;fshfr;
nray;gLfpwJ vdpy;>vyf;l;uhd; Nghd;w gUg;nghUs; Jfs;fs; rpy Neuq;fspy; miyfs;
Nghd;W nray;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 ,af;fj;jpy; cs;s vyf;l;uhd;fs;> GNuhlhd;fs; kw;Wk; epa+l;uhd;fs; Nghd;w midj;J
gUg;nghUs; Jfs;fSk; miyg;gz;ig ngw;Ws;sd. ,e;j miyfs; b g;uha; miyfs;
my;yJ gUg;nghUs; miyfs; vdg;gLk;.
7. gad;njhlf;fmjpHntz; tiuaW.
 nfhLf;fg;gl;l cNyhfg;gug;gpw;F> gLfjpupd; mjpHntz; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpWk mjpHntz;iz
tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk> xspvyf;l;uhd; ckpog;gLk;. ,e;j rpWk mjpHntz;
gad;njhlf;f mjpHntz; vdg;gLk;.
8. g;uk;];buhyq; my;yJ jilAW fjpHtPr;R vd;why; vd;d?
 vjpHKLf;fk; mile;j vyf;l;uhdhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; fjpHtPr;R.
9. cNyhfq;fspy; fl;Lwh vyf;l;uhd;fs; Vd; mjpf vz;zpf;ifapy; cs;sd?
 cNyhfq;fspd; ntspf;$l;by; cs;s vyf;l;uhd;fs; mZf;fUf;fSld; jsHthf
gpizf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ.
10.Fthz;lk; fUj;Jg;gb xspr;nrwpit tiuaiw nra;f. mjd; myF ahJ?
-2
 XuyF Neuj;jpy; XuyF gug;gpy; jug;gLk; Mw;wyhFk;. ,jd; myF thl; kP .

[60]
3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :
1. vyf;l;uhdpd; b g;uha; miyePsj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;bidg; ngWf.
 m -epiw nfhz;lvyf;l;uhd; MdJ> V- vd;w kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;lhy; KLf;fg;gLfpwJ
1
vdpy;>vyf;l;uhd; ngWk; ,af;fMw;wy;> 𝑚 𝑣2 = 𝑒 𝑉
2

2𝑒 𝑉
 vdNt vyf;l;uhdpd; jpirNtfk;> 𝑣 =
𝑚

ℎ ℎ
 vdNt vyf;l;uhdpd; b g;uha; miyePskhdJ> 𝜆 = =
𝑚𝑣 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
ℎ
 ,af;fMw;wy; k = e V vdpy;> 𝜆 =
2𝑚𝑘
12.27 𝐴0
 njupe;j kjpg;Gfis gpujpapl> 𝜆 =
𝑉
2. /Nghl;lhdpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis vOJf.
1) xt;nthU /Nghl;lhdpd; Mw;wy; 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂.
2) /Nghl;lhdpd; Mw;wy; fjpHtPr;rpd; mjpHntz;zhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
3) /Nghl;lhd; xspapd; jpirNtfj;jpy; gazk; nra;Ak;.
4) /Nghl;lhd;fs; kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gyq;fspdhy; tpyfyilahJ.
5) /Nghl;lhd; gUg;nghUSld; tpidGupAk; NghJmjd; nkhj;jMw;wy;>kw;Wk; Nfhzce;jk;
Mfpatw;wpd; kjpg;Gfs; khWtjpy;iy.
3. xspkpd;fyj;jpd; gad;ghLfisvOJf.
(1) kpd;,af;fpfs; kw;Wk; kpd;czHtpfshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
(2) ,Us; Neuj;jpy; jhdhf xspUk; kpd;tpsf;Ffspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
(3) njUtpsf;Ffs; jhdhf xspuTk;>mizaTk; nra;ag; gad;gLfpd;wd.
(4) jpiuglq;fspy; xypapidj; jpUk;gg; ngWtjw;Fgad;gLfpd;wd.
(5) Xl;lg;ge;jaq;fspy;>jlfs tPuHfspd; Ntfj;ij mstpLk; fbfhuq;fspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
(6) Gifg;glj;Jiwapy;>xspr;nrwpit fzf;fplg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
4. njhlHX -fjpHfs; epwkhiygw;wpFwpg;Gtiuf.
1) midj;J miyePsq;fisf; nfhz;l fjpHtPr;Rfshy;
Mf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2) mjpNtf vyf;l;uhd; ,yf;F nghUis CLUtp mjd;
mZf;fUit neUq;Fk; NghJ>vyf;l;uhd; KLf;fk; my;yJ
vjpHKLf;fk; milfpwJ.
3) ,jd; tpisthfvyf;l;uhdpd; ghijkhw;wkilfpwJ.
4) vjpHKLf;fk; mile;jvyf;l;uhdhy; fjpHtPr;RNjhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk;.
(,J g;uk;];buhyq; my;yJ jilAW fjpHtPr;R vdg;gLk;.)

5) ckpog;gLk; /Nghl;lhdpd; Mw;wy; = vyf;l;uhdpd; ,af;fMw;wy; ,og;G.

ℎ𝑐
vdNt ℎ𝜈0 = = 𝑒𝑉
𝜆0
12400 𝐴0
6) njupe;jkjpg;Gfisgpujpapl>Fiwe;jgl;rmiyePsk; 𝜆0 =
𝑉
( ,J ^ahd; - `z;l;tha;g;ghLvdg;gLk;. )
[61]
5. rpwg;G X -fjpH epwkhiy Fwpg;G tiuf.

1) caHNtf vyf;l;uhd;fshy; ,yf;F nghUs; jhf;fg;gLk; NghJ> ed;F

tiuaWf;fg;gl;l rpy miyePsq;fspy; FWfpa KfLfs; X -fjpH
epwkhiyapy; Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,e;j KfLfSld; Njhd;Wk;
tup epwkhiy MdJ rpwg;G X -fjpH epwkhiy vdg;gLk;.
2) ,J mZtpDs; Vw;gLk; vyf;l;uhd; epiy khw;wj;jpdhy;
Njhd;WfpwJ.
3) vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> mZit CLUTk; caHNtf vyf;l;uhd;> K -$L
vyf;l;uhid ntspNaw;wpdhy;> mf;fhypaplj;ij epug;g L,M,N,O….
Nghd;w ntsp $LfspypUe;J vyf;l;uhd;fs; jhTfpd;wd.
4) $Lfspd; Mw;wy; kl;lq;fSf;F ,ilg;gl;l NtWghL X - fjpH /Nghl;lhd;fshf
ntspg;gLfpwJ.
5) L,M,N,O>…. Nghd;w Mw;wy; kl;lj;jpypUe;J> K - Mw;wy; kl;lj;jpw;F vyf;l;uhd; epiykhw;wk;
mile;jhy;> K - tupir epwkhiy tupfs; (K , K, K ….) Njhd;Wk;.
6) M,N,O>…. Nghd;w Mw;wy; kl;lj;jpypUe;J> L - Mw;wy; kl;lj;jpw;F vyf;l;uhd; epiykhw;wk;
mile;jhy;> L - tupir epwkhiy tupfs; ( L , L, L ….) Njhd;Wk;.
6. X - fjpHfspd; gad;ghLfis tptup.
1) vYk;G KwpT> clypd; cs;Ns cs;s me;epa nghUs;fs; Mfpatw;iwf; fz;lwpag;
gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Gw;WNeha;f; fl;bfis Fzkhf;Ftjw;F gad;gLfpd;wd.
3) gw;w itf;fg;gl;l ,izg;Gfspy; cs;s tpupry;fs; kw;Wk; nld;dp]; ge;Jfs; Mfpatw;iw
Nrhjid nra;ag; gad;gLfpd;wd.
4) jil nra;ag;gl;l nghUs;fisf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wd.
5) gbfg; nghUs;fspd; fl;likg;ig mwptjw;F gad;gLfpd;wd.

5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh -tpil

1. Xsp kpd;tpisT tpjpfis tupirg;gLj;Jf.

1) nfhLf;fg;gLk; gLfjpH mjpHntz;Zf;F> ckpog;gLk; Xspvyf;l;uhd;fspd; vz;zpf;if MdJ

gLfjpupd; nrwptpw;FNeHjftpy; mikAk;.

2) Xsp vyf;l;uhd;fspd; ngUk ,af;fMw;wy;> gLfjpupd; Xspr;nrwpitg; nghUj;J mikahJ.

3) Xsp vyf;l;uhd;fspd; ngUk ,af;f Mw;wy; gLfjpupd; mjpHntz;zpw;F NeHjftpy; mikAk;.

4) nfhLf;fg;gLk; cNyhfg; gug;gpw;F>gLfjpupd; mjpHntz; XU Fwpg;gpl;l rpWk mjpHntz;iz

tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk Xspvyf;l;uhd; ckpo;T Vw;gLk;. ,e;j rpWk mjpHntz;

gad;njhlf;f mjpHntz; vdg;gLk;.

5) cNyhfj;jpd; kPJ XspgLtjw;Fk;> Xsp vyf;l;uhd;fs; ckpog;gLtjw;Fk; ,ilNa fhy

jhkjk; ,Uf;fhJ.

[62]
2. jFe;j tpsf;fq;fSld; Id;];Bdpd; Xspkpd; rkd;ghl;ilg; ngWf.
1) XU cNyhfg;gug;gpd; kPJ /Nghl;lhd; Xd;W gLk;NghJ> xU vyf;l;uhdhy; cl;ftug;gLk;
mjd; Mw;wy; (𝒉𝝂) ,Utopfspy; gad;gLfpwJ.
i) Mw;wypd; XU gFjp> gug;gpypUe;J vyf;l;uhid
ntspNaw;wg; gad;gLfpwJ.,J ntspNaw;W Mw;wy; (𝜙0 )
vdg;gLk;.
ii) kPjKs;s Mw;wy;> ckpog;gl;l vyf;l;uhDf;F ,af;f
1
Mw;wyhf (2 𝑚𝑣 2 ) khWfpwJ.
vdNt Mw;wy; moptpd;ik tpjpg;gb>
1
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − − (1)
2
,q;F> 𝑚 → vyf;l;uhdpd; epiw @ 𝑣 → vyf;l;uhdpd; jpirNtfk;.
2) gad;njhlf;f mjpHntz;zpy; ( 𝜈0 )> vyf;l;uhdpd; ,af;f Mw;wy; RopahFk;.
ℎ𝜈0 = 𝜙0 − − − − (2)
3) rkd;ghL (2) -I rkd;ghL (1)- y; gpujpapl
1
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝑚𝑣2 − − − − (3). ,JNt Id;];Bd; Xspkpd; rkd;ghLvdg;gLk;.
2
4) mf Nkhjy;fspdhy; vyf;l;uhd;fSf;F Mw;wy; ,og;G Vw;gltpy;iy vdpy;>mjd; ,af;f
Mw;wy; ngUk kjpg;igg; ngWk;. vdNt
1
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
− − − − (4)
2
2 1
5) Xsp vyf;l;uhdpd; ngUk ,af;f Mw;wy; 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 vdpy;
2
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 −−−− (5)

3. Xspckpo;Tkpd;fyj;jpd; mikg;Gkw;Wk; Ntiynra;Ak; tpjj;ijtpsf;Ff.

jj;Jtk; : Xspkpd; tpisT
mikg;G :
 ,jpy; ntw;wplkhf;fg;gl;lFthHl;]; Fkpop cs;sJ.
 NfNjhL (C) - Xsp czHnghUs; g+rg;gl;L miu cUis tbtpy; cs;sJ.
 MNdhL (A) - nky;ypa fk;gp
 NfNjhL kw;Wk; MNdhLf;F ,ilNa XU kpd;dOj;j NtWghL fhy;tdh
kPl;lH topNa mspf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Ntiynra;Ak; tpjk;:
 NfNjhbd; kPJ XspgLk; NghJ> mjpypUe;J vyf;l;uhd;fs; ckpog;gLfpd;wd.
 ,it MNdhbdhy; ftug;gLtjhy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; cUthfpwJ. ,jid fhy;tdhkPl;lH %yk;
mstplyhk;.
kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; kjpg;G>
(1) gLfjpupd; nrwpT kw;Wk;
(2) MNdhL kw;Wk; Nfj;NjhLf;F ,ilg;gl;l kpd;dOj;j NtWghL Mfpatw;iwr; rhHe;J
mikAk;.
[63]
4. vyf;l;uhd; Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; jj;Jtk; kw;Wk; Ntiy nra;Ak; tpjk; Mfpatw;iw RUf;fkhf
tpsf;Ff.
jj;Jtk; : ,aq;Fk; gUg;nghUspd; miyg;gz;G.
mikg;G :

 vyf;l;uhd; Ez;Nzhf;fpapy;> vyf;l;uhd; fw;iwia Ftpg;gjw;F epiy

kpd;Gy my;yJ fhe;jg;Gy nyd;Rfs; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.

nray;gLk; tpjk; :
 vyf;l;uhd; %yj;jpypUe;J ckpog;gLk; vyf;l;uhd;fs; caH kpd;dOj;j
NtWghl;bdhy; KLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 fhe;jg;Gy Ftpf;Fk; nyd;R %yk; vyf;l;uhd; fw;iw ,izf;fw;iwahf
khw;wg;gLfpwJ.
 ,J cUg;ngUf;fk; nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba nghUs; topahf nry;Yk; NghJ
mjd; gpk;gj;ij jhq;fpr; nry;fpwJ.
 fhe;jg;Gy nghUsUF nyd;R kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gy tPo;j;Jk; nyd;R mikg;Gfspd; cjtpAld;
cUg;ngUf;fg;gl;l gpk;gk; jpiuapy; Njhw;W tpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

5. vyf;l;uhdpd; miy ,ay;gpid tptupf;Fk; Nltprd; - n[HkH Nrhjidia RUf;fkhf tptup.

mikg;G :
 Fiwe;j kpd;dOj;j kpd;fy mLf;F (L.T) %yk; kpd;dpio
F - #LgLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 ntg;g madp ckpo;thy;> vyf;l;uhd;fs; ckpog;gLfpd;wd.
 caH kpd;dOj;j kpd;fy mLf;F (H.T) %yk; ckpog;gl;l
vyf;l;uhd;fs; KLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 nky;ypa ,U mYkpdpa jfLfs; topNa nry;Yk; NghJ
,izf;fw;iwahf khWk; vyf;l;uhd;fs;> Xw;iwg; gbf
epf;fy; (Ni) kPJ gLfpwJ.
Ntiynra;Ak; tpjk; :

 mZtpdhy; gy;NtW jpirfspy; rpjwbf;fg;gLk; vyf;l;uhd;

fw;iwapd; nrwpT> RoYk; tz;zk; cs;s gFg;ghdhy;
(Nfhzk; 𝜃 -d; rhHghf )mstplg;gLfpwJ.
 nfhLf;fg;gl;l 54 V KLf;F kpd;dOj;jj;jpw;F> 𝜃= 500
Nfhzj;jpy; rpjwbf;fg;gl;l miyapd; nrwpT ngUkkhf
cs;sJ.
KbT:
vyf;l;uhd; miyapd; miyePsk;
(m) Nrhjid KbT (𝜃= 500) = 1.65 A0
(M) b g;uha; rkd;ghL (V= 54V) = 1.67A0
,r;NrhjidahdJ b g;uhapd; ,aq;Fk; JfSf;fhd miy ,ay;G vLNfhis Neubahf
rupghHj;Js;sJ.
[64]
gpw tpdhf;fs; :

1. 𝒒 − kpd;D}l;lKk;> 𝒎− epiwAk; nfhz;l kpd;JfshdJ> 𝑽 − vd;w kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bdhy;

KLf;fg;gLk; NghJ> mjDld; njhlHgil b g;uha; miyePsj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;il vOJf.
ℎ ℎ
 b g;uha; miyePsk;> 𝜆= = ( h -gpshq; khwpyp)
𝑚𝑣 2𝑚𝑞𝑉

2. kl;ilg; ge;jpd; miyg;gz;gpid Vd; ek;khy; fhz Kbtjpy;iy?

𝒉
 gUnghUspd; b g;uha; miyePsk;> 𝝀 =
𝒎𝒗

 b g;uha; miyePskhdJ> gUg;nghUspd; epiwf;F vjpHjftpy; mikAk;.

 vyf;l;uhdpd; epiwia Xg;gpLk; NghJ kl;ilg;ge;jpd; epiwahdJ fzprkhd msTf;F kpfkpf
mjpfkhdjhy;>mjd; miyePsk; Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;f msTf;F kpfkpf FiwT MFk;.
 ,jd; fhuzkhfjhd; kl;ilge;jpd; miyg;gz;gpid ek;khy; fhz Kbtjpiy.
3. GNuhl;lhd; kw;Wk; vyf;l;uhd; Mfpaitrkkhd ,af;fMw;wiyngw;Ws;sd. ,jpy; ve;jJfSf;Fb
g;uha; miyePsk; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;? fhuzk; $Wf.
𝟏 ℎ
 b g;uha; miyePsk; 𝝀𝜶 (mjhtJ 𝜆 = )
𝒎 2𝑚𝑒𝑉

 vyf;l;uhdpd; epiw < GNuhl;lhdpd; epiw

 vdNt vyf;l;uhdpd; miyePsk; > GNuhl;lhdpd; miyePsk;
4. 𝒎− epiwAs;s JfSld; njhlHGila b g;uha; miyePsj;jpw;fhd 𝝀 − rkd;ghl;il Jfspd;
,af;fMw;wy; %yk; 𝑲−vOJf.
𝐡
 b g;uha; miyePsk; 𝛌=
𝟐𝐦𝐞𝐕
𝐡
 ,af;fMw;wy; K = eVvdpy;> 𝛌 =
𝟐𝐦𝐊

5. Ez;Nzhf;fpfspy; X fjpHfSf;Fg; gjpyhf Vd; vyf;l;uhd; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ?

 vyf;l;uhd; kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;jg; Gyq;fshy; tpyfy; milAk;.vdNt vyf;l;uhid kpd; kw;Wk;
fhe;jg;Gy nyd;Rfshy; Ftpf;f my;yJ tpupf;f ,aYk;.
6. xsp ckpo;T kpd;fyk; vd;why; vd;d?
 xsp my;yJ gpw fjpHtPr;Rfs; cNyhff; Nfj;Njhbd; kPJ gLtjhy;> vyf;l;uhd; ckpo;T
Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jd; mbg;gilapy; xsp ckpo;T kpd;fyk; nray;gLfpd;wJ.
7. xsp Nthy;lh kpd;fyk; vd;why; vd;d?
 Fiwflj;jpapdhy; nra;ag;gl;l xsp czHT kpf;f nghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 mJ xsp my;yJ gpw fjpHtPr;R gLk;NghJ> mtw;wpd; nrwptpw;F Vw;g kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;il
cUthf;FfpwJ.
8. xspflj;Jk; kpd;fyk; vd;why; vd;d?
 ,jpy; Fiwflj;jpapd; kpd;jilahdJ> mjd; kPJgLk; fjpHtPr;R Mw;wYf;F Vw;g khWfpwJ.
Kf;fpa fzf;Ffs; : ,aw;gpay; ghlE}y; njhFjp - 2
 1. gf;fvz; 129 - vLj;Jf;fhl;L – 8.8
 2. gf;fvz; 138 - gapw;rp fzf;F 5,14

[65]
 9. mZ kw;Wk; mZf;fU ,aw;gpay;
2- kjpg;ngz; tpdh -tpil :
1. xUfpa+up - tiuaW.
 xU fpa+up vd;gJ 1 fpuhk; Nubak; xU tpdhbapy; Vw;gLk; rpijTfspd; vz;zpf;iff;Fr;
rkk;.
 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 rpijTfs;/tpdhb.
2. mZ epiw myF - tiuaW.
 fhHgd; INrhNlhg;Gfspy; mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLk; 6C12 INrhNlhg;gpd; epiwapy; 12-y;

xU gq;F MFk;. 1u = 1.660 X 10−27 Kg

3. fjpupaf;fr; nray;ghL (m) rpijT tPjk; - tiuaW.
dN
 xU tpdhbapy; rpijtilAk; mZf;fUf;fspd; vz;zpf;if MFk;. R = dt

 myF : ngf;fuy;.
4. epiw FiwghL my;yJ epiw ,og;G vd;why; vd;d?
 epa+f;spahd;fspd; nkhj;j epiwf;Fk;>mZf;fUtpd; epiwf;Fk; cs;s NtWghL> epiw
FiwghL my;yJ epiw ,og;G vdg;gLk;.
5. epa+l;upNdhtpd; gz;Gfis vOJf.
i) mjd; kpd;D}l;lk; RopMFk;.
ii) mJ vjpH epa+l;upNdh vd;w vjpHj;Jfisg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
iii) kpfr;rpwpa epiwia epa+l;upNdh ngw;Ws;sJ.
iv) gUg;nghUSld; epa+l;upNdh kpfkpff; Fiwe;j msNt ,iltpid GupfpwJ.
6. mZf;fU tpir gz;Gfis vOJf.
i) kpf typikahd tpir.
ii) FWfpa vy;iyf;Fs; nray;glf; $baJ.
iii) mZf;fU tpir xU ftHr;rp tpirahFk;.
iv) (n-n), (p-p), (p-n) ,tw;wpw;F ,ilNa mt;tpir rk typikAld; nray;gLfpwJ.
v) vyf;l;uhd;fspd; kPJ ,t;tpir nray;gLtjpy;iy.
7. miu MAl;fhyk; - tiuaW.
 njhlf;fj;jpy; cs;s mZf;fspy; ghjpasT mZf;fs; rpijtila xU jdpkk;
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; miuMAl;fhyk;. 𝐓𝟏 =
𝟐 𝛌

8. ruhrup MAl;fhyk; - tiuaW.

 midj;J mZf;fUf;fspd; MAl;fhyq;fspd; $LjYf;Fk;> njhlf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;j nkhj;j
𝟏
mZf;fUf;fspd; nkhj;j vz;zpf;iff;Fk; cs;s jfT MFk;. 𝛕= 𝛌

9. Nkhjy; fhuzp - tiuaW.

 ntF njhiytpy; My;ghJfs; cs;sNghJ>mjd; jpirNtf ntf;lupd; jpirf;Fk;>
mZf;fUtpd; ikaj;jpw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l nrq;Fj;Jj; njhiyT Nkhjy; fhuzp vd
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
[66]
10. fpsHT Mw;wy; vd;why; vd;d?
 Fiwe;j Mw;wy; epiyapypUe;J> mjpf Mw;wy; epiyf;F xU vyf;l;uhid fpsHTwr;
nra;aj; Njitg;gLk; Mw;wy; fpsHT Mw;wy; vdg;gLk;.
11. madpahf;f Mw;wy; vd;why; vd;d?
 mbepiyapy; cs;s xU vyf;l;uhid mZtpypUe;J ntspNaw;wj; Njitg;gLk; rpWk
Mw;wy; madpahf;f Mw;wy; vdg;gLk;.
12. GNuhl;lhd; -GNuhl;lhd; Rw;iwvOJf.
1 1
1H + 1H  1H
2
+ 𝐞+ + ν
1 2 3
1H + 1H  2He + γ
3
2He + 2He32He4 + 1H1 + 1H1

nkhj;jMw;wypd; kjpg;G 27 MeV.

13. kPr;rpW − mZF njhiyT tiuaW.
 1800 Nfhzj;jpy; vjpnuhspg;G miltjw;F Kd;> My;ghJfspd; epiyf;Fk; mZf;fUtpd;
𝟏 𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
ikaj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s rpWk njhiyT. (i.e) 𝒓𝟎 =
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝑬𝑲

14. epa+l;uhd; kw;Wk; GNuhl;lhd; Mfpait ve;j Jfs;fspdhy; Mdit?

 epa+l;uhd; - 2 fPo; FthHf; + 1 Nky; FthHf;

 GNuhl;lhd; - 2 Nky; FthHf; +1 fPo; FthHf;

15.gpizg;ghw;wy; tiuaW.

mZf;fU cUthFk; NghJ epiwf;Fiwghl;bw;Fr; rkkhd epiw kiwe;J Mw;wyhf

ntspg;gLfpwJ.

3 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :

1. Nfj;NjhL fjpHfspd; gz;Gfis vOJf.

 Mw;wy; kw;Wk; ce;jj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sd.

 mit NeHf;Nfhl;by; nry;fpd;wd.

 kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gyq;fshy; mit tpyf;fk; milfpd;wd.

 Gifg;glj; jfl;il ghjpf;fpd;wd.

 xspHjiy Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.

 thAf;fis madpahf;fk; nra;fpd;wd.

 nghUs;fspd; kPJ tPOk;NghJ> ntg;gk; cUthfpd;wJ.

[67]
2. My;gh rpijT> gPl;lh rpijT kw;Wk; fhkh ckpo;T - tptup.
My;gh rpijT:
 ,jpy; mZfUtpd; mZvz; kjpg;gpy; ,uz;Lk; > epiwvz; kjpg;gpy; ehd;Fk; FiwAk;.
238
 vLj;Jf;fhl;L : 92U 90Th234 + 2He4

gPl;lh (-) rpijT :

 ,jpy; mZfUtpd; mZvz; kjpg;Gxd;Wmjpfupf;Fk;.epiwvz; kjpg;GkhwhJ.

 vLj;Jf;fhl;L : 6C14  7N14 + 𝐞− + 𝛎

gPl;lh (+) rpijT :

 ,jpy; mZfUtpd; mZvz; kjpg;G xd;W FiwAk; . epiwvz; kjpg;G khwhJ.

 vLj;Jf;fhl;L : 22
11Na  10Ne
22
+ 𝐞+ + 𝝂

 ,e;epfo;T rhj;jpag;glhJ.

fhkh ckpo;T :

 ,jpy; mZfUtpd; mZvz; kw;Wk; epiwvz;zpy; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,y;iy. Nra;

mZf;fU fpsHTw;w epiyapypUe;J mbepiyf;Fj; jpUk;Gk; mZf;fspypUe;J fhkhfjpH

ntsptplg;gLk;. vdNt Mw;wy; epiyapy; kl;Lk; khWghL milAk;.

 vLj;Jf;fhl;L : 5B12  6C
12
+ 𝐞− + 𝛎 ( Mw;wy; 9 MeV)
*12 12
6C  6C + γ (Mw;wy; 4.4 MeV)

3. epa+l;uhd;fspd; gz;Gfis vOJf.

 mZf;fUtpDs; epa+l;uhd;fs; epiyj;jd;ikAld; ,Uf;fpd;wd.

 ntspNa mit epiyj;jd;ikaw;W cs;sd. ( T½ = 13epkplq;fs; )

 kpd;D}l;lkw;w Jfs;

 mjpf CLUTjpwd; nfhz;lJ.

tif ,af;fMw;wy;

FiwNtf epa+l;uhd;fs; 0 to 1000 eV

Ntf epa+l;uhd;fs; 0.5 MeV to 10 MeV

ntg;g epa+l;uhd;fs; 0.025 eV ( ntg;gr;rkepiyapy; )

[68]
4. NghH mZkhjpupapd; vLNfhs;fisf; $Wf.
 tl;lg;ghijapy; vyf;l;uhd; ,aq;fj; Njitahd ikaNehf;F tpiria $Y}k; tpir
mspf;fpwJ.
 vyf;l;uhd;fs; Fwpg;gpl;l rpy epiyj;jd;ik ngw;w ghijfspy; mZf;fUitr; Rw;wp tUk;
NghJ kpd;fhe;jf; fjpHfis tPRtjpy;iy. ,j;jifa epiyj;jd;ik ngw;w
Rw;Wg;ghijfspy; vyf;l;uhdpd; Nfhzce;jk; 𝑙 = 𝑛𝑕/2𝜋.
 ,U Rw;Wg;ghijfspd; Mw;wy; NtWghl;Lf;Fr; (ΔE) rkkhd Mw;wy; nfhz;l Nghl;lhid
cl;ftHtjhNyh my;yJ ntsptpLtjhNyh vyf;l;uhd; xU Rw;Wg; ghijapypUe;J
kw;nwhd;Wf;Fj; jht ,aYk;. (i.e) ΔE =𝐸𝑓 - 𝐸𝑖= hν.
5. FwpaPl;L Kiwapy; gpd;tUgtw;iw vOJf. (1) My;ghrpijT (2) gPl;lhrpijT (3) fhkhckpo;T .
1.  ⇒ ZX
A⟶
Z-2Y
A-4 + 2He4

2a. − ⇒ ZXA ⟶ Z+1Y

A + e- +𝛎

2b. + ⇒ ZXA ⟶ Z-1Y

A + e+ +𝝂
3.  ⇒ ZXA* ⟶ ZXA + 
6. n -MtJ tl;lg;ghijapy; vyf;l;uhdpd; Mw;wYf;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.
 n-MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapd; epiy kpd;dOj;j Mw;wy;>
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑈𝑛 = − (m) 𝑈𝑛 = −
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟𝑛 4𝜀 02 𝑕 2 𝑛 2
𝑍 2 𝑚𝑒 4
 n-MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapy; vyf;l;uhdpd; ,af;f Mw;wy;> 𝐾𝐸𝑛 =
8𝜀 02 𝑕 2 𝑛 2
 ,jpypUe;J> 𝑈𝑛 = −2𝐾𝐸𝑛
 n-MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapy; nkhj;j Mw;wy; 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾E𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛
𝑍 2 𝑚𝑒 4
= 𝐾E𝑛 - 2 𝐾E𝑛 = - 𝐾E𝑛 = −
8𝜀 02 𝑕 2 𝑛 2
13.6
 i`l;u[d; mZTf;F Z = 1> kw;Wk; njupe;j kjpg;Gfis gpujpapl 𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2
7. &jHNghHL Ma;tpd; KbTfisf; $Wf.
 ngUk;ghyhd My;gh Jfs;fs; tpyf;fk; milahky; nry;fpd;wd.
 rpy My;gh Jfs;fs; rpwpa Nfhz msNt tpyf;fk; milfpd;wd.
 Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd My;gh Jfs;fs; 90𝑜 Nfhzj;jpw;Fk; Nkyhd tpyf;fk;
milfpd;wd.
 kpff; Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd My;gh Jfs;fs; 180𝑜 Nfhz mstpy; gpd;Ndhf;fpa
rpjwy; milfpd;wd.
8. UjHNghHL khjpupapd; FiwghLfisf; $Wf.
 mZf;fUitr; Rw;wp vyf;l;uhdpfspd; guty; kw;Wk; mZtpd; epiyj;jd;ik Mfpatw;iw
,e;j mZkhjpupahy; tpsf;f Kbatpy;iy.
 KLf;fg;gl;l kpd;Jfs; kpd;fhe;jf; fjpHfis ckpo;fpwJ> ,jdhy;> mJ Mw;wiy ,oe;J
RUs; tl;l ,af;fj;ij Nkw;nfhz;L ,Wjpapy; mZf;fUtpDs; tpo Ntz;Lk;.
 ,e;j mZkhjpupapd; gb> fjpHtPr;rpd; epwkhiy njhlH ntsptpL epwkhiyahf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; mZf;fs; tup epwkhiyiaNa ntsptpLfpd;wd.
[69]
5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh-tpil :
1. NghH mZkhjpupapd; gb vyf;l;uhdpd; n-MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapd; Muj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiaj; jUtp.
Ze  mZf;fUtpd; kpd;D}l;lk.;
- e  vyf;l;uhdpd; kpd;D}l;lk;.
rn  n-MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapd; Muk;
Z  mZtpd; mZvz;.
1 𝑍 𝑒2
 $Y}k; tpjpg;gb 𝐹கூலூம் = − 𝑟. ,t;tpir ikaNehf;F tpirahf nray;gLfpwJ.
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟𝑛2

𝑚𝑣 𝑛2
 𝐹மையந ோக்கு = − 𝑟
𝑟𝑛

Tpirfis rkd; nra;a> 𝐹கூலூம் = 𝐹மையந ோக்கு

1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚𝑣 𝑛2
=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛

1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑚
=
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛 𝑚

4𝜋𝜖 0 (𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 )2
𝑟𝑛 =
Zm 𝑒 2
𝑛𝑕 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑛 2 h 2
 NghH nfhs;ifapd; gb> Nfhz ce;jk; 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = . vdNt 𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋 Zm 𝑒 2 4π 2
4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑛 2 𝑕 2 𝑛2
 𝑟𝑛 = . ,jpy; 𝜺𝟎 , 𝒉 , 𝒆, 𝝅 Mfpait khwpypfs;. MfNt Muk; 𝑟𝑛 = a0 .
𝑍𝑚 𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑍
𝜖0 𝑕 2
 ,q;F 𝑎0 = = 0.529 𝐴0 . ,JNt NghH Muk; vdg;gLk;.
𝜋𝑚 𝑒 2

 i`l;u[d; mZtpw;F (Z = 1)> n- MtJ Rw;Wg;ghijapd; Muk; 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑛2 .

jpirNtfk; :
𝑛𝑕
 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 a0 n2 =
2𝜋

1
 ,jpypUe;J> 𝑣𝑛 𝛼 . mjhtJ Kjd;ik Fthz;lk; vz; mjpfupf;Fk;
𝑛
NghJ vyf;l;uhdpd; jpirNtfk; FiwfpwJ.

2.vyf;l;uhdpd; kpd;D}l;l vz;izf; fz;lwpa cjTk; N[.N[. jhk;rd; Ma;tpid tptupf;fTk;.

jj;Jtk; :kpd; kw;Wk; fhe;jg;Gyq;fshy; Nfj;NjhL fjpHfs; tpyf;fk; milfpd;wd.
mikg;G:
 ,jpy; caH ntw;wpl kpd;dpwf;ff; Foha; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 Nfj;NjhL fjpHfshdJ MNdhL Nehf;fp ftug;gLfpd;wd.
 MNdhL rpWJis kl;LNk nfhz;bUg;gjhy; FWfpa
fw;iwahf Nfj;NjhLfjpHfs; mDg;gg;gLfpd;wd.
 mit xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd jpirapYs;s kpd; kw;Wk;
fhe;jg;Gyq;fSf;F ,ilNa nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 jpiuapy; mit gLk; Gs;spapy; (O) xspHjiy Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
[70]
jpirNtfj;ijf; fz;lwpjy;:
 kpd;Gyj;ij epWtpa gpd;> fhe;jg;Gyj;ij rup nra;tjd; %yk; Nfj;NjhL fjpHfis
kPz;Lk; ‘O’ Gs;spia te;jilAkhW nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
 fhe;jg;Gy tpir = kpd;Gy tpir
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = 𝑒𝐸
𝐸
𝑣 = - - - - - (1)
𝐵

kpd;D}l;l vz; fz;lwpjy;:

 MNdhbid Nehf;fp Nfj;NjhL fjpHfs; KLf;fg;gLtjhy;> kpd;dOj;j Mw;wyhdJ (𝒆𝑽 )>
1
,af;f Mw;wYf;Fr; 𝑚𝑣 2 rkkhFk;.
2
1
 Mw;wy; khwh jj;Jtj;jpd; gb> 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

e 1 𝑣2
kpd;D}l;lvz; =
m 2 V

e E2
(1) I gad;gLj;j = = 1.7 x 1011 C Kg −1
m 2VB 2

3 .fjpupaf;f rpijT tpjpapid jUtpf;f.

 fjpupaf;f rpijT tpjp : xU Fwpg;gpl;l fzj;jpy; > XuyF Neuj;jpy; eilngWk;
rpijTfspd; vz;zpf;if> mf;fzj;jpy; cs;s mZf;fUf;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;F
NeHj;jftpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
𝐝𝐍
 𝛂 𝐍 (my;yJ)
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝐍
 = −𝛌𝐍 ( ,q;F  − rpijTkhwpyp )
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐍
 = −𝛌 𝐝𝐭.
𝐍
𝐍 𝐝𝐍 𝐭
 Njhifapl 𝐍𝟎 𝐍
= − 𝟎
𝛌𝐝𝐭
𝐍
𝐥𝐧 = −𝛌𝐭
𝐍𝟎

,UGwKk; mLf;Ff;Fwp kjpg;igg; ngw>

𝐍
 = 𝐞−𝛌𝐭 (my;yJ)
𝐍𝟎

 𝐍 = 𝐍𝟎 𝐞−𝛌𝐭

 Neuk; MfMf mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if mLf;Ff;Fwp Kiwg;gb FiwAk;.

 midj;J fjpupaf;f mZf;fUf;fSk; rpijtila Kbtpyh fhyk; MFk;.
miu MAl;fhyk; :
 njhlf;fj;jpy; cs;s mZf;fspy; ghjpasT mZf;fs; rpijtila xU jdpkk;
vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; miu MAl;fhyk;.
𝐍𝟎 𝐍𝟎 −𝛌𝐓𝟏 𝛌𝐓𝟏
 N= ; t = 𝐓𝟏 vdpy; = 𝐍𝟎 𝐞 𝟐 𝐞 𝟐 =𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
klf;if vLf;f 𝐓𝟏 = =
𝟐 𝛌 𝛌

[71]
4. i`l;u[d; epwkhiyapd; tupirfis tptupf;f.

n - Fiwe;j Mw;wy; tl;lg;ghij ; m - caH Mw;wy; tl;lg;ghij ; R - upl;gHf; khwpyp.

𝟏
n M Tupir ngaH miyvz; kpd;fhe;j gFjp
𝛌

iykd; 1 1 GwCjh
1 2,3,4,5,6 R −
1 22
ghkH 1 1 fz;ZW xsp
2 3,4,5,6,7 R −
4 32
gh~d; 1 1 mUfhik mfr;rptg;G
3 4,5,6,7,8 R −
9 42
gpuhf;nfl; 1 1 mfr;rptg;G gFjpapd;
4 5,6,7,8,9 R − 2 ikaj;jpy;
16 5
/gz;l; 1 1 mjpf miyePsk; nfhz;l
5 6,7,8,9 R − 2 mfr;rptg;Gg; gFjp
25 6

5.mZf;fU ciy Ntiy nra;Ak; tpjj;ij

tpsf;fTk;.

 mZf;fU ciy vd;gJ jw;rhHGila

kw;Wk; fl;Lf;Fs; ,Uf;Fk; tifapy;

mZf;fUgpsT eilngWk; mikg;ghFk;.

ghfk; nray;ghL gad;gLj;jg;gLk; nghUs;fs;

vupnghUs; mZf;fU gpsTf;F cl;gLk; nghUs; ANudpak; - 235>GSl;Nlhdpak;.

jzpg;ghd;fs; Ntf epa+l;uhd;fis FiwNtf fdePH > fpuhigl;

epa+l;uhd;fshf khw;Wk; mikg;G.

fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; mjpf epa+l;uhd;fs; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; fhl;kpak; > Nghuhd;.

jz;Lfs; jz;Lfshy; cl;ftug;gl;L> tpid

eilngWk; tPjj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;jk;

mikg;G.

FspHtpf;Fk; mZf;fU ciyapd; cs;sfj;jpy; ePH> fdePH> jput Nrhbak;

mikg;G cUthFk; ntg;gj;ij ePf;Fk;

mikg;G.

jLg;G jPik gaf;Fk; fjpH tPr;RfspypUe;J 2 Kjy; 2.5m jbkDs;s

mikg;G ek;ik ghJfhf;Fk; mikg;G. fw;fhiu RtH ciyr;Rw;wp
mikf;fg;gLfpwJ.

[72]
6.vyf;l;uhdpd; kpd;D}l;l kjpg;igf; fz;lwpa cjTk; kpy;ypfd; vz;nza;j; Jsp Ma;tpid

tptupf;fTk;.

 jj;Jtk; : kpd;Gyj;ijj; jFe;j Kiwapy; khw;Wtjd; %yk; vz;nza;j; Jspapd;

,af;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
mikg;G:
 ,U fpilj;js> tl;l tbt cNyhfj;jl;Lfs; rpwpa
,ilntspapy; gpupj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. cNyhfj;jl;Lfs;
fz;zhb RtHfs; nfhz;l fydhy; #og;gl;Ls;sd.
 Nky; jl;L A y; cs;s Jis topahf vz;nzahdJ
Ez;njspg;ghd; %yk; njspf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; %yk; Jspfisj; njspthff; fhzKbAk;.
 ,j;jl;LfSf;fpilapy; caH kpd;dOj;j NtWghL mspf;fg;gLk;NghJ kpd;Gyk;
cUthfpwJ.
vz;nza;j; Jspapd; Muk; fhzy;:

 kpd;Gyk; ,y;yhj epiyapy;> m epiw nfhz;l vz;nza;j;Jsp fPo;Nehf;fp KLf;fk;

milfpwJ.
 fhw;wpdhy; Vw;gLk; ghfpay; tpirapdhy; vz;nza;j;Jsp vspjpy; rPuhd jpirNtfj;ij
(Kw;Wj; jpirNtfk;) milfpwJ.
𝟒
fPo; Nehf;fpa GtpapHg;G tpir 𝑭𝒈 = 𝟑 𝛑𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝒈
𝟒
Nky; Nehf;fpa kpjit tpir 𝑭𝒃 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝇𝒈
𝟒
fPo; Nehf;fpa epfu tpir 𝐹 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 (𝝆 − 𝝇)𝒈

𝝆 − vz;nza;j; Jspapd; mlHj;jp; > 𝝇 – fhw;wpd; mlHj;jp

 vz;nza; Jsp Kw;Wj;jpirNtfj;ij milAk; NghJ>
fPo; Nehf;fpa epfutpir = ghfpay; tpir
𝟒
𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝆 − 𝝇 𝒈 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒓𝒗
𝟑
𝟏
𝟗𝛈𝐯
vz;nza; Jspapd; Muk; 𝐫= (𝟐 )𝟐
𝛒−𝛔 𝐠

kpd;D}l;lkjpg;Gfhzy;:

 kpd;Gyj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; NghJ> Jsp kPJ Nky; Nehf;fpa kpd;tpir (qE) nray;gLfpwJ.
kpd;Gyj;ij rupnra;J mj;Jspia epiyahf epWj;jp itf;fTk; NghJ>
fPo; Nehf;fpa epfutpir = kpd; tpir
4
𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔 = 𝑞𝐸
3
1
4 18π 𝜂3𝑣3 2
𝑞= 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔 my;yJ q=
3E E 2 𝜌−𝜍 𝑔

 𝒒 d; kjpg;G − 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂 -d; KO klq;Ffshf ,Ug;gijf; fz;lwpe;jhH

[73]
7. epiw vz;izg; nghUj;J ruhrup gpizg;ghw;wypd; khWghl;il tiuglj;Jld; tpsf;fp mjd;
,ay;Gfis tpsf;Ff.
 𝐁𝐄 mZf;fU xd;wpypUe;J xU epa+f;spahid ntspNaw;wj; Njitg;gLk; Mw;wyhFk;.

A- epiwvz; MFk;.

 tiuglj;jpy; 𝐁𝐄 - d; kjpg;G Y mr;R ; A - d; kjpg;G X mr;R.

 A = 56 (,Uk;G) mZf;fUtpw;F 𝐁𝐄 mjd; ngUk kjpg;ig> mjhtJ 𝟖. 𝟖 𝐌𝐞𝐕 milfpwJ.

 A= 40 Kjy; 120 tiu ruhrup 𝐁𝐄 = 𝟖. 𝟓 𝐌𝐞𝐕. ,e;j jdpkq;fs; mjpf epiyj;jd;ik

kw;Wk; fjpupaf;fj; jd;ikaw;wJ.

 mjpf epiwvz; nfhz;l jdpkq;fSf;F 𝐁𝐄 ,d; kjpg;G nkJthff; Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl

tUfpwJ. ANudpaj;jpd; 𝐁𝐄 kjpg;G 𝟕. 𝟔 𝐌𝐞𝐕. ,it epiyj;jd;ik ,y;yhj fjpupaf;fj;

jdpkq;fs; MFk;.

 mZf;fU ,izT : ,U ,Nyrhd mZf;fUf;fisr;

NrHj;J> xU fdkhd mZf;fUit cUthf;Fk; NghJ

Vuhskhd Mw;wy; ntspg;gLk;. ,J i`l;u[d; Fz;bd;

jj;Jtk; MFk;.

 mZf;fU gpsT : fdkhd jdpkj;jpd; mZf;fUitg;

gpsT nra;J> ,uz;L ,Nyrhd mZf;fUf;fis

cUthf;Fk; NghJ Vuhskhd Mw;wy; ntspg;gLk;. ,J mZFz;bd; jj;Jtk; MFk;.

Kf;fpa fzf;Ffs; : ,aw;gpay; ghlE}y; njhFjp - 2

1. gf;f vz; 168 - vLj;Jf;fhl;L – 9.10
2. gf;f vz; 176 - vLj;Jf;fhl;L – 9.12
3. gf;f vz; 192 – gapw;rp fzf;F – 6

[74]
 10. vyf;l;uhdpay;; kw;Wk; jfty; njhlHG mikg;Gfs;
2 kjpg;ngz; tpdh–tpil:

1. cs;shh;e;j kw;Wk; Gwtpayhd Fiwflj;jpfis NtWgLj;Jf.

cs;;shh;e;j Fiwflj;jp Gwtpayhd Fiwflj;jp

khR vitAk; fyf;fhj J}a;ikahd khR mZf;fs; NrHf;fg;gl;l Fiwflj;jp.
Fiwflj;jp.
flj;J gl;ilapYs;s vyf;l;uhd; rkkhf mikahJ.
vz;zpf;ifAk; ,izjpwd;
gl;ilapYs;s Jisfspd;
vz;zpf;ifAk; rkk;.
Fiwe;j kpd;flj;Jjpwd; nfhz;lJ. mjpf kpd;flj;Jjpwd; nfhz;lJ.

2. kh#l;Ljy; vd;gjd; nghUs; vd;d?

 cs;shHe;j Fiwflj;jpfSld; khRfis NrHf;Fk; epfo;T kh#l;Ljy; vdg;gLk;.
3. nfhilahsp khR kw;Wk; Vw;ghd; khR NtWgLj;Jf.
nfhilahsp khR Vw;ghd; khR
Ie;J ,izjpwd; nfhz;l khR mZf;fs; %d;W ,izjpwd; nfhz;l khR
(njhFjp - V ) mZf;fs; (njhFjp - III )
khR mZf;fs; flj;J gl;ilf;F XH khR mZf;fs; mUfpy; cs;s
vyf;l;uhid mspf;Fk;. mZf;fsplkpUe;J vyf;l;uhid Vw;Fk;.
v.fh: gh];gu]; > MHrdpf; > Mz;bkdp. v.fh: Nghuhd; > mYkpdpak; > Nfypak;.

4. ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjp vd;gJ ahJ?

 re;jpf;F mUfpy; kpd;Dl;l CHjpfsw;w nky;ypa mLf;F ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjp vdg;gLk;.
5. kpd;dOj;j muz; - tiuaW.
 ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjpapd; FWf;Nf cs;s kpd;dOj;j NtWghL kpd;dOj;j muz;
vdg;gLk;.
 rpypf;fhd; kw;Wk; n[Hkhdpaj;jpw;F 250C ntg;gepiyapy; kpd;dOj;j muzpd; kjpg;G
KiwNa 0.7 V kw;Wk; 0.3 V MFk;.
6. jpUj;Jjy; vd;why; vd;d?
 khWjpir kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij NeHjpir kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;Wk; nray;Kiw jpUj;Jjy;
vdg;gLk;.
7. nrdhH KwpT > rhpT KwpT NtWgLj;Jf.
nrdhHKwpT rhpTKwpT
kpf mjpf msT kh#l;lg;gl;l PN re;jp. Fiwe;j msT kh#l;lg;gl;l PN re;jp.
nky;ypa ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjp ,Uf;Fk;. jbkdhd ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjp ,Uf;Fk;.
kpf typikahd kpd;Gyj;jhy; nrdhH ntg;gj;jpdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l rpWghd;ik
KwpT Vw;gLk;. CHjpfshy; Vw;gLk;.

[75]
8. nrdhH ilNahbd; gad;fis vOJf.
 kpd;dOj;j fl;Lg;gLj;jpahfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
 kpd;dOj;jq;fis mstpLk; fUtpahfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
 rhHGgLj;Jk; kpd;Rw;W tiyfspy; Fwpg;G kpd;dOj;jj;ij mspf;fpwJ.
 vjpHghuhj tpjkhf mspf;fg;gLk; mjpf gbahd kpd;dOj;jq;fspdhy; fUtpfs;
gOjilahky; ,Uf;f gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

10. nghJ mbtha; epiy mikg;gpd; kpd;Rw;W FwpaPl;Lg; glk; tiuf.

11. nghJ ckpo;g;ghd; epiy mikg;gpd; kpd;Rw;W FwpaPl;Lg; glk; tiuf.

12. nghJ Vw;ghd; epiy mikg;gpd; kpd;Rw;W FwpaPl;Lg; glk; tiuf.

[76]
13. gz;Ngw;wk; vd;why; vd;d?
 Fiwe;j mjph;ntz; nfhz;l mbf;fw;iw irifia> mjpf mjph;ntz; nfhz;l
NubNah irifapd; kPJ Nkw;nghUj;JtJ gz;Ngw;wk; vdg;gLk;.
14. tPr;Rg; gz;Ngw;wk; - tiuaW.
 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g Ch;jp irifapd; tPr;R khw;wg;gl;lhy;> mJ
tPr;Rg; gz;Ngw;wk; vdg;gLk;.
15. mjph;ntz; gz;Ngw;wk; tiuaW.
 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g Ch;jp irifapd; mjph;ntz;
khw;wg;gl;lhy;> mJ mjph;ntz; gz;Ngw;wk; vdg;gLk;.
16. fl;lg; gz;Ngw;wk; tiuaW.
 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g Ch;jp irifapd; fl;lk; khw;wg;gl;lhy;>
mJ fl;lg; gz;Ngw;wk; vdg;gLk;.
17. PM kw;Wk; FM xg;gpLf.
fl;lg; gz;Ngw;wk; (PM) mjph;ntz; gz;Ngw;wk; (FM)
PM miyahdJ rpwpa gl;il FM miyahdJ mfykhd gl;il mfyj;ijg;
mfyj;ijg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
gug;Gif Ntfk; mjpfk;. gug;Gif Ntfk; FiwT.
,jpy; mjpf jftiy mDg;gyhk;. ,jpy; Fiwe;j jftiy mDg;gyhk;.

3 kjpg;ngz; tpdh–tpil:

1. nrdhh; ilNahL xU kpd;dOj;j rPuikg;ghdhfr; nray;gLtij tptup.

 KwpTg; gFjpapy; nray;gLk; xU gpd;Ndhf;F rhHgpy; mike;j nrdhh;ilNahL kpd;dOj;j
rPuikg;ghdhf nray;gLfpwJ.
 cs;sPL kpd;dOj;jkhdJ nrdhH kpd;dOj;jk; 𝑉𝑍 tpl mjpfhkhf ,Uf;Fk; tiu>
ntspaPL kpd;dOj;jk; 𝑉0 khwpypahf epiy epWj;jg;gLfpwJ.
cs;sPL NeHjpir 𝑅𝑠 d; FWf;Nf nrdhh; gSkpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝑉0 = 𝑅𝐿 d; FWf;Nf
kpd;dOj;jk; kpd;dOj;;j kpd;Ndhl;lk; 𝐼𝐿 kpd;dOj;j NtWghL
NtWghL 𝐼𝑍
mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ mjpfupf;Fk; mjpfupf;Fk; khwpyp khwpyp
FiwAk; NghJ FiwAk; FiwAk; khwpyp khwpyp

 gf;f ,izg;gpd; fhuzkhf 𝑉0 (khwpyp ) ® 𝑉𝑍 .

 cs;sPL kpd;dOj;jj;jpy; khw;wk; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ>
nrdhH ilNahbd; FWf;Nf cs;s kpd;dOj;jk;
khwpypahf mikAk;.
 ,t;thwhf nrdhH ilNahL xU kpd;dOj;j
rPuikg;ghdhf nray;gLfpwJ.

[77]
2. buhd;]p];lH xU rhtpahf nray;gLtij tptup.
 buhd;]p];luhdJ njtpl;ba kw;Wk; ntl;L
epiyapy; xU rpW fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; irif %yk;
vyfl;;uhdpay; rhtpahf nray;gLfpwJ.

𝑅𝐶 d;
cs;sPL Vw;ghd; FWf;Nf ntspaPL
buhd;]p];lupd;
kpd;dOj;jk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; kpd;dOj;j kpd;dOj;jk;
nray;ghL
Vin 𝐼𝑐 NtWghL (𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐 Rc)
𝐼𝑐 Rc
jpwe;jrhtp
0 V Rop Rop mjpfk;
(OFF)
%barhtp
5V mjpfupf;Fk; mjpfupf;Fk; FiwT
(ON)
 ntspaPL kpd;dOj;jk; cs;sPL kpd;dOj;jj;jpw;F vjpuhf mikAk;.
 vdNt fzpdpapy; Gul;bahf (NOT Gate ) gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

3. ,af;fkpy;yhg; gFjpia cUthf;Fk; Kiwia tptup.

 n-tif kw;Wk;> p-tif Fiwflj;jp gFjpfSf;F
,ilg;gl;l njhLk; gug;G p – n re;jp vdg;gLk;.
 n gFjpapy; mjpf vyf;l;uhd; nrwpTk;> p gFjpapy; mjpf
Jisfspd; nrwpTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
 tputy; epfo;T njhlHe;J eilngWtjhy; re;jp
,UGwq;fspYk; NeH madpmLf;F kw;Wk; vjpH
madpmLf;F cUthfpd;wd.
 re;jpf;F mUfpy; cs;s kpd;D}l;l CHjpfsw;w nky;ypa
mLf;F ,af;fkpy;yg; gFjp vdg;gLk;.

4. tPr;Rg; gz;Ngw;wj;jpd; ed;ik kw;Wk; FiwghLfs; ahit?

ed;ikfs;:
 vspjhd gug;Gif kw;Wk; Vw;G.
 Fiwthd gl;il mfyj; Njit.
 Fiwe;j tpiy.

FiwghLfs; :
 ,iur;ry; msT mjpfk;.
 Fiwe;j nray;jpwd;.
 Fiwthd nray; neLf;fk;.
[78]
5. mjph;ntz; gz;Ngw;wj;jpd; ed;ikfs; kw;Wk; tuk;Gfs; ahit?
ed;ikfs;:
 ,iur;ry; kpfTk; FiwT.
 nray;gLk; neLf;fk; kpf mjpfk;.
 gug;Gifapd; gaDWjpwd; kpfTk; mjpfk;.
 AM thndhypAld; xg;gpLk; NghJ FM thndhyp rpwe;j juj;;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

FiwghLfs;;:
 kpfTk; mfykhd miythpir Njit.
 FM gug;gpfs; kw;Wk; Vw;gpfs; kpfTk; rpf;fyhdit kw;Wk; tpiy mjpfkhdit.
 AM cld; xg;gpLk; NghJ>Vw;Fk; gug;G FM-y; FiwthFk;.

5 kjpg;ngz; tpdh–tpil:

1. xU miu miy jpUj;jpapd; nray;ghl;bid glj;Jld; tpsf;Ff.

 miu miy jpUj;jp cs;sPL irifapd; xU gFjpia jLf;fpd;wJ.vdNt ,J
“xUjpirf;fUtp” vdg;gLfpwJ.
 ,k;kpd;Rw;wpy; xU kpd;khw;wp> xU p – n re;jp ilNahL kw;Wk; xU kpd;jil Mfpait
cs;sd.

nray;ghL:

Cs;sL
P irif Kid B iag; ilNahbd; rhHG ilNahbd;
nghUj;J Kid A nray;ghL
NeH miumiy NeH kpd; Kid Kd;Ndhf;F rhHG kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij
flj;Jk;
vjpH miumiy vjpH kpd; Kid gpd;Ndhf;F rhHG kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij
flj;jhJ.

 miu miy jpUj;jpapd; ntspaPL epiyahd NeHjpir kpd;dOj;jkhf ,y;yhky;> Jbg;G

kpd;dOj;j miyahf mikAk;.
 tbfl;b Rw;Wfis gad;gLj;jp epiyahd kpd;dOj;jj;ij ngwKbAk;.
 ntspaPL dc jpwd;
gaDWjpwd; () ® X 100 = 40.6%
cs;sPL ac jpwd;

[79]
2. KO miyjpUj;jpapd; nray;ghl;bid glj;Jld; tpsf;Ff.
 ,uz;L p-n re;jp ilNahLfs;> xU ikar;rhtp kpd;khw;wp kw;Wk; xU gSkpd;jil (RL)
cs;sJ.
 ika KidahdJ nghJthf jiu ,izg;ghf fUjg;gLfpwJ.
 C - Rop kpd;dOj;j Kid.

nray;ghL:
cs;sPL M-d; N-d; ilNahL ilNahL kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd;
irif kpd;Kid kpd;Kid D1 D2 ghij
NeH Kd;Ndhf;F gpd;Ndhf;F
NeH vjpH MD1ABC
miumiy rhHG rhHG
vjpH gpd;Ndhf;F Kd;Ndhf;F
vjpH NeH ND2ABC
miumiy rhHG rhHG

 gaDWjpwd; = 81.2%

3. B khh;fdpd; Kjy; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ Njw;wq;fisf; $wp epWTf.

Kjy; Njw;wk;:
 ,U cs;sPLfspd; $Ljypd; epug;gpahdJ mtw;wpd; epug;gpfspd; ngUf;fw; gyDf;Fr;
rkkhFk;.
 mjhtJ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 . 𝐵

,uz;lhtJNjw;wk;:
 ,U cs;sPLfspd; ngUf;fw;gydpd; epug;gpahdJ mjd; epug;gpfspd; $LjYf;Fr; rkkhFk;.
 mjhtJ 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐵

[80]
4.gz;Ngw;wk; vd;why; vd;d? gz;Ngw;wj;jpd; tiffis Njitahd glq;fSld; tpsf;Ff.

gz;Ngw;wk; : Fiwe;j mjpHntz; nfhz;l iriffis ePz;l njhiyT gug;g mjid mjpf

mjpHntz; nfhz;l CHjp miyapd; kPJ Nkw;nghUj;jg;gLk; epfo;T gz;Ngw;wk; vdg;gLk;.

tiffs; :

1) tPr;Rg; gz;Ngw;wk;

2) mjpHntz; gz;Ngw;wk;

3) fl;lg; gz;Ngw;wk;

(1) tPr;Rg; gz;Ngw;wk; :

 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g CHjp

irifapd; tPr;R khw;wg;gLk;.

 CHjp irifapd; mjpHntz; kw;Wk; fl;lk; khwhJ.

 thndhyp kw;Wk; njhiyf;fhl;rp gug;Gjypy;

gad;gLfpwJ.

(2) mjpHntz; gz;Ngw;wk;:

 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g CHjp

irifapd; mjpHntz; khw;wg;gLk;.

 CHjp irifapd; tPr;R kw;Wk; fl;lk; khwhJ.

 mbf;fw;iwirifkpd;dOj;jk; :

1. Rop vdpy; CHjp miyapd; mjpHntz;zpy;

khw;wkpy;iy. ,J gz;Ngw;wg;gl;l miyapd;

mjpHntz;zpw;Fr; rkk;. ,J ika mjpHntz; my;yJ

Xa;Tepiy mjpHntz; vdg;gLk;.

2. NeHFwp (A,C) - gz;Ngw;wg;gl;l miyapd; mjpHntz;

mjpfupf;Fk;.

3. vjpHFwp (B,D)- gz;Ngw;wg;gl;l miyapd; mjpHntz;

FiwAk;.

fl;lg; gz;Ngw;wk;:

 mbf;fw;iw irifapd; fzNeu tPr;rpw;F Vw;g CHjp irifapd; fl;lk; khw;wg;gLk;.

 CHjp irifapd; tPr;R kw;Wk; mjpHntz; khwhJ

[81]
$Ljy; tpdhf;fs;:

1. ,izjpwd; gl;il vd;why; vd;d?

2. flj;Jjpwd; vd;why; vd;d?

3. tpyf;fg;gl;l Mw;wy; ,ilntsp vd;why; vd;d?

4. Fiwflj;jpapd; ntg;gepiy kpd;jilvz; vjpHFwp cilaJ Vd;?

5. xU ilNahby; tputy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;gjd; nghUs; vd;d?

6. rhHG gLj;Jjy; vd;why; vd;d? mjd; tiffs; ahit?

7. xUilNahL „xUjpirf;fUtp‟ vd miof;fgLfpwJ. Vd;?.

8. NPN buhd;rp];lupy; kpd;Ndhl;l gha;T gw;wp tpsf;Ff.

9. kpd;Ndhl;lg; ngUf;fk; (α, β) tiuaW. mtw;wpw;fhd njhlHigj; jUtp.

10. nray;gLk;; Gs;sp vd;why; vd;d?

11. njhFg;G rpy;Yfs; vd;why; vd;d?

12. Xa;T mjpHntz; vd;why; vd;d?

13. xNu tifahd Fiwf;flj;jpg; nghUshy; nra;ag;gl;l NghjpYk; xU buhd;rp];lupd;

ckpo;g;ghd; kw;Wk; Vw;ghd; Mfpatw;iw gupkhw;wp gad;gLj;j ,ayhJ. Vd;?

Kf;fpa fzf;Ffs; :

ghlE}y; njhFjp – 2> gf;fk; - 250> gapw;rpvz; : 7 > 8

[82]
 11 . ,aw;gpaypd; mz;ikf;fhy tsHr;rpfs;
2 -kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :
1. ehNdh mwptpay; kw;wk; ehNdh njhopy; El;gk; NtWgLj;Jf.
ehNdh mwptpay; :
ehNdh mwptpay; vd;gJ 1 - 100 nm msTfs; nfhz;l nghUs;fspd; mwptpay; MFk;.
ehNdh njhopy; El;gk; :
ehNdh njhopy;El;gk; vd;gJ ehNdh mstpy; fl;likf;fg;gl;l nghUs;fspd;
tbtikg;G> cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; gad;ghLfs; cs;slf;fpa njhopy;El;gk; MFk;.

2. ehNdh nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NgusT nghUl;fs; ,ilNa cs;s NtWghL ahJ?

 jpz;kj;jpd; JfshdJ 100 nm -I tpl rpwpa msthf ,Ue;jhy; mJ ehNdh jpz;kk;

vdg;gLk;. Mdhy; jpz;kj;jpd; JfshdJ 100 nm -I tpl mjpf msthf ,Ue;jhy; mJ
NgusT jpz;kk; vdg;gLk;.
 ehNdh kw;Wk; NgusT jpz;kq;fs; xNu Ntjpapay; fyitahf ,Uf;fyhk;> Mdhy;
NgusT tbtj;ij xg;gpl ehNdh tbtk; khWgl;l gz;Gfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;

3. ,aw;ifapy; cs;s ehNdh nghUl;fSf;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; jUf.

(1) Xupio kw;Wk; <upio DNA (2) kapy; ,wFfs;
(3) khH/Ngh gl;lhk; g+r;Rfspd; ,wf;if (4) fpsp kPdpd; gw;fs;
4. ve;jpudpay; (Robbtics) vd;why; vd;d?
 ve;jpudpay; vd;gJ ,ae;jpug; nghwpapay;> kpd;dZg; nghwpapay;> fzpdp nghwpapay;
kw;Wk; mwptpay; Mfpatw;wpd; xUq;fpize;j fw;wy; gpupT MFk;.

3 kw;Wk; 5 - kjpg;ngz; tpdh - tpil :

1. NuhNghf;fspd; Kf;fpa ghfq;fspd; nray;ghLfis tptup.

ghfk; nray;ghL
fl;Lg;ghl;lhsH  ,J NuhNghtpd; %is vdg;gLk;.,J fzpdp epuypdhy;
,aq;FfpwJ.
 ,J gzpiar; nra;tjw;fhf ,aq;Fk; ghfq;fSf;F fl;lisfis
toq;FfpwJ.
,ae;jputpay;  Nkhl;lhHfs;> gp];ld;fs;> gpbg;ghd;fs;> rf;fuq;fs; kw;Wk; fpaHfs;
ghfq;fs; Mfpait NuhNghit ,aq;f> gpbf;f> kw;Wk; jpUk;g nra;ag;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
czHtpfs;  NuhNghl;bd; Rw;Wg;Gwj;ijg; gw;wp NuhNghtplk; $w ,J
gad;gLfpwJ.
 NkYk; Rw;WGwj;jpy; cs;s nghUs;fspd; msTfs;>
nghUs;fspilNa cs;s njhiyT kw;Wk; jpir Mfpatw;iw
fz;lwpa cjTfpwJ.
[83]
3. NuhNghf;fspd; tiffs; ahit?

1. kdpj NuhNgh :
 ,it kdpjHfisg; NghyNt ,Uf;Fk; tifapy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

 mit elj;jy;> J}f;Fjy; kw;Wk; czHjy; Nghd;w kdpj nray;ghLfis

nra;fpd;wd.

2. njhopw;rhiy NuhNgh :

 ,J fhHl;Brpad;> SCARA> cUis tbtk;> nly;lh> JUt tif kw;Wk;

nrq;Fj;J tif vd MW tifg;gLk;.

 ,it kpd;tpy; gw;witg;G> nghUs;fis ifahSjy;> ,ae;jpu guhkupg;G Nghd;w

gzpfSf;F Vw;wJ MFk;.

[84]