Research Methodology

Research Methodology
Research
Learning objective:

- Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for

knowing or acquiring knowledge
- What is Research?
- Nature or Characteristics of Research
- Aims of Research
- Types of Research
- Process of Research
- Purpose of Research
 Research Methodology
Consider the following questions.
• Does multitasking make you more efficient with your time?
• Does having more friends make you less vulnerable to
depression?
• Are children of divorced parents less likely to be involved in
romantic relationships?
• Are girls more likely to cyberbully than boys?
• Does eating cake for breakfast make dieters more likely to
stick to their diets later in the day?
• Are adolescents who play violent video games more
aggressive than adolescents who do not play violent video
games?
• Does playing brain games in adulthood make it less chance
on develop Alzheimer’s in later life?
 Research Methodology
Methods of acquiring knowledge
It means that ways in which a person can know things or discover
answers to questions.

Methods of acquiring knowledge

Non-scientific
Scientific Approaches
Approaches
 Research Methodology

Non-scientific approaches: FIVE

• Method of tenacity
• Method of Intuition
• Method of Authority
• Rational Method/Rationalism
• Empirical Method
 Research Methodology
Non-scientific approaches: Method of tenacity

In the method of tenacity, information is accepted as true because

it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.

The method of tenacity is based on habit or superstition. Habit

leads us to continue believing something we have always believed.

Ex: Repeating their slogans over and over, blindly accepting

religious ideas/ideologies, breaking a mirror–Bad luck, Cat
cross-failure, Advertisements etc.,
 Research Methodology
Non-scientific approaches: Method of Intuition
In the method of intuition, information is accepted on the basis of
a hunch or “gut feeling.”
“A natural ability or power that makes it possible to know something
without any proof or evidence”
For many questions, this method is the quickest way to obtain
answers.
When we have no information at all and cannot refer to supporting
data or use rational justification, we often resort to intuition.

Ex: What should I have for dinner? Should I go out tonight

or stay in? trust your instincts.
The problem with the method of intuition is that it has no
mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge.
 Research Methodology
Non-scientific approaches: Method of Authority

In the method of Authority, a person relies on information or

answers from an expert in the subject area. The method of
authority is often called the method of faith.

A person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject.

This can mean consulting an expert directly or going to a library
or a website to read the works of an expert.

It has some pitfalls. It does not always provide accurate

information. For example, authorities can be biased.
Ex: physicians, scientists, psychologists, professors,
stockbrokers, and lawyers
 Research Methodology

Non-scientific approaches: Rational Method/Rationalism

In the rational method/rationalism, seeks answers by the use of

logical reasoning.

We begin with a set of known facts or assumptions and use logic

to reach a conclusion or get an answer to a question.

A common application of the rational method occurs when people

try to think through a problem before they try out different
solutions.
 Research Methodology
Non-scientific approaches: Empirical Method

In the empirical method, uses observation or direct sensory

experience to obtain knowledge.

Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal

experience. This method is a product of the empirical viewpoint in
philosophy, which holds that all knowledge is acquired through
the senses.

Ex: Many facts or answers are available simply by

observing the world around you.
“Sun rising” or “earth turning toward the sun”
 Research Methodology

Non-scientific approaches: Summary

Method Way to knowing or finding answer

Tenacity From habit or superstition
Intuition From a hunch or feeling
Authority From an expert
Rationalism From reasoning; a logical conclusion
Empiricism From direct sensory observation
 Research Methodology
Scientific approach: Research
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and
search.
 re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
 search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully,
to test and try, or to probe.
Research means “Search for Knowledge”.
It aims at discovering the truth. It is the search for knowledge through
objective and systematic method of finding solution to problems. It is
carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of old ones.
Therefore, research is a process of systematic and in-depth study or search
of any particular topic, subject or area of investigation backed by
collection, computation, presentation and interpretation of relevant data.
 Research Methodology
Definitions of Research
The following are the important definitions of research:
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is
an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in
purpose and form and always researching to truth.” J. Francis Rummel

“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their

meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution
to knowledge in the field studied.” P.M. Cook

“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to

be derived partly or wholly from facts.” W.S. Monroes

“Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of

carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic
structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of
procedures and a report of results or conclusion.” John W. Best
 Research Methodology
Nature or Characteristics of Research

The research process must have certain characteristics: it must be

controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.
Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an
outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring
causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting
the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the
physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done
in a laboratory.
 Research Methodology
Nature or Characteristics of Research
The research process must have certain characteristics: it must be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.
Rigorous - you must be very careful in ensuring that the
procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies
markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the
social sciences.

Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake

an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different
steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
follow others.
 Research Methodology
Nature or Characteristics of Research
The research process must have certain characteristics: it must be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.

Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you

conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified
by you and others.

Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences or observations.
 Research Methodology
Nature or Characteristics of Research
The research process must have certain characteristics: it must be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.

Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of
investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
 Research Methodology
Aims of Research
 Research Methodology
Aims of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through
the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is
to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following
broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it

(Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies);
 Research Methodology
Aims of Research

Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following
broad groupings:

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (Studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies);
 Research Methodology
Purpose of Research
1) Progress and Good Life: Knowledge and wisdom drive the
mankind to live an orderly good life
2) Development of Scientific Attitude: Scientific attitude is one
that asks ‘Why’ and ‘How’ and answers are found. This ‘Know-
why’ and ‘Know-how’ attitude nurtures talents and such
intellectual talents are the great assets of society
3) Creativity and Innovativeness: New processes and newness
are the means through which the world goes dynamic. A
dynamic world is not possible without newness introduced every
now and then in every walk of life.
4) Testing Hypothesis and Establishing Theories: A very
important purpose of research is testing of hypothesis and
establishing theories.
 Research Methodology
Purpose of Research
5) Prediction and Control: Applied research has a great say in
prediction and control in almost all walks of human endeavor
Prediction is jumping into the future and the theories constitute the
launch pad
6) Purposive Development: Development = Growth + Change,
Growth is uni-scaled while change is multi-scaled
7) Problem Solving: The purpose of any research is problem
solving. What is a problem? Knowledge deprivation, efficiency
deprivation, productivity depreciation, etc., exist. How can these be
solved?
8) Schematic evaluation: Research is also carried out to
systematically evaluate a process or practice of an organization to
know its strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement
process can be identified.
 Research Methodology
Purpose of Research

9) Methodological Improvement: Another purpose of research is

improving research methodology itself. Developments in the field of
measurement and scaling are immense. Whether these can be
appropriately used in the case of particular research areas? To
answer the question research needs to be done
 Research Methodology
Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

i) Descriptive vs. Analytical research

ii) Applied vs. Fundamental research
iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical research
v) Some Other Types of Research
a) One Time Research, b) Laboratory Research, c)
Exploratory Research, d) Historical Research, e) Conclusion-
oriented Research, etc…
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
i) Descriptive vs. Analytical research

The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state

of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business
research, quite often use the term ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or
what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such
items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data.
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
i) Descriptive vs. Analytical research

Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to

discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.

The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey

methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use

facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material (co-relationships, mediators,
moderators etc.).
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
ii) Applied vs. Fundamental research

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental

(to basic or pure) research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.”
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
ii) Applied vs. Fundamental research

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure

mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with view
to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions
facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some practical problems. Whereas basic research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using indepth interviews for the
purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association
tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar
other projective techniques.
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences

where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behavior. Through such research we can analyse the various factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which
make people like or dislike a particular thing.

It is an intensive study of the case in all dimensions and in all its

times.

It may be stated that to apply qualitative research in practice is

relatively a difficult job than quantitative research.
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Qualitative Quantitative
Subjective Objective
Used to develop theories Used to test theories
Takes a broad, complex approach Takes a narrow, specific
approach
Answers "why" and "how" questions Answers "what" questions
Explores patterns and themes Explores statistical
relationships
 Research Methodology
Types of Research

iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical research

Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It

is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical research relies an experience or observation alone, often

without due regard for system and theory.
Empirical methods are objective, the results of a quantitative
evaluation that produces a theory.
 Research Methodology
Types of Research
v) Some Other Types of Research:
a) One time research (Cross-sectional) vs. Longitudinal

Research either as one-time research or longitudinal research.

In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period or
fixed time period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried
on over several time-periods (time series)

b) Laboratory Research

Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or

simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is
to be carried out.
Types of Research Research Methodology
v) Some Other Types of Research:
c) Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research
The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing. The preliminary results often
lay the groundwork for future analysis. Explanatory research tries to
explanations or solutions to the problem.

d) Historical vs. Futuristic Research

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc., to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point
of time. Futuristic research looks forwards into the future. How a
particular problem is going on in future? How policies will shape up
in the future?
 Research Methodology
Types of Research

v) Some Other Types of Research:

e) Conclusion-oriented Research
A researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
f) Synthetical Research
How is a theory developed in physical science could be applied in
social science?
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline regarding the research process:
a) Formulating the research problem
b) Extensive literature survey
c) Developing the hypothesis
d) Preparing the research design
e) Determining sample design
f) Collecting the data
g) Execution of the project
h) Analysis of data
i) Hypothesis testing
j) Generalization and interpretation, and
k) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
a) Formulating the research problem

The first is to decide what you want to find out about or, in other
words, what research questions you want to find answers to. Having
decided upon your research questions or research problems, you
then need to decide how to go about finding their answers.

Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research

problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research

b) Extensive literature survey

Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake

extensive literature survey connected with the problem.

For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and

published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books, etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
c) Developing the hypothesis

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear

terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.

Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw

out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for research. They also
affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis
of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of working
hypothesis plays an important role.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
d) Preparing the research design

The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the

researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will
have to state the conceptual structure within which research would
be conducted.
The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words,
the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz., Exploration, Description, Diagnosis,
Experimentation.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
e) Determining sample design

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is

actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. In
census inquiry, we involve a great deal of time, money and energy
so it not possible in practice under many circumstances.

Sample designs can be either probability or non-probability.

 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
f) Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which

differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through

survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more
of the following ways;
By observation,
Through personal interview,
Through telephonic interviews,
By mailing of questionnaires or
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research

g) Execution of the project

Execution of project is a very important step in the research process.

If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to
be collected would be adequate and dependable.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to
keep the survey realistic as much as possible.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
h) Analysis of data

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations

such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inference.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages; correlation coefficients etc., by
applying various well defined statistical formulae.
In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to
tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said
to indicate any conclusions.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
i) Hypothesis testing

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the

hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.

Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?

This is the usual question which is to be answered by applying
various tests like ‘t’ test, ‘F’ test etc.

Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in

rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
j) Generalization and interpretation, and

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible

for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory.

As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to

arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis
to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation.
 Research Methodology
Process of Research / Scientific procedures of research
k) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. The layout of the report should be as follows; the
preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary
pages carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index.
The main text of the report should have introduction, review of
literature and methodology.
 Research Methodology
Criteria for a Good Research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.

(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the researcher for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already
been attained.
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
 Research Methodology
Criteria for a Good Research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.