COMPUTER SCIENCE

AND
ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Based on Revised National Curriculum of Pakistan 2023

ONE NATION, ONE CURRICULUM

PUNJAB CURRICULUM AND

TEXTBOOK BOARD, LAHORE
 This textbook is based on Revised National Curriculum of
Pakistan 2023 and has been approved by the Board.
All rights are reserved with the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, Lahore.
No part of this textbook can be copied, translated, reproduced or used for preparation of
test papers, guidebooks, keynotes and helping books.

Contents
Unit Topic Page
1 Introduction to Systems 1
2 Number Systems 24
3 Digital Systems and Logic Design 49
4 System Troubleshooting 69
5 Software System 87
6 Introduction to Computer Networks 99
7 Computational Thinking 123
8 Web Development with HTML, CSS and JavaScript 151
9 Data Science and Data Gathering 179
10 Emerging Technologies in Computer Science 211
11 Ethical, Social, and Legal Concerns in Computer Usage 225
12 Entrepreneurship in Digital Age 243
Authors
Prof. Muhammad Atif Prof. Syed Waqar ul Qounain Jaffry
(PhD Computer Science) (Post Doc. Computer Science) Chairman Dept. of IT,
Professor of Computer Science, University of The Punjab, Allama Iqbal Campus (Old Campus
Lahore Garrison University. Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azam, Lahore.
External Review Committee
Arshad Ali Mudasser Naseer Prof. Asif Shahzad Nadeem Iqbal
(PhD Computer Science and Telecommunication) (PhD Computer Science) (PhD Computer Science) (PhD Computer Science)
Associate Professor, Department Associate Professor(CS), Chairman Department of Associate Professor(CS),
Head (Cyber Security), Department of CS & IT, Computer Science, Department of CS & IT,
Lahore Garrison University. University of Lahore Defense Road, Lahore University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore University of Lahore Defense Road, Lahore

Adeel Nisar Abdul Sattar Mrs. Tabinda Muqaddas Fahad Asif

(PhD Computer Science) (PhD Computer Science) Assistant Professor, Head of Department (CS), EST (CS),
Assistant Professor(CS), Assistant Professor (CS), Govt. Associate College for Women, Govt. Lab Higher Secondary School,
University of The Punjab, Allama Iqbal Campus Lahore Garrison University. Gulshan Ravi, Lahore. QAED Kasur.
(Old Campus), Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azam, Lahore.

Director Manuscripts Supervision

Jahanzaib Khan Experimental
Rehana Farhat Edition
SS (Computer Science)
Dy. Director (Graphics)
Design & Layout illustration
Aisha Waheed
Aleem Ur Rehman Ayat Ullah
 UNIT
Introduction to Systems
1
Student Learning Outcomes
Understand System Theory:
o Define and describe general system theory, its types, objec ves, components, and
interac ons.
o Explain the concept of a system, including objec ves, components, and communica on.
o Describe what cons tutes a system and its role in various domains.
o Explain the importance of system objec ves and common objec ves such as processing
informa on, suppor ng applica ons, and achieving specific goals.
o Understand the role and importance of system components and their interac ons.
o Explain the significance of interac ons among various systems.
o Differen ate between natural and ar ficial systems.
o Categorize and describe various types of natural and ar ficial systems, their objec ves,
components, and interac ons.
o Provide examples of natural systems, including physical, chemical, biological and
psychological systems along with their characteris cs.
o Provide examples and func ons of ar ficial systems, including knowledge systems,
engineering systems, and social systems.
o Analyze systems to iden fy their objec ves, components, and interac ons.
o Compare and contrast different types of systems, highligh ng varia ons in objec ves,
components, and interac ons.
o Conduct research on specific system types and present findings effec vely.
o Create diagrams or models to visually represent the structure and interac ons of systems.
o Assess the role and importance of system objec ves in real-world applica ons.
o Demonstrate understanding of how systems apply to different fields and serve specific
func ons.
Compu ng Systems
o Define and describe a computer as a system, including its objec ves, architecture,
components, and interac ons.
o Understand the primary objec ves of a compu ng system, including processing data,
execu ng instruc ons, and providing a user interface.
o Recognize the role and importance of computer system components and their interac ons.
o Iden fy necessary and auxiliary components of a computer system.
o Iden fy different types of compu ng systems, such as computers, so ware, computer
networks, and the Internet.
o Understand the Von Neumann architecture and its core components: CPU, motherboard,
memory, storage devices, input/output ports, and devices.
o Explain the rela onship between the CPU, memory, and storage, and how data flows within
a system.
o Describe how components within a computer system interact to execute tasks, such as how
the CPU fetches, decodes, and executes instruc ons stored in memory.
o Differen ate between the roles of hardware and so ware in a computer system.
o Define and describe Compu ng system and its types including Computer, So ware,
Network and the Internet.
o Describe the main func ons of system so ware, such as opera ng systems, and applica on
so ware.
1
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the theory of systems, introducing
fundamental concepts and exploring various types of systems. It begins by
defining what a system is, discussing its basic components, objectives,
environment, and methods of communication. The chapter then differentiates
between natural and artificial systems, explaining how they function and their
purposes. The relationship between systems and different branches of science is
also explored, including natural science, design science, and computer science.
The chapter then shifts back to discussing computers as systems, explaining their
goals, parts, and how these parts connect with each other and their
surroundings. It provides a detailed look at the Von Neumann computer
architecture, exploring its components, how it works, its unique features, as well
as its strengths and weaknesses. The chapter also covers different types of
computing systems, such as computers, software, networks, and the Internet,
clearly explaining their roles and purposes. At the end of this chapter, the reader
will be in a better position to understudy systems, their classification, and
relevance in natural and man-made systems to aid future learning and
utilization.
1.1 Theory of Systems
The idea of a system is useful to explain both the external reality as well as the
internal one. An Information System is simply an organized set of components
that are coordinated to perform a designated function. All the components of
the system are in some way related to each other and the functioning of the other
components enhances the operation of the system.
Let us consider a simple example, such as a car, depicted in Figure 1. 1: it is made
up of an engine, wheels, brakes, and other related items. Every part plays a
unique task, but collectively they are responsible for making the car move.
Likewise, every computer, organism, machine, or device has components that
work together to achieve an outcome.

Fig 1.1 System of a Car

2
Systems Theory:
A branch of a science that deals with complicated structures in living organisms,
that relate the human with society and the science is known as Systems Theory. It
gives a way of interpreting the existing world with different varied perspectives,
how the different systems and sub-systems operate, how they are integrated,
how they grow and how they change with time.
Systems can be observed at all levels of existence, starting with the levels of
nature, and going all the way up to levels of systems designed by humans. These
can be physical objects-such as a car; processes, such as the university's
admission process; or abstract objects such as a mathematical formula. Thinking
about how systems operate helps us better understand how they need to be
developed and nurtured across different discipline like computing, biology,
engineering, and social science. In this section, basic concepts will be introduced
to emphasize fundamental concepts and principles.
1.1.1 Basic Concepts of Systems
A system is described by its objectives components, communication among
components and environment in which it works. The components of a system
communicate with each other to achieve the system's objective in an
environment. Systems can be simple, like a thermostat, or complex, like the
human body or a computer network.
1.1.1.1 Objective
Every system has a purpose or goal that it wishes to fulfil. Analyzing a system's
operation requires understanding its aim. This insight improves the efficiency
and efficacy of the present system. A transport system aims to transfer people
and products securely and effectively between locations. A computer system's
principal goal is to process data and provide useful information to users.
Types of System Objectives
Systems can have different objectives depending on their nature and purpose.
Common objectives include:
1. Information processing: Collecting, storing, processing, and distributing
information, for example
o A computer system processes user data to produce meaningful outputs.
o The human brain processes information received by the human senses to
perceive the environment.
2. Supporting other systems: Providing a platform or infrastructure for other
systems to work, for example:
o A cell phone provides a platform to run different applications.
o The sun provides energy to all species on Earth to live.
3. Achieving specific goals: Completing tasks or processes, for example:
o A thermostat system maintains a set temperature in an environment.
o A car engine system aims to convert fuel into mechanical energy
efficiently.

3
 Brain: Informa on processing Cell Phone: Suppor ng Thermostat: Achieving
other systems specific goals
Fig. 1.2 Types of System Objectives

Human Brain System

1. Your brain is an incredible example of a communication network.
Neurons send signals to each other, allowing you to think, move, and
experience emotions. This complex communication is what makes our
brains so powerful.
2. The brain produces around 20 watts of electrical energy, sufficient to
operate a low-wattage LED light bulb. Presented here is the brain's
remarkable efficacy as an electrical system.
3. The information traveling through your brain moves at about 268 miles
per hour, which is faster than a Formula 1 race car.
4. Your brain, as a biological system, has around 86 billion neurons. If each
neuron was a person, it is like the population of about ten Earth all
interacting simultaneously!
5. The human brain can perform about 10 (10 quadrillion) operations per
second, making it one of the most powerful and efficient biological
systems in existence.

1.1.1.2 Components
Components are the building blocks
of any system. Each component plays
a specific role and contributes to the
overall functionality of the system.
Understanding the role of each
component of the system is essential
to understand how the entire system
works. This helps in identifying
problems, improving performance,
and refining system design. Smooth
and proper working of these
components together ensures the
system meets its objectives.
4 Fig 1.3 Components of Computer Systems
 Human Body and its DNA System
1. Consider your body as a very sophisticated and effective system. It is
a remarkable system comprising subsystems such as the circulatory
system, neurological system, and digestive system. The
cardiovascular system circulates blood. The respiratory system
supplies oxygen, and the cerebral system processes information.
Individually, each has a distinct function yet collaborates to ensure
our survival and well-being.
2. DNA is like a blueprint for life. It's a system that contains all the
instructions for an organism to grow, develop, and reproduce,
passed down from generation to generation. Each cell in our body
reads this blueprint to know what to do. When all the DNA in a single
human cell is extended, it measures about two meters in length. The
total long of the DNA in your body extends to the Sun and back more
than six hundred times.
1.1.1.3 Environment
The environment of a system includes everything external to the system that
interacts with it. It consists of all external factors that affect the system's
operation. Understanding the environment of a system is important as it
influences the system's performance and behavior by providing inputs and
receiving outputs. Intelligent systems adjust to changes in their environment to
continue their functionality. There are several properties of a system's
environment that affect system design and its functionality. Two of these
properties are described as follows:
Static vs. Dynamic:
• Static: The environment remains unchanged unless the system provides
an output. There are no changes occurring in the environment while the
system is working internally.
• Dynamic: The environment can change independently of the system's
output. The system must account for changes that occur over time in the
environment.
Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic:
• Deterministic: A deterministic system is characterized by its fully known
and certain impact of its output on the environment.
• Non-deterministic: The impact of the system's output on the
environment is characterized by inherent uncertainty, randomness, or
probability.
1.1.1.4 Communication
• Communication and interaction among system components is key to the
functioning of a system. It ensures that that components work together in an
organized and smooth manner to achieve the system's objectives. For
example, in a computing system the CPU communicates with memory to
fetch and store data, and in a biological system brain sends signals to muscles
to initiate movement. 5
System's Interaction with the Environment
Systems constantly interact with their environment through inputs and outputs.
For example, a weather monitoring system receives data from environment
sensors and provides the current status of the weather and future forecasts to
users. In a computing system, computers the interact and communicate with
peripheral devices like printers and scanners, and in a biological system animals
interact with plants and other animals, forming a food chain.

Ac vity 01: Classroom Discussion, Brainstorming, and System Mapping

Objective: To introduce the concept of systems and understand how different
components interact within a system.
Required Material: Poster boards, markers, sticky notes, chart paper, drawing
tools.
Activity Type: Group
Activity Tasks Detail: Start with a discussion where the teacher introduces
the concept of systems using examples like cars and schools. Students will
contribute their examples and ideas. Next perform, a brainstorming session,
where students will work in groups to identify and list the systems they
interact with daily. They will then create a system map on poster boards,
labeling the components and their interactions. Finally, during a gallery walk,
each group will present their system map, followed by a feedback session
where the teacher provides feedback and answers questions.
Output: Each group will produce a system map poster illustrating their
chosen system, and students will enhance their presentation and explanation
skills.

Ac vity 02: Design a Simple System

Objective: To apply the principles of system design and understand the process
of creating a functional system.
Required Material: Computers or tablets with diagramming software (e.g.,
Lucidchart), paper, pencils, markers.
Activity Type: Pair
Activity Tasks Detail: Begin with an introduction where the teacher presents an
example of a simple system. Students will then work in pairs to define the
objective of their chosen system, list its components, describe their interactions,
and outline the system's environment. The pairs will use diagramming software
to create a system prototype or diagram. Finally, they will present their designs
to the class in a review and feedback session.
Output: Each pair will produce a system prototype or diagram and receive
feedback to refine their design ideas.

6
1.2 Types of Systems
Systems can be broadly categorized into two types, namely natural and artificial
systems. Understanding the differences and similarities between these types
helps us apply system theory across various fields. Natural systems are naturally
built and occur in nature without human intervention. While artificial systems are
created by humans to fulfill specific needs or purposes.

Galaxy a Natural System Screw gauge an Ar ficial System

Fig. 1.4 Examples of Systems
1.2.1 Natural Systems
Natural systems are those that exist in nature and operate independently of
human involvement. They are governed by natural laws and processes. Natural
systems are of various forms and sizes, from very tiny objects like atoms and cells
in our body to very huge like forests, oceans and the cosmos. Following are
examples of some natural systems that exists in nature.
1.2.1.1 Physical Systems
Physical systems are composed of physical components and governed by the
laws of physics. They include things ranging from sub atomic particles, atoms, to
planets, stars, galaxies, and cosmos. Physical systems, like any kind of matter,
emerge from the interactions of electrons, protons, neutrons and sub-atomic
particles which are governed by electric and atomic forces. For example
hydrogen gas (H) is formed when an electron, proton, and neutron combine,
following the rules of physics and natural forces.
1.2.1.2 Chemical Systems
Chemical systems involve substances and their interactions, transformations,
and reactions. They are governed by the laws of chemistry. Chemical systems
emerge from physical systems when atoms and molecules interact and bond
according to chemical principles, forming new substances. For example, a
chemical system like water (H₂O) is formed when hydrogen atoms bond with
oxygen atoms, following chemical rules and reactions.
1.2.1.3 Biological Systems
Biological systems consist of living organisms and their interactions. They are
governed by biological processes such as growth, reproduction, and
metabolism. Biological systems emerge from chemical systems when molecules
7
interact in complex ways to form living cells, which then organize into tissues,
organs, and organisms.
1.2.1.4 Psychological Systems
Psychological systems involve the mind and behavior. They include thoughts,
emotions, and mental processes, governed by the principles of Psychology.
Psychological systems emerge from biological systems when the brain's physical
and chemical processes give rise to thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which
are influenced by an individual's experiences and environment.
Ac vity 03: Interac ve Simula on
The purpose of this activity is with the aim of understanding how variability
affects the system of interest.
Materials Needed: Computers or tablets with internet access and online
simulation tools (like an ecosystem simulator).
Activity Tasks Detail: Individual or Group Assignments The teacher will begin by
explaining what system dynamics entail as well as provide an overview on how
the simulation will be implemented. Students will then work with the simulation
tool, manipulating different variables and analyzing how the system reacts. Using
an S-curve to review their results, the students will be reflecting on how changes
impact the entire system during the discussion. The teacher will emphasize that
all these parts are integrated and balanced, and the students will follow this
aspect during their conversation.
Outcome: They produce detailed observation notes as well as better insights
into system dynamics and balance.

1.2.2 Artificial Systems

Artificial systems are created and developed by people so that they may fulfill
certain functions or address certain issues. These systems can be as small as a
wheel or as large as the United Nations. Each system is designed very
deliberately to perform the task, improve the efficiency of the processes, and
provide solutions to various issues in different sectors.
Artificial systems are a vital part of the contemporary society because they
reinforce productivity, solve complex problems, and improve people's well-
being. These are systems such as knowledge management systems, engineering
achievement systems and indeed social systems which are the framework of
success of human civilization. There are different types of artificial systems, some
of which are described below:
1.2.2.1 Knowledge Systems
A knowledge system is unique because it is developed to capture, process,
facilitate, store, retrieve and manage information. Such systems facilitate in
managing and utilizing the resources of knowledge effectively for the purpose of
decision-making, learning and problem-solving.
8
1. Mathematics: Mathematics is a field of knowledge, which is studied to focus
problems connected to numbers, their amounts, forms, structures, and
patterns.
2. Logic: Logic is a theoretical model consisting of concepts and strategies on
identifying and assessing rationale. That is why it is a basis of all logical
thinking processes and practice of critical analysis.
3. Databases: A database system can best be described as software for
managing data, particularly to enable easy retrieval, management, and
updating of data. Some of the examples are relational database management
system like MySQL while others are NoSQL database management system
like MongoDB.
4. Information Management Systems: These are specific applications
developed with the purpose of capturing, archiving, organizing, and
disseminating data.
1.2.2.2 Engineering Systems
Products developed by engineers are complex frameworks or devices that apply
engineering concepts to perform certain tasks or solve technical challenges.
These are some examples of how engineers of various types develop systems
according to their own special knowledge and perspective, given to them
through their original visions and approaches.
1. Civil Engineering Systems: Concentration on developments such as
constructing houses, roads, bridges and even maintaining these structures.
For instance, a structure used to provide a passage over water, valleys or
roads is termed a bridge.
2. Mechanical Engineering Systems: Engage in planning and creating devices
that make utilization of forces from outside to accomplish work. For instance,
a robotic arm applied in assembly line for packaging of products in factories.
3. Chemical Engineering Systems: Focuses on converting raw materials into
useful products through chemical processes, considering internal molecular
interactions. For example, a water treatment plant that purifies water using
chemical processes like coagulation and filtration.
4. Electrical Engineering Systems: Involves the study and application of
electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism to develop electrical systems.
For example a home automation system that controls lighting, heating, and
security using a smartphone app. This system uses electric signals and power
to operate various home appliances and systems remotely.
5. Software Engineering Systems: Is the process of designing, developing,
and maintaining software to perform certain tasks eradicating errors. For
instance, an online tool assisting a library in tracking books, users as well as
stocks in their possession. 9
 Artificial Engineering System
• The Metro Train System in Lahore is an artificial system created for efficient
transportation. The railway system consists of tracks, trains, stations, and
control systems that transport people between locations.
• The first electric traffic lights were built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1914. Modern
traffic systems use smart sensors and AI to enhance safety and flow.
• AI systems, such as Siri and Alexa, can recognize and respond to human
speech. These examples demonstrate how computer systems may interact
with humans naturally through complicated algorithms and data processing.
• Virtual Reality (VR): Immersive digital worlds enable exploration and
interaction as if you were physically present. This technology has several
applications, including gaming, teaching, and astronaut training.

1.2.2.3 Social Systems

Social systems refer to structured frameworks established by individuals to
effectively handle social interactions, organizational governance, and
communal endeavors. The basic goal of these systems is to maintain order,
provide services, and facilitate social connections.
1. Academic institutions: are entities that provide educational services to
students. Schools, colleges, and universities are examples of educational
institutions that provide instruction via the use of administrative, teaching,
and support staff.
2. Governments: Organizational institutions that wield authority and control
over a community or country. Examples include democratic systems, where
representatives are elected and authoritarian regimes, where power is
centralized.
3. Organizations: are entities formed to achieve specific goals and are often
structured hierarchically with well-defined roles and responsibilities. Examples
include corporations like Apple and non-profit organizations such as the Edhi
Foundation.

Mathema cs a Knowledge A ock Bridge an Engineering Punjab University a Social

System System System
Fig. 1.5 Types of Artificial Systems
10
 Ac vity 04: Simula on Game
Objective: To experience managing a system and making decisions to keep it
functional.
Required Material: Computers or tablets with internet access, city simulation
game (e.g., SimCity).
Activity Type: Pair (Group of two students)
Activity Tasks Detail: Begin with an introduction to the simulation game,
explaining its objectives and mechanics. Students will then play the game in
pairs, making strategic decisions to manage their city. After gameplay, a
debriefing session will allow students to discuss their experiences, challenges,
and strategies. The teacher will link these experiences to system management
concepts discussed in class.
Output: Hands-on gameplay experience and reflection on system management
challenges and strategies.

1.3 System and Science

Knowledge is our understanding of various systems in the universe around and
within us. Science is a systematic way to validate this understanding. Science can
be divided into two main types: natural science and design science. Both natural
and design sciences study systems, but they approach them differently. In
natural science, scientists study existing natural systems to understand their
workings. While in design science, scientists create new systems (artifacts) to
solve problems or achieve specific goals. Each type of science addresses different
systems and questions, and therefore follows different scientific methods.

1.3.1 Natural Science

Natural science is meant to uncover the
objectivity and functionality of natural
systems in the natural world. Its nature is
descriptive, meaning that the scientists
seeks to understand and describe
natural phenomena. To achieve this,
natural scientists follow the empirical
cycle of natural science , as shown in
Figure 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Empirical Cycle of Natural Science

11
1.3.2 Design Science
• Design Science is focused on designing and creating artifacts (tools, systems,
methods) to achieve specific goals. The nature of design science is
prescriptive, meaning that it aims to prescribe and create artificial systems. To
achieve this design science researchers follow the regulative cycle.
Examples
• Natural Science: Studying the ecosystem of a forest to understand how
different species interact (descriptive).
• Design Science: Developing a new software system to manage forest data
and improve conservation efforts (prescriptive).

Fig. 1.7 Regulative Cycle of Design Science

1.3.3 Computer Science
Computer science is the study of how computers work, including at what they
can do and their limitations. To understand computer science, we use methods of
both design science and natural science.
1.3.3.1 Natural Science of Computer Science
Natural science of computer science focuses on finding the basic rules that
control how computer systems work. This involve the study of various algorithms
and their characteristics.
• Study of Algorithms: Researchers analyze existing algorithms to
understand their efficiency and limitations. For example, studying different
sorting algorithms and their characteristics which arrange given data in an
order, like QuickSort or MergeSort. To understand their speed and how they
perform with different kinds of data.
1.3.3.2 Design Science of Computer Science
Design science of computers focuses on creating and improving computer tools
and systems to make them work better.
• Development of New Software Tools: Researchers create new tools or
applications to solve specific problems. For example: Designing a new
programming language that makes it easier for developers to write secure
computer programs.
12
• Improvement of Computer Systems: Researchers work on enhancing
existing systems to perform better. For example, creating a more efficient
database management system that can handle larger amounts of data faster
and with fewer errors.
1.4 Computer as a System
A computer is a complex system designed to process data and perform tasks
according to a set of instructions.
1.4.1 Objective
The main objective of a computer is to perform computations, process data, and
execute different tasks efficiently. For example, a personal computer's objective
is to run software applications such as word processors, web browsers, and
games through various computational processes.
1.4.2 Components
A computer composed of many essential components that operate in
conjunction. These components include:
Interface Components:
Interface components refer to the fundamental parts of a computer system,
including input devices such as the keyboard and mouse, which allow users to
interact with the computer.
Computer output devices, such as monitors and printers, are used to present
or generate results from the computer's operations.
Processing Components:
• The processing components of a computer consist of the CPU, which acts as
the central processing unit responsible for computations and executing
command.
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is a transient storage that stores data and
instructions for the CPU, whereas Storage (Hard Drive or SSD) is a permanent
storage for data and software needed for future processing.
• The operating system is responsible for receiving information from interface
components and determining the appropriate actions to take.
• Application software refers to programs that are executed by the operating
system when required to perform one or more specified tasks.
Communication Components:
Communication components in a computer refer to the physical elements that
provide communication between different components of the computer.
• In a computer, the motherboard serves as the primary circuit board that
interconnects all components by using cables and circuits.
• A system bus is a collection of electrically conductive cables that transmit
data between the CPU and all other interconnected components. There are
three distinct types of buses: data bus, address bus, and control bus. These
buses provide the flow of data, the address of data or instructions, and
control signals from the CPU to other components concurrently.
13
 Fig. 1.8 Computer System and its components
1.4.3 Interactions among Components
The components of a computer interact with each other to perform tasks. For
example when you open a file using your mouse or keyboard, several
components of your computer interact seamlessly to make this action happen.
Here's a step-by-step explanation of the process:
1. User Action or Input. You double-click on a file icon using your mouse or
press a key combination to open a file. For example you double-click on a
document named "report.docx" on your desktop.
2. Input Device. The mouse or keyboard sends a signal to the computer
indicating that you want to open the file. For example, the mouse sends
sensory input to the computer's operating system through the USB
connection.

Ac vity 05: The Journey of Data

Objectives: Students will discover how computer components work together
to process and display data.
Required Material: Markers, index cards, and a flowchart template are
required.
Pair-based activity: Tasks Begin with an introduction to data processing in
computers. Students will work in pairs to create a flowchart illustrating the data
stream from input to output. Each pair will present their flowcharts and
participate in a class discussion to highlight key points.
Output: Improved presentation and debating skills, as well as thorough
flowcharts depicting the data path.

14
1.4.4 Environment
The computer system environment includes any external devices that interact
with the computer. For example:
• Power Supply: Provides electrical power to allow the computer to work.
• Network: Connects the computer to other systems and the Internet.
• Peripherals: Include printers, scanners, and external discs that expand the
computer's capabilities.
1.4.5 Interaction with the Environment
A computer interacts with its environment to perform its functions. For examples:
• User Input: A user types on the keyboard, and the computer processes the
input to display text on the screen.
• Network Communication: The computer sends and receives data over the
internet to browse websites or download files.
• Power Supply: The computer relies on a stable power supply to function
correctly.

Ac vity 06: Exploring Computer Components

Objective: Students will learn about the different components of a computer
and their functions.
Required Material: Physical computer parts (CPU, RAM, etc.), diagrams of
computer systems, worksheets for labeling and note-taking.
Activity Type: Group (Small groups of 3-4 students)
Activity Tasks Detail: The teacher will start with an overview of key computer
components. Students will then work in small groups identifying and labeling
computer parts using worksheets. Groups will present their findings in a session,
followed by a Q&A where the teacher clarifies any misunderstandings.
Output: Labeled worksheets, enhanced presentation skills, and a deeper
understanding of computer components.

1.5 The Architecture of von Neumann Computers

The Von Neumann architecture is a computer paradigm that delineates a system
in which the hardware of the computer has four primary components: the
memory, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), input mechanisms, and output
mechanisms. This model is called the John von Neumann model, the Neumann
model named in honor of the mathematician and physicist who contributed to
its development during the 1940s.
1.5.1 Components
In this document, the reader will find a brief overview of the key parts that
constitute the architecture of the von Neumann computer.

15
1. Memory: Contains both input data and the instructions (program) required
for CPU processing. For instance, consider the RAM of your computer: when a
program starts it is loaded into RAM to enable faster execution compared to
when it runs from the hard disk.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Performs addition and subtraction, and
executes commands provided by the memory. The system has two main
components: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU).
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs mathematical computations and
logical operations.
A Control Unit (CU) is a peripheral that governs the activities of the CPU by
instructing the ALU and memory to execute tasks according to the
program instructions. It ensures the proper and timely execution of duties
by all the other components.
When doing the calculation 2 + 2 on a calculator application, the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) handles the numerical values while the control
Unit (CU) supervises the whole procedure.
3. Input Devices: Enable users to input data and instructions into the
computer system.
Illustrative examples include keyboard, mouse, and microphone. Entering
text on the keyboard transmits data to the CPU for subsequent processing.
4. Output Devices: Present or communicate the outcomes of the tasks
executed by the computer.
Consider, for instance, a monitor and printer. Upon completion of data
processing, the CPU transmits the outcome to the monitor for visual
display.
A system bus is a communication mechanism that facilitates the
movement of data between components inside a computational system. It
comprises:
Data Bus: Transports data.
Address Bus: Maintains data destination information.
Control Bus: Transports control electrical signals.

Fig. 1.9 Von Neumann computer Architecture

16
1.5.2 Working
The Von Neumann architecture encompasses three essential stages for a CPU to
carry out instructions, namely retrieval, interpretation, execution, and storage. To
demonstrate this procedure, we will use the example two-digit addition with a
basic calculator application.
• Fetching:
Description: The central processing unit retrieves an instruction from the
computer's memory. This instruction specifies the operation to be
executed by the CPU.
Hardware Components: Memory, CPU (Program Counter (PC), Instruction
Register (IR)).
Specification: The Program Counter (PC) stores the memory address of the
subsequent instruction. Once the address is stored in memory, the
instruction located at that location is retrieved and placed into the
Instruction Register (IR).
• Decoding:
In order to determine the necessary action, the Control Unit (CU) decodes
the instruction.
Comprising Components: Control Unit (CU).
Detail: The control unit (CU) decodes the opcode (operation code) of the
instruction and determines the required procedures and data.
• Execution:
Description: The CPU processes the instruction. When the instruction
involves a computation, it is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
Any task that requires transferring data between several locations is
managed by the CU.
Involved Components: ALU, CU.
Detail: The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) carries out mathematical and
logical calculations, while the Control Unit (CU) handles data transmission
activities.
• Storing: Description: The outcome of the computation is either returned
to memory or sent to an output device.
Involved Components: Memory and Output Device.
Specification: The outcome is either stored in a designated memory
location or sent to an output device, such as a display.
1.5.3 Characteristics
Following are the key characteristics of the Von Neumann computer architecture
1. Single Memory Store: Both program instructions and data are stored in the
same memory space. For example in a computer game, both the game's
code and the data (like scores and player positions) are stored in the same
RAM.
2. Sequential Execution: Instructions are processed one after another in a
sequence. For example, when your computer runs a program, it follows the
steps one by one in the order they are written.
17
3. Stored Program Concept: Programs are stored in memory and can be
changed by the computer. For example, when you update a software
program, the new instructions replace the old ones in memory.
1.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages of Von Neumann computer architecture
are discussed here.
Advantages:
• Simplified Design: By combining instructions and data into a single
memory area, architecture is simplified.
• Flexibility: Programs can be easily changed by changing memory
contents.
Disadvantages:
• The Von Neumann bottleneck occurs when a single memory area limits the
CPU's ability to retrieve instructions and data quickly.
• Security Risks: Having data and instructions stored in the same area poses a
problem where one program can alter another's instructions in a manner that
is security risk. The Von Neumann architecture is a key important aspect of
the design and structure of many computers, serving as a central model on
how they operate. It is like a recipe fed into the computer, which follows it
exactly ensuring that both data and instructions are properly processed.
However, this model has been essential in the evalution of computing
technology, despite its limitation.
1.6 Computing Systems
A computer system is a structured set of hardware and software components
specifically designed for data processing and the performance of various
operations. These systems can range from simple technological tools, such as
calculators used for performing mathematical calculations to complex network
of linked computers. The basic task of a computer system is to execute program
and manage data to achieve objectives such as problem solving, process control
and communication aid. Hardware, software, and electric power are the three
basic requisites that are needed to run a computing system and can be described
in the following simple terms.
• Hardware of a computer system refers to the tangible components of the
system. These include the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Random Access
Memory (RAM), storage devices, and input and output devices.
• Software refers to a collection of instructions that dictate the
requirements and actions that hardware must do. There exist two primary
categories. System software and application software. System Software
encompasses the Operating System (OS) and utility applications
responsible for managing the computer's resources, such as Windows,
macOS, and Linux distributions. Application software refers to software
applications that are specifically developed to carry out certain functions
for the user, such as word processors, web browsers, and games.
18
• Electricity: Electricity is the power source that enables the hardware
components to function. Without electricity, the hardware components
cannot function, and the computing system will not operate.
1.6.1 Types of Computing Systems
Computing systems come in various types, some of these include the followings:
1. Computer, 2. Software Systems,3. Computer Networks, and the 4. Internet.
Computers as a system has been discussed in previous sections, while the
remaining three computing systems are described in this section.
1.6.2 Computer Network as Systems
A computer network connects multiple computers and devices, enabling the
efficient exchange of resources and information.
1.6.2.1 Objectives
• Resource Sharing: Allow multiple users to share resources like files, printers,
and internet access within an office or other settings.
• Communication: Enable efficient communication between devices and
users.
• Data Management: Facilitate easy data management and collaboration.
1.6.2.2 Components
• Networking Hardware:
Routers: Routers are devices that transmit data packets between their
networks.
Switches: Switches connect devices in a network and facilitate
communication.
Network Cables: A physical medium for data transfer.
• Network Software:
Protocols: Rules and conventions for data exchange such as TCP/IP.
Network Operating Systems: Software that manages network resources,
such as Windows Server.
1.6.2.3 Environment
A computer network operates in various environments, such as office buildings,
data centers, or across the globe via the Internet. The environment influences
network design, security, and performance.
1.6.2.4 Types of Computer Networks
• Local Area Network (LAN): Connects computers in a specific area, such as
a single building or school. For example, an office network that connects
everyone. Employee PCs and printers.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): connects computers across larger geographic
regions, such as cities, nations, and even continents. For example, consider
the Internet which links computers worldwide.
• In summary, a computer network is an important system that enables
resource sharing and communication among connected devices, using
hardware and software components that work together seamlessly to
perform various tasks.
19
1.6.3 Internet as a System
The Internet is a vast and complex system designed to connect multiple
networks worldwide, including private, public, academic, business, and
government networks. Its primary objective is to facilitate communication and
data exchange between computers and users globally.
1.6.3.1 Internet Protocols
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The core
protocols that govern data transmission over the Internet.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Faster but less reliable.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for Transforming files between computers.
• Post office Protocol (POP): Used for retrieving emails from server/netwrok.
1.6.3.2 Interaction among Components
The components of the Internet interact with each other to perform different
tasks. For example when a user requests a web page through a web browser,
several components of the Internet work together to display its contents on the
user's screen.
1.6.3.3 Environment
The Internet operates in a diverse and dynamic environment, connecting various
types of networks across different locations, including homes, offices, data
centers, and mobile networks. This environment influences the design, security,
and performance of the Internet.
Ac vity 08: Compu ng Systems Around Us
Activity Tasks Detail: Start with an introduction on computing systems. Students
will then research and list various computing systems they use daily, completing a
worksheet. In a group sharing session, students will discuss their findings. The class
will engage in a discussion to highlight key points, and students will begin preparing
a short presentation on a computing system for the next class.
Output: Completed worksheets, group insights, and a short presentation on a
chosen computing system.

Internet Systems
1. When you send an email or browse the internet, data travels through cables and airwaves
across the world in just seconds. It's like sending a letter that gets delivered instantly,
regardless of distance!
2. The internet is one of the largest man-made systems ever created. It's a vast network of
interconnected computers that communicate with each other to share information, much like
how our brain's neurons communicate. When you send a message, it travels through multiple
networks before reaching its destination, all within seconds.
3. Data on the internet travels at nearly the speed of light! When you send a message or
browse a website, your data can cross continents almost instantaneously.
4. There are over 1.5 billion websites on the internet today, and more than 4 billion people are
connected to the internet globally. That's more than half of the world's population!
20
 Summary
· A system is a collection of parts that work together to achieve a common
goal.
· A system is described by its objective, components, communication
among components and environment in which it works.
· Components are the building blocks of any system. Each component
plays a specific role and contributes to the overall functionality of the
system.
· The environment of a system includes everything external to the system
that interacts with it. It consists of all external factors that affect system's
operation.
· Systems can be broadly categorized into two types, namely natural and
artificial systems.
· Natural systems are those that exist in nature and operate independently
of human involvement.
· Artificial systems are designed and constructed by humans.
· Social systems are organized structures created by humans to manage
social relationships, governance, and community activities.
· Computer science is the study of how computers work. It looks at what
computers can do and what limitations they have.
· A computer is a complex system designed to process data and perform
tasks according to a set of instructions.
· The Von Neumann architecture involves several key steps for a CPU to
execute instructions, including fetching, decoding, executing, and
storing.
· System software is the basic software that helps a computer run and
manage its hardware and software resources.
· Application software is the software designed to help users perform
specific tasks or activities.

21
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the primary function of a system?
a) To work independently b) To achieve a common goal
c) To create new systems d) To provide entertainment
2. What is one of the fundamental concepts of any system?
a) Its size b) Its objective c) Its age d) Its price
3. What is an example of a simple system?
a) A human body b) A computer network
c) A thermostat regulating temperature d) The Internet
4. What type of environment remains unchanged unless the system
provides an output?
a) Dynamic b) Static
c) Deterministic d) Non-deterministic
5. What are the basic components of a system?
a) Users, hardware, software
b) Objectives, components, environment, communication
c) Inputs, outputs, processes
d) Sensors, actuators, controllers
6. What concept does the theory of systems aim to understand?
a) Hardware design
b) System interactions and development over time
c) Software applications
d) Network security
7. What role does the Operating System (OS) play in a computer?
a) It performs calculations and executes instructions
b) It temporarily stores data and instructions for the CPU
c) It receives input from interface components and decides what to
do with it
d) It provides long-term storage of data and software
8. Which of the following describes the Von Neumann architecture's main
characteristic?
a) Separate memory for data and instructions
b) Parallel execution of instructions
c) Single memory store for both program instructions and data
d) Multiple CPUs for different tasks
9. What is a disadvantage of the Von Neumann architecture?
a) Complex design due to separate memory spaces
b) Difficult to modify programs stored in memory
c) Bottleneck due to single memory space for instructions and data
d) Lack of flexibility in executing instructions
22
10. Which of the following transports data inside a computer among different
components?
a) Control Unit b) System Bus
c) Memory d) Processor
Short Questions:
1. Define a system. What are its basic components?
2. Differentiate between natural and artificial systems.
3. Describe the main components of a computer system.
4. List and describe the types of computing systems.
5. What are the main components of the Von Neumann architecture?
6. What is the Von Neumann computer architecture? List its key components.
7. What are the four main steps in the Von Neumann architecture's instruction
cycle?
8. What is the Von Neumann bottleneck?
9. What is a key advantage of the Von Neumann architecture?
10. What are the three main requirements for a computing system to function?
Long Questions
1. Define and describe the concept of a system. Explain the fundamental
components, objectives, environment, and methods of communication
within a system.
2. Differentiate between natural and artificial systems. Discuss their
characteristics, functions, and purposes with relevant examples.
3. Examine the relationship between systems and different branches of science,
including natural science, design science, and computer science. How do
these branches utilize system theory to understand and improve their
respective fields? Provide specific examples to support your analysis.
4. Explore the different types of computing systems such as computers,
software systems, computer networks, and the internet.
5. Describe the main characteristics of a computer as a system, including its
objectives, components, and interactions among these components.
6. Explain the Von Neumann architecture of a computer. Include a discussion on
the main components, their functions, and the step-by-step process of how
the architecture operates.
7. Provide a detailed explanation of how a computer interacts with its
environment. Include examples of user input, network communication, and
power supply.
8. Describe the process of retrieving and displaying a file using a computer,
based on the interactions among different components. Provide a step-by-
step explanation of how input is processed, data is transferred, and results are
displayed on the screen.

23
 UNIT
Number Systems
2
Student Learning Outcomes
Understand Number System:
• The different numbering systems, including decimal, binary, hexadecimal, and octal, and
their respective base values and digits.
• Why computers primarily use the binary number system for data representation.
• Machine-level representation of data, including how data is stored and processed within
the computer's architecture.
• The representation of whole and real numbers in a computer, including binary encoding
methods for both.
• How various arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, are performed on binary representations of numbers?
• The concept of common text encoding schemes, such as ASCII and Unicode, and How
they represent characters.
• How digital data representations work for various forms of multimedia, such as images,
audios, videos, and other multimedia resources.
• Different file formats and their variations for specific applications.
• The concept of file extensions and their significance in identifying file types and
applications.
• Key terms related to data representation, including ASCII, Unicode, binary, signed and
unsigned numbers, bits, bytes, hexadecimal number systems, negatives in binary, two's
complement, binary arithmetic, overflow, and underflow.
• The concept of Boolean functions, to represent logic operations and relationships
between binary variables.
• How to construct Boolean expressions using variables and Boolean operators.
• Common Boolean identities and simplification techniques.
• The concept of duality in Boolean algebra, where OR becomes AND, and 0 becomes 1.
• The fundamentals of digital logic, which involves using binary digits (0 and 1) to process
and store information.
• Difference between analog and digital signals and understanding their key differences.
• Various logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, XOR) and their functions in processing binary
data.
• The purpose and construction of truth tables for evaluating the output of logic
expressions based on input combinations.
• The concept of switches and their role in digital systems, often used to represent binary
input.
• Karnaugh maps as a visual tool for simplifying Boolean expressions.
• Truth table, Boolean expression, circuit diagram of Half-adder and Full-adder
• Half-adder and Full-adder as digital systems with specific objectives, components and
interaction among those components

24
Introduction
Understanding number systems is fundamental in computer science and digital
electronics. This chapter will delve into various numbering systems, their
applications, and how they are used in computers. We will cover the following
topics:
1. Different numbering systems: decimal, binary, hexadecimal, and octal.
2. Binary number system in computers.
3. Machine-level data representation.
4. Representation of whole and real numbers.
5. Binary arithmetic operations.
6. Common text encoding schemes: ASCII and Unicode.
7. File formats and extensions.
8. Key terms in data representation.
9. Binary data manipulation and conversion.
10. Encoding schemes.
11. Differences between file formats.
12. Storing images, audio, and video in computers.
2.1 Numbering Systems
Numbering systems are essential in computing because they form the basis for
representing, storing, and processing data. Different numbering systems help
computers perform tasks like calculations, data storage, and data transfer. These
systems allow computers to represent various kinds of information, such as text,
colors, and memory locations. Here is a description of a few numbering systems:
2.1.1 Decimal System
The decimal number system is a base-10 number system that consists of digit
from 0 to 9 and we use it in everyday life. That's why each digit of the number
represents a power of 10. In the decimal system the place values starting from
the rightmost digits are 100, 101, 102, and so on. For example, the decimal number
523 means:
5 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 = 500 + 20 + 3 = 523
2.1.2 Binary System
In binary, the place values are arranged from the right to left, starting with 2⁰, and
ending at 2ⁿ,where each position represents a power of 2. For example, the
binary number 1011 can be converted to decimal as follows:
3 2 1 0
1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 2 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11
Computers work in binary system especially because this method fits well with
electronics. Digital circuits have two states: They can be either on or off. These
states are easily represented by the binary digits: 1 represent ON, and 0
represnets OFF. When typing on the keyboard, the computer translates every
25
letter to a binary. Similarly, number, text, images, and sound are all, at their
lowest level, reduced to binary. We shall discuss this is details later in this chapter.
When you type a letter on your keyboard, the computer converts it into a binary
code. Similarly, all types of data, including numbers, text, images, and sounds,
are ultimately broken down into binary code. We will explore it further later in
this chapter.
2.1.2.1 Conversion from Decimal to Binary
The following algorithm translate a decimal number to binary.
1. To convert decimal number to binary form, divide the decimal number by 2.
2. Record the remainder.
3. Divide the number by 2 until the quotient which is left after division is 0.
4. Meaning it is represented by the remainders and it's read from the bottom to
the top of the binary number.
Example: Convert 83 to binary

83 / 2 = 41 remainder 1
41 / 2 = 20 remainder 1
20 / 2 = 10 remainder 0
10 / 2 = 5 remainder 0
5 / 2 = 2 remainder 1
2 / 2 = 1 remainder 0
1/ 2 = 0 remainder 1

The above steps are graphically shown in Figure 2.1. If the remainders are read
from bottom to top then it gives the required result in binary, which is 1010011.

2 83
2 41—1

2 20—1

2 10 — 0
2 5—0
2 2—1
2 1—0
0—1
Figure 2.1 Decimal to Binary conversion
26
 Class activity
th
1. Marks Conversion: Each student will take his or her marks from 8
grade for each subject and convert them from decimal to binary. For
example, if a student score 85 in Math, he/she will convert 85 to binary
(which is 1010101).
2. Clock Time Conversion: Students will be given various times of the
day and asked to convert them into binary. For instance, 3:45 PM would
be converted as follows:
Hours (15) = 1111
Minutes (45) = 101101
3. Write your sleeping time in binary.

2.1.3 Octal System

Octal is a positional numeral system with base eight, which implies that a digit to
be used ranges from 0 to 7. The last digit is a single digit power of 8 while the
other digits are the coefficients. In the decimal system, the place values starting
from the 80, 81, 82 and so on. For example, the octal number 157 means, 1 x 82+ 5 x
81+ 7 x 80 = 64 + 40 + 7 = 111 .
Each octal digit represents three binary digits (bits) because the octal system is
base-8, and the binary system is base-2. This relationship arises from the fact that
8 is a power of 2 (8 = 2³). So, each octal digit can be precisely represented by
three binary digits (bits). This means that any value from 0 to 7 in octal can be
converted into a 3-bit binary number. This relationship makes conversion
between binary and octal straight forward. Table 2.1 shows the correspondence
between octal and binary digits:
Example:
Consider the 9-bit binary number 110101011. This number can be divided into
groups of three
Octal Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
Table 2.1: Correspondence between Octal and Binary Digits
27
Bits from right to left:
110 101 011
Each group of three bits corresponds to a single octal digit:
110 = 6
101 = 5
011 = 3
So, the binary number 110101011 is equal to 653 in octal.
Note that the octal number system isn't actually used in modern computers to
do their work. Therefore, we can say that the binary number 110101011 is equal
to 653 in octal. Whenever you have a binary number that cannot be divided into
groups of a three, you'll have to add zero up to the left end of it to make it
appropriate.
2.1.3.1 Conversion from Decimal to Octal
The algorithm below translates a decimal number into an octal.
1. To convert the decimal number to an equivalent octal number, divide the
number by 8.
2. Write down the remainder.
3. After that divide the obtained quotient by 8.
4. Continue the divisions until one of the numbers
results in 0. 8
5. Octal is a base eight number and the octal number
is the remainder read from the bottom up to the 8
top.
Example: Convert 83 to octal
• 83 / 8 = 10 remainder 3 Figure 2.2: Conversion from
• 10 / 8 = 1 remainder 2 Decimal to Octal.
• 1 / 8 = 0 remainder 1
The above steps are graphically shown in Figure 2.2. Going up from bottom, the
remainder reading will give the desired result, that is 123 in the octal system.

Class activity
1. Work in pairs to convert the following decimal numbers to octal: 45,
128, 64.
2. Convert these octal numbers to decimal: 57, 124, 301.
3. Share your answers with the class and discuss any differences.

28
 The octal system was used in early computing systems like
PDP-8. It was used because it is easier to convert between
octal and binary than between decimal and binary.

When converting between number systems, double-check your remainders

and sums to ensure accuracy. Practice with different numbers to become
more comfortable with the conversion process.

2.1.4 Hexadecimal System

The hexadecimal is a base 16 number system with digit number from 0 to 9 and
alphabets from A to F; each digit represents 16 to the power of the position of the
digit. The letter A to F stand for the numeric value of 10 to 15, The digits in
hexadecimal move from right to left in place value that are 160, 161, 162…
anothers. For example, the hexadecimal number 1A3 can be represented in
decimal as:

1 x 162+ A x 161 + 3 x 160 = 1 x 256 +10 x 16 + 3 x 1 = 256 +160 + 3 = 41910

The hexadecimal number system is not directly used by computers either.

However, it provides an even more compact representation than octal. This
makes it easier for us to read and write large binary numbers.
This is because the hexadecimal system is base-16 and the binary system is base-
2, therefore every single hexadecimal digit equals four binary bits. This
relationship stems from the fact that 16 is a power of 2 (16= 24). This means that
any hexadecimal number between 0 and 15 then it can be converted into 4-bit
binary number.
Table 2. 2 illustrates conversion of hexadecimal to binary digits. Each group of
four bits corresponds to a single hexadecimal digit.
Example:
Therefore, the binary number 1101011010110010 equals to the hexadecimal
number D6B2. In case a binary number cannot be grouped as four bits add
zero(s) to the left of the number to make it fit.

1101 0110 1011 0010

29
 Hexadecimal Binary
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111
Table 2.2: Correspondence between Hexadecimal and Binary Digits

1101 =D
0110 = 6
1011 = B
0010 = 2
2.1.4.1 Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal
The following algorithm converts a decimal number to hexadecimal:
1. Convert the decimal number to an absolute value by dividing it by 16.
2. Record the quotient and the remainder.
3. Continue dividing the quotient by 16 and write down the remainder until the
quotient is zero.
4. The hexadecimal number, as you might have guessed, is the remainder read
from bottom to top.
Example: Convert 2297 to hexadecimal

30
 2297 / 16 = 143 remainder 9
143 / 16 = 8 remainder F 16
8 / 16 = 0 remainder 8 16

Figure 2.3: Decimal

to Hexadecimal

The above steps are graphically shown in Figure 2.3. Reading the remainders
from bottom to top gives the required result, i.e., 8F9 in hexadecimal.
Class activity
Find the following values and express them in hexadecimal. Discuss your
findings with your classmates:
• Minimum Age to Cast Vote
• Length of the Indus River
• Total Districts in Pakistan
• Height of K2 (the second-highest mountain in the world)
• Area of Pakistan

2.2 Data Representation in Computing Systems

Computers can process and store a lot of information. In the following section we
will discuss numeric data representation.
2.2.1 Binary Encoding of Integers (Z) and Real Numbers (R)
When we store data in computers, especially numbers, it's important to
understand how they are represented and stored in memory. Let's explore how
different sizes of integer values are stored in 1, 2, and 4 bytes, and how both
positive and negative integers are handled.
2.2.2 Whole Numbers (W) and Integers (Z)
Integers, also known as whole numbers, are important elements in both
mathematics and computer science. Knowledge of these concepts is important
for primary computations, solving problems through programming, working
with data and designing algorithms.
2.2.2.1 Whole Numbers (W)
Whole numbers are a set of non-negative integers. They include zero and all the
positive integers. Mathematically, the set of whole numbers is:
W = {0,1,2,3,...}
In computing, whole numbers are often used to represent quantities that can't
be negative. Examples include the number of students in a school, a person's age
31
in years, and grades, provided there are no negative figures such as credit point
balances.
A 1-byte integer has 8 bits to store values. If all 8 bits are on, it represents the
maximum value, 111111112, which is 25510. If all bits are off, it represents the
minimum value, 000000002, which is 010. Similarly, using 2 or 4 bytes, we get more
bits to store data allowing us to store bigger values. If n is the number of bits, the
maximum value that can be represented is 2n -1 for examples:
8
• 1-Byte whole number (8 bits): Maximum value = 2 -1 = 255
• 2-Byte whole number (16 bits): Maximum value = 216 - 1 = 65,535
• 4-Byte whole number (32 bits): Maximum value = 232-1 = 4,294,967,295
2.2.2.2 Integers (Z)
Integers extend the concept of whole numbers to include negative numbers. In
computer programming, we call them signed integers. The set of integers is
represented as:
Z = {..., -3, -2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
To store both positive and negative values, one bit is reserved as the sign bit (the
most significant bit). If the sign bit is ON(1), the value is negative; otherwise, it is
positive. Using this system, the maximum positive value that can be stored in a 1
byte signed integer is (01111111)2 , which is 12710.. As the bits available to stored a
value is n -1, hence the maximum value will be 2 n-1 -1. We can use this formula to
compute the maximum values for 2 and 4 bytes.
Negative values are stored using two's compliment, explained in the following
section.
2.2.2.3 Negative Values and Two's Complement
To store negative values, computers use a method called two's complement. To
find the two's complement of a binary number, follow these steps:
1. Invert all the bits (change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s).
2. Add 1 to the Least Significant Bit (LSB).
Example: Let's convert the decimal number -5 to an 8-bit binary number:
1. Start with the binary representation of 5: 000001012.
2. Invert all the bits: 111110102.
3. Add 1: 111110102 + 12 = 111110112.
So, -5 in 8-bit two's complement is 111110112.
Minimum Integer Value
For an 8-bit integer, we switch on the sign bit for the negative value and turn all
bits ON. resulting in 111111112. Except the first bit, we take two’s complement
and get 100000002 which is 12810. Thus minimum value in 1-byte signed integer is
-128, i.e.,-2⁷. The minimum value is computed using the formula -2 n-1, where n is
the total number of bits.
• 2-Byte Integer (16 bits): Minimum value = -215 = -32,768
32
 • 4-Byte Integer (32 bits): Minimum value = -231-1 = -2,147,483,648

The reason we use binary and these ranges is that computers

use transistors that have two states: ON (1) and OFF (0). This
binary system forms the foundation of all digital computing!
Top Tip: When working with different integer types, always
check whether the data type is signed or unsigned to avoid
unexpected results, especially when dealing with large values or
negative numbers.

Understanding how integers are stored in memory helps you appreciate the
inner workings of computers and ensures you can effectively work with different
data types in programming.
2.3 Storing Real Values in Computer Memory
In computers, real values, also known as floating-point numbers, are used to
represent number with fractions and/or decimals.
2.3.1 Understanding Floating-Point Representation
Floating-point numbers (real values) are represented similarly to scientific
notation as given below:
A floating-point number = sign x mantissa x 2 exponent. According to the above
formula, 5.75 is represented as 1.4375 x 2. To convert the fractional part of a real
(floating-point) number from decimal (base-10) to binary (base-2), multiply the
fractional part by 2 and write down the integral part of the result. Repeat this
process with the new fractional part until the value of the fractional part becomes
zero or until the required precision is achieved.
Steps for Conversion:
1. Identify the Fractional Part: Get the fractional part of the decimal number. For
instance, in the number 4.625, the integral part is 4 and the fractional part is 0.
625.
2. Convert the Fractional Part to Binary: Multiply the fractional part by 2, and
write down the integer that is obtained. Repeat this process with the new
fractional part till it gets to 0 or until then required number of decimal places
is achieved.
Example: Converting 0.375 to Binary
1. Identify the Fractional Part: Fractional part: 0.375
2. Convert the Fractional Part 0.375 to Binary:
33
 0.375 x 2 = 0.75 (Integer part: 0)
0.75 x 2 = 1.5 (Integer part: 1)
0.5 x 2 = 1.0 (Integer part: 1)
The integer parts recorded are 0, 1, 1.
3. Combine the Results: Combine the binary representations of the integer parts
from top to bottom:
0.37510= 0.0112
In computing, it is critical to express real numbers in a binary form since it
facilitates computing and storage. This process involves converting both the
integer (decimal) and the fractional parts of a given number into binary. Two
commonly use standards for this representation are “Single precision (32-bit)”
and “Double Precision (64-bit)”.
2.3.1.1 Single Precision (32-bit)
In this standard, 4 bytes (or 32 bits) are assigned where the 1st bit is the sign bit,
and the next 8 bits are for the exponent and the remaining 23 bits are for the
mantissa.
Here the exponent can be ranged between −126 and +127.
The approximate range of values from1.4 x 10-45 to 3.4 x 1038.

Value Representation Sign Bit Exponent (8 bits) Mantissa (23 bits)

Grouping 1 bit 8 bits 23 bits
2
5.75 1.4375 x 2 0 10000001 1011100000000000000000
2
-5.75 - 1.4375 x 2 1 10000001 0
1011100000000000000000
-3
0.15625 1.25 x 2 0 01111101 0
0100000000000000000000
-3
-0.15625 -1.25 x 2 1 01111101 0
0100000000000000000000
0
Table 2.3: 32-bit Floating Point Representation

Explanation:
Table 2.3 illustrates how 32-bit floating point values are represented in binary
form. Each floating point value is broken down into three main components: the
sign bit, the exponent, and the mantissa.
1. Grouping: This row explains the bit allocation for the 32-bit floating point
format: 1 bit for the sign, 8 bits for the exponent, and 23 bits for the mantissa.

34
1. 5.75: Representation: 1.4375 x 22 - Sign Bit: 0 (positive) - Exponent: 2 +127 =
129, which is 100000012 - Mantissa: The binary representation of 0.4375 is
101110000000000000000002
2. -5.75: Representation: -1.4375 x 22 - Sign Bit: 1 (negative) - Exponent: 2 + 127
= 129, which is 100000012 - Mantissa: The binary representation of 0.4375 is
101110000000000000000002
3. 0.15625: Representation: 1.25 x 2-3 - Sign Bit: 0 (positive) - Exponent: -3 +127
= 124, which is 011111012 - Mantissa: The binary representation of 0.25 is
010000000000000000000002
4. -0.15625: Representation: -1.25 x 2-3 - Sign Bit: 1 (negative) - Exponent: -3
+127 = 124, which is 011111012 - Mantissa: The binary representation of 0.25
is 010000000000000000000002
This breakdown helps illustrate how floating point values are stored and
manipulated in computer systems
2.3.1.2 Double Precision (64-bit)
In double precision, the exponent is represented using 11 bits. The exponent is
stored in a biased form, with a bias of 1023. The range of the actual exponent
values can be determined as follows:
• Bias: 1023
• Exponent range: The actual exponent values range from -1022 to +1023.
Therefore, the smallest and largest possible exponent values in double-
precision are:
• Minimum exponent: -1022
• Maximum exponent: +1023
We can perform the same steps given for the single-precision, except the
difference of the abovementioned values.

When performing computation with floating point values one should also
consider possible round off errors. In scientific computing, it is necessary to
monitor these errors to maintain the accuracy.
35
 Class activity
1. Write down the binary representation of the following decimal
numbers: 2. 5,7. 25, and 10.5.
2. Then, convert these binary representations to the format single
precision format.
3. After completing this operation, discuss with classmates and yourself
how the degree of accuracy of the representation differs based on the
size of the number?

The information about how real values is stored in computer memory help us
understand the precision and limitations of digital computation. With this
understanding of floating-point representation, it becomes possible to control
and manipulate these numbers in different ways.
2.4 Binary Arithmetic Operations
Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
and are performed on two numbers at a time. Binary arithmetic operations are
similar to decimal operations but follow binary rules. Here's a brief overview of
the basic operations:
2.4.1 Addition
Binary addition uses only two digits: 0 and 1. Here, we will learn how to add binary
numbers and how to handle the addition of negative binary numbers.

Binary Addition Rules

Binary addition follows these simple rules:
1. 0 + 0 = 0
2. 0 + 1 = 1
3. 1 + 0 = 1
4. 1 + 1 = 0 (with a carry of 1 to the next higher bit)

Example of Binary Addition

Example 1:
1101
+1011

11000
In this example:
• 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1)
• 0 + 1 + 1 (carry) = 0 (carry 1)
• 1 + 0 + 1 (carry) = 0 (carry 1)
• 1 + 1 + 1 (carry) = 1 (carry 1)
36
2.4.2 Subtraction
In binary arithmetic, subtraction can also be carried out by adding the two's
complement or the value of the subtrahend to the minuend.
Example: Subtract 6 from 9 in Binary
Minuend = 910 = 10012
Subtrahend = 610 = 01102
Step 1: Find the Two's Complement of the Subtrahend
• Invert the bits of 01102:
Inversion: 10012
• Add 1 to the inverted number:
10012 + 12 = 10102=-610
Step 2: Add the Minuend and the Two's Complement of the
Subtrahend
10012+10102= 100112
Step 3: Discard the Carry Bit
100112 Discard carry 00112= 310
So, 9 - 6 = 3.
2.4.3 Multiplication
Binary numbers are base-2 numbers, consisting of only 0s and 1s. Multiplying
binary numbers follows similar principles to multiplying decimal numbers, but
with simpler rules. Here, we will learn how to multiply binary numbers with
example.
Steps to Multiply Binary Numbers
1. Write down the binary numbers, aligning them by the least significant bit
(rightmost bit).
2. Multiply each bit of the second number by each bit of the first number, similar
to the long multiplication method in decimal.
3. Shift the partial results one place to the left for each new row, starting from
the second row.
4. Add all the partial results to get the final product.
Example
Let's multiply two binary numbers: 1012 and 112.
101
X 11
101 (This is 1012 X 12)
101X 0 (This is 1012 X 12, shifted left)
1111
So,1012X112=11112.

37
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer performs
millions of binary multiplications every second to execute
complex instructions and run programs!

2.4.3 Division
Binary division is similar to decimal division but only involves two digits: 0 and 1.
It follows steps like comparing, subtracting, and shifting, akin to long division in
the decimal system.
Steps of Binary Division
1. Compare: Compare the divisor with the current portion of the devidend.
2. Subtract: Subtract the divisor from the dividend portion if the divisor is less
than or equal to the dividend.
3. Shift: Shift the next binary digit from the dividend down to the remainder.
4. Repeat: Repeat the process until all digits of the dividend have been used.
Example
Divide 11002by 102
10 1100
(Step 1: Compare 10 with first two 11, subtract 10 from 11)
-10
(Step 2: Bring down the next digit 0)
10
-10 (Step 3: Compare 10 with 10, subtract 10 from 10)
0 (Step 4: Bring down the next digit 0, no more digits left)

Result: 11002 / 102 = 1102

Class activity
Practicing Binary Division
Objective: To practice and understand binary division through hands-on
examples. Instructions:
1. Form groups of three to four students.
2. Each group will solve the following binary division problems:
(a) 10101₂ 10₂
(b) 11100₂ 11₂
100110₂ 101₂
3. Write down each step of your division process clearly.
4. Present your solutions to the class, explaining each step and the
reasoning behind it.
38
2.5 Common Text Encoding Schemes
Text encoding schemes are essential for representing characters from various
languages and symbols in a format that computers can understand and process.
Here are some of the most common text encoding schemes used in computers:

2.5.1 ASCII
ASCII is an acronym that stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It is a character encoding standard adopted for representing in
devices such as computers and similar systems that use text. Each alphabet,
number or symbol is given a code number between 0 and 127 as shown in Table
2.4.
ASCII enables different computers and devices to exchange text information
reliably. Let's encode the name of our country using ASCII.

• The ASCII code for an upper case letter “P” is 80.

• The code for letter 'a' in ASCII is 97.
• The ASCII code for the letter 'k' is 107.
• It is interesting to know that the ASCII code for the letter 'i' is 105.
• In the ASCII code system, the letter 's' has a code of 115.
• The code for 't' is 116 in ASCII.

The ASCII code is a numerical representation of characters in computer-based

system, particularly for alphabetic characters.
For example, the ASCII code of the character 'n' is 110.

Class activity
1. Write down your name.
2. Find the ASCII code for each letter in your name. You can use
the ASCII tableto for your help.
3. Convert each ASCII code to binary.
4. Write down your name in binary!

39
Character ASCII Code Character ASCII Code
SP (space) 32 ! 33
" 34 # 35
$ 36 % 37
& 38 ’ 39
( 40 ) 41
* 42 + 43
, 44 - 45
. 46 / 47
0 48 1 49
2 50 3 51
4 52 5 53
6 54 7 55
8 56 9 57
58 ; 59
< 60 = 61
> 62 ? 63
@ 64 A 65
B 66 C 67
D 68 E 69
F 70 G 71
H 72 I 73
J 74 K 75
L 76 M 77
N 78 O 79

40
P 80 Q 81
R 82 S 83
T 84 U 85
V 86 W 87
X 88 Y 89
Z 90 [ 91
\ 92 ] 93
94 - 95
ˆ? 96 a 97
b 98 c 99
d 100 e 101
f 102 g 103
h 104 i 105
j 106 k 107
l 108 m 109
n 110 o 111
p 112 q 113
r 114 s 115
t 116 u 117
v 118 w 119
x 120 y 121
z 122 { 123
| 124 } 125
126 DEL 127
Table:2.4
41
2.5.1 Extended ASCII
While the standard ASCII Table includes 128 characters, there is an extended
version that includes 256 characters. This extended ASCII uses 8 bits and includes
additional symbols, accented letters, and other characters. However, the original
128 characters are the most commonly used and serves as the basis for text
representation in computers.
2.5.2 Unicode
Unicode is an attempt at mapping all graphic characters used in any of the
world's writing system. Unlike ASCII, which is limited to 7bits and can represent
only 128 characters, Unicode can represent over a million characters through
different forms of encodings such as, UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32. UTF is an
acronym that stands for Unicode Transformation Format.

2.5.2.1 UTF-8
It is a variable-length encoding scheme, meaning it can use a different numbers
of bytes (from 1 to 4) to represent a character. UTF-8 is backward compatible
with ASCII. It means it can understand and use the older ASCII encoding scheme
without any problems. Therefore, if we have a text file written in ASCII, it will work
perfectly fine with UTF-8, allowing it to read both old and new texts.
Example: The letter ‘A’ is Unicode, represented as, U+0041, is 01000001 in the
binary format and occupies 8 bits or 1 byte.
Let's look at how Urdu letters are represented in UTF-8:
Example: The Urdu letter '‫ 'ب‬is represented in Unicode as U+0628; its binary
format is 11011000 10101000, means it takes 2 bytes.

2.5.2.2 UTF-16
UTF-16 is another variable character encoding mechanism, although it uses
either 2 bytes or 4 bytes per character at most. Unlike UTF-8, it is not compatible
with ASCII, meaning it cannot translate ASCII code.
Example: The letter A in UTF-16 is equal to 00000000 01000001 in binary or 65 in
decimal (2 bytes).
For Urdu:
Example: The right Urdu letter '‫ 'ب‬in UTF-16 is represented as is 00000110
00101000 in binary, which occupies 2 bytes of memory.

2.5.2.3 UTF-32
UTF-32 is a method of encoding that uses a fixed length, with all characters
stored in 4 bytes per character. This makes it very simple but at the same time it
may look a little complicated when it comes to space usage.
Example: Alphabet letter ‘A’ in UTF-32 is represented in binary as 00000000
00000000 00000000 01000001 which is 4 bytes.
42
2.6 Storing Images, Audio, and Video in Computers
Have you ever wondered how your favorite photos, songs, and movies are stored
on your computer or phone? Let's dive into the fascinating world of digital
storage to understand how computers manage these different types of files.

Data size is usually expressed in byte and its multiples.

• 1 Byte (B) = 8 Bits
• 1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
• 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes
• 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes
• 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes
• 1 Petabyte (PB) = 1024 Terabytes
• 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 Petabytes
• 1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1024 Exabytes
• 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 Zettabytes

2.6.1 Storing Images

Images are made up of tiny dots called pixels. Each pixel has a color, and the
combination of all these pixels forms the complete picture. Computers store
images using numbers to represent these colors.
Color Representation: - In a color image, each pixel's color can be represented
by three numbers: Red, Green, and Blue (RGB). Each of these numbers typically
ranges from 0 to 255. - For example, a pixel with RGB values (255, 0, 0) will be
bright red.
Image File Formats: The following are Commonly used image formats for
photos - JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group). It compresses the image to
save space but might lose some quality. - PNG (Portable Network Graphics ):
Supports transparency and maintains high quality without losing data. - GIF
(Graphics Interchange Format): Used for simple animations and images with few
colors.

Class activity
Create a Pixel Art
1. Use graph paper to draw a simple image, such as a smiley face.
2. Color each square (pixel) and write down the RGB values for each
color used.
3. Share your pixel art and RGB values with the class.

43
2.6.2 Storing Audio
Audio files are stored by capturing sound waves and converting them into digital
data. This process involves sampling and quantization.
Sampling and Quantization:
• Sampling: Recording the sound wave at regular intervals. The number of
samples per second is called the sampling rate. Higher sampling rates result
in better quality.
• Quantization: Converting each sample into a number. More bits per sample
provide more accurate sound representation.
Audio File Formats:
• Mp3: A common format that compresses audio to save space but may lose
some quality.
• WAV (Wave Audio File Format): Uncompressed format that maintains high
quality.
• AAC (Advanced Audio Coding): Used by many streaming services for high-
quality audio with efficient compression.
Listening to music chnaged dramaticallly with the introduction
of the MP3 format. It revolutionized the music industry by
allowing songs to be easily shared over the internet due to its
smaller file size.
To explain how these units are used, consider the following examples:
• An image file might have a size of 500 KB (Kilobytes).
• A music file might be around 5 MB (Megabytes).
• A full-length HD movie could be approximately 2 GB (Gigabytes).
• A large external hard drive could have a capacity of 1 TB (Terabytes).
2.6.3 Storing Video
Videos are made up of many images shown rapidly in sequence, along with
audio. Each image in a video is called a frame.
Frames and Frame Rate:
• Frame Rate: The number of frames shown per second, measured in Frames
Per Second (FPS). Common frame rates are 24 fps (used in movies) and 30 fps
(used in TV). Higher frame rates result in smoother motion in videos.
Video File Formats:
• MP4: A widely used format that efficiently compresses video while
maintaining quality.
• AVI: An older format that may result in larger file sizes.
• MKV: Supports high-quality video and multiple audio tracks or subtitles.
When watching videos online, the quality can change based
on your internet speed. Streaming services adjust the video
quality to avoid buffering.
44
2.6.4 How Computers Store These Files
All these files (images, audio, and video)are stored as binary data, which means
they are represented by sequences of 0s and 1s.
Storage Devices:
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Use spinning disks to read/write data. They offer
large storage capacities.
• Solid State Drive (SSD): Use flash memory for faster access times and better
performance.
• Cloud Storage: Stores files on remote servers accessible via the internet,
providing flexibility and backup options.
IBM created the first hard drive in 1956 which weighed over a ton
and could only store 5,000,000 bytes which is much less than the
storage required for even one high-quality song today.

This leads us to an understanding and appreciation of how images, audio and

videos are stored in the computers, allowing us to marvel at the underlying
technology of our current digital age. Whether you're taking pictures, enjoying
music, or watching films, it all stems how computers manage information!
Summary
• In computing, numbering systems are crucial as they form the foundation
for representing, storing, and processing information.
• Decimal number system is a number system in which base is 10 and the
digits involved are 0 to 9, which are commonly used in our daily lives.
• Binary is a base-2 number system that comprises of only the digits 0 and 1.
Each digit represents a power of two.
• The Octal number system is another number system that has eight as its
base; thus, it has eight digits 0 to7. Each digit represents a power of 8, this
can be expressed as 8 digit.
• The Hexadecimal numbering system is another type of number system with
base of 16, where the number 0 to 9 and alphabets A-F are used.
• Integers refers to the set of non-negative whole numbers, while whole
numbers are the complete numbers. They include zero and all the positive
integers, also positive zero.
• To store negative values, computers employ a technique commonly known
as two's complement.
• In computers, real values, which are nicknamed as floating-point numbers
are used to represent numbers with fraction or decimal point.
• Arithmetic operations mean addition, subtraction multiplication, and
division performed on numbers in given base. Binary arithmetic involves
performing these operations on numbers in binary form, or base 2.
• ASCII is an acronym for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It is an industry standard used to encode text in computers and
45
 other devices.
• All the letters, digits or symbols are given a unique number ranging from 0
to 127.
• According to the standard ASCII table, there are both a basic version with
128 characters and an extending version with 256 characters.
• Unicode is a character encoding standard that aims to provide character
codes for all the characters use a in the worlds' writing systems.
• UTF-16 on the other hand is another variable character encoding technique
in which characters are represented using either two or four bytes.
• UTF-32 is a blocking encoding method of fixed block size, meaning that the
size of each block is constant. Each single character is always represented
using 4 bytes, regardless of its specific characteristics.
• Images under digital context are composed of small points referred to as
pixel. Each of them is of certain color and the combination of such pixels
makes a complete image or picture.
• Audio files are recorded using the human-computer interface to capture
and then converting sound waves into digital form. Some of the key steps in
this process include data sampling and quantization.

• Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What does ASCII stand for?
(a) American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(b) Advanced Standard Code for Information Interchange
(c) American Standard Communication for Information Interchange
(d) Advanced Standard Communication for Information Interchange
2. Which of the following numbers is a valid binary number?
(a) 1101102 (b) 11011 (c) 110.11 (d) 1101A
3. How many bits are used in the standard ASCII encoding?
(a) 7 bits (b) 8 bits (c) 16 bits (d) 32 bits
4. Which of the following is a key advantage of Unicode over ASCII?
(a) It uses fewer bits per character
(b) It can represent characters from many different languages
(c) It is backward compatible with binary
(d) It is specific to the English language
5. How many bytes are used to store a typical integer?
(a) 1 byte (b) 2 bytes (c) 4 bytes (d) 8 bytes
46
6. What is the primary difference between signed and unsigned integers?
(a) Unsigned integers cannot be negative
(b) Signed integers have a larger range
(c) Unsigned integers are stored in floating-point format
(d) Signed integers are only used for positive numbers
7. In the single precision, how many bits are used for the exponent?
(a) 23 bits (b) 8 bits (c) 11 bits (d) 52 bits
8. What is the approximate range of values for single-precision floating-point
numbers?
(a) 1.4 x 10-45to3.4 x 1038 (b) 1.4 x 10-38to3.4 x 1045
(c) 4.9 x 10-324 to 1.8 x 10308 (d) 4.9 x 10-308 to 1.8 x 10324
9. What are the tiny dots that make up an image called?
(a) Pixels (b) Bits (c) Bytes (d) Nodes
10. In an RGB color model, what does RGB stand for?
(a) Red, Green, Blue (b) Red, Gray, Black
(c) Right, Green, Blue (d) Red, Green, Brown
Short Questions
1. What is the primary purpose of the ASCII encoding scheme?
2. Explain the difference between ASCII and Unicode.
3. How does Unicode handle characters from different languages?
4. What is the range of values for an unsigned 2-byte integer?
5. Explain how a negative integer is represented in binary.
6. What is the benefit of using unsigned integers?
7. How does the number of bits affect the range of integer values?
8. Why are whole numbers commonly used in computing for quantities that
cannot be negative?
9. How is the range of floating-point numbers calculated for single precision?
10. Why is it important to understand the limitations of floating-point
representation in scientific computing?
Long Questions
1. Explain how characters are encoded using Unicode. Provide examples of
characters from different languages and their corresponding Unicode code
points.
2. Describe in detail how integers are stored in computer memory.
3. Explain the process of converting a decimal integer to its binary
representation and vice versa. Include examples of both positive and
47
 negative integers.
4. Perform the following binary arithmetic operations:
a. Multiplication of 101 by 11.
b. Division of 1100 by 10.
6. Add the following binary numbers:
a)
101
+ 110
b)
1100
+ 1011

7. Convert the following numbers to 4-bit binary and add them:

(a) 7 + (-4)
(b) -5 + 3
8. Solve the following
(a) 1101₂ - 0100₂
(b) 1010₂ - 0011₂
(c) 1000₂ - 0110₂
(d) 1110₂ - 100₂

48
 UNIT Digital Systems and
3 Logic Design
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand Boolean functions and operations it, such as Boolean AND,
and OR.
• Construct Boolean expressions using variables and Boolean operators.
• Relate common Boolean identities and Boolean simplification
procedures.
• Understand the concept of duality in Boolean algebra.
• Subtopics such analog and digital signals
• Introduce several types of gates and their functions.
• Build truth tables for the operations of logical expressions.
• Employ the K-Maps in minimizing Boolean expressions.
• Introduce logic diagrams of digital system.
• Analyze and design half-adder and full-adder circuits.

49
Introduction
In this chapter, we will discuss the Boolean functions, logic, digital logic, and
difference between analog and digital signals. We will also discuss several types
of gates, their truth tables, and digital devices including half and full adders. At
the completion of this chapter, you should be construct Boolean expressions,
simplify them, create truth table, and understand the basics of digital logic.
3.1 Basics of Digital Systems
Digital systems are the backbone of today's electronics and computing. They
manipulate digital information in the form of binary digits, which are either 0 or 1
and are used in calculation devices such as calculators and computers, among
others.
3.1.1 What is an Analog Signal
Analog signals are signals that changes with time smoothly and continuously
over time. They can have any value within given range. Examples include voice
signal (speaking), body's temperature and radio-wave signals. Digital signals are
the signals which have only two values that are in the form of '0' and '1'. These are
utilized in digital electronics and computing systems. Analog to digital converter
(ADC) and digital to analog converters (DAC) are important operations in today's
technological developments, enabling the transmission and control of signals.

Analog Signal Digital Signal

Continuous Discrete
Infinite possible values Finite (0 or 1)
Example: Sound waves Example: Binary data in
computers

Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC): ADC is the conversion of analog signals

into digital signals, which are discrete and can be easily processed by
computerized devices like computers and smart phones.
Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC): DAC is the conversion whereby analog
signals are converted to digital signals, making it possible for human to perceive
the information, for instance through speakers, as depicted in figure 3. 1.

50
 ADC DAC
Figure 3.1: Analog to Digital and Vice Versa

ADC and DAC Conversion: Why is it needed?

Digital to analog conversion, and vice versa, is critical since it enables data
processing, storage, and transmission. Digital signals are much less affected by
noise and signal degradation and are therefore better suited for transmitting and
storing information over long distances.
Example: Sound Waves
Let us consider a situation where one person is speaking into a microphone while
the other person is receiving sound through speakers as illustrated in the figure
3.1.
1. Microphone (ADC): When you speak into the microphone, your voice
produces sound waves (analog signals) that are captured by the system. This is
done by converting the sound waves into digital form using an ADC with the
microphone. Finally, this digital data can be transmitted over long distances with
little or no degradation in quality.
2. Speakers (DAC): At the receiver end, the digital signals are then converted
back into analog signals with the help of DAC. The speakers then translate these
analog signals back into sound waves to enable you hear to the other person's
voice as if they were speaking directly to you.

Analog signals are sometimes changed to digital signals in

an action known as Analog to Digital Conversion or ADC. This
enables analog information such as music, to be recorded
and manipulated by digital gadgets.

51
3.1.2 Fundamentals of Digital Logic
Digital logic is the basis of digital systems. It involves the use of binary numbers
that is 0 and 1, to represent and manipulate information. Digital logic circuits use
of these binary values to perform various operations, and they are essential to
the functioning in operation of computers and many other electronic devices.
In digital circuits, the two states, 0 and 1, are represented by different voltage
levels. Conventionally, a higher voltage, such as, 5 volts refer to a binary ‘1’ , while
a low voltage, for instance, 0 volts refer to a binary ‘0’. These voltage levels are
termed as the logic levels. Logic levels are needed to switch on and switch off the
devices and to define ways through which digital circuits execute operations and
process information.
3.2 Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates
Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics relate to logic and symbolic
computation, using two values namely True and False. It is an essential branch of
digital circuits since it is the basis for the analysis and design of circuits. Here in
this section we will cover of Boolean functions and expressions, the working, and
functions of logic gates, Building and evaluating Truth Tables and Logic
Diagrams.
3.2.1 Boolean Functions and Expressions
Binary values are used to describe the relationship between variables in the
Boolean function and Boolean expressions. The expressions are built using AND,
OR, and other logic operations and can in several ways be reduced to optimize
digital circuits.
3.2.1.1 Binary Variables and Logic Operations
Binary variables that can have only have two values, 0 and 1. Logic operations are
basic operations implemented in Boolean algebra for processing of these binary
variables. The primary logic operations are AND, OR and NOT.
AND Operation:
AND is the basic logical operator which is used in Boolean algebra. It requires two
binary inputs which will give a single binary output. The symbol '.' is used for the
AND operation. The output of the AND operation is “1” only when both inputs
are “1”. Otherwise, the result is “0”.
Example:
Consider two binary variables:
A = 1(True)
B = 0 (False)
The AND operation for these variables can be written mathematically as:
P=A·B
In this example:
A=1 B = 0
Therefore, then, the result P of the AND operation is 0 (false).
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Truth Table:
A truth table is useful in demonstrating the functionality of the AND operation
with all possibilities of the input variables. Below is the truth table for the AND
operation.
A B A AND B (P)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Table 3.1: Truth Table for AND Operation
Explanation:
If both A and B are off, that is equal to zero then the desired output P is off
(0).
if A is 0 and B is 1 the output P is 0.
When A is 1 and B is 0 P is resulting 0.
When A is 1 and B is 1, the output P also becomes 1.
OR Operation:
The OR operation is an other basic logical operator in Boolean algebra. To be
specific this is also a function tables two binary variables as input produces a
single binary output. According to Table 3.2, the OR operation yields true (1)
output when at least of ‘1’ of the inputs is true (1). The output is 0 only when both
inputs are ‘0’.
Example:
Consider two binary variables:
A = 1 (true)
B = 0 (false)
The OR operation for these variables can be written mathematically as:
P = A+B
In this example:
A = 1 B= 0
Therefore, result P of the OR gate will be 1.
Truth Table:
A truth table is useful for better understanding of how the OR operation is
organized and what the result of the OR's application is for all variants of the
input variables. Below is the truth table for the OR operation.

53
Explanation:
If A is equal to 0 and B is equal to 0 the output P is equal to 0. When A is zero and B
is one, the output P is also one. When A is equal to 1 and B is equals to 0 the
values of P equal to 1. When both A and B are 1 then the output P equal to one.

A B A OR B (P)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Table 3.2: Truth Table for OR Operation

In binary logic, 1 + 1 does not equal 2 but equals 1 in logical

operation. This is because the OR operation returns a value of
1 if any or both of the inputs to this operator are 1.

NOT Operation:
The NOT operation is one of the basic Boolean algebra operations which takes a
single binary variable and simply negates its value. If the input is one, the output
is zero and if the input is zero, the output is one.
Example:
Consider a binary variable:
A = 1 (true)
The NOT operation for this variable can be written mathematically as:
P = A or P= A
In this example:
P=0
This signifies that if you have A = 1 (true), the result of NOT operation is going to
be 0 (false).
Truth Table:
The following table will illustrate the working of NOT operation for all possible
inputs of the variable. Below is the truth table for the NOT operation.

A NOT A (P)
0 1
1 0
Table 3.3: Truth Table for NOT Operation
54
Explanation:
When the input A is 0, the output P is 1. When A is 1 the output value P is 0. A NOT
operation performs the negative of the input variable i. e., it gives the opposite
value. This operation is important in digital logic design to generate more
complex logic functions and verify the functionality of digital circuits.
3.2.1.2 Construction of Boolean Functions
Boolean functions are algebraic statements that describe the relationship
between binary variables and logical operations. These functions are particularly
important for digital logic design and are employed in formation of various
digital circuits, which are the basis of current computers, mobile phones and
even simple calculator.
Understanding Boolean Functions:
A Boolean function is a function which has a one or more binary inputs and
produces a single binary output. The inputs and outputs can only have two
values: False (represented by 0) and True (represented by 1). The construction of
Boolean functions is done by employing the basic logical operations such as
AND, OR and NOT, which connect the inputs to generate the correct output.
Example 1: Simple Boolean Function
Consider a Boolean function with two inputs, A and B. We can construct a
function F that represents the AND operation:

F ( A, B ) = A . B

Output
Input

Figure 3.2: Simple Boolean Function

The diagram shown above demonstrates a basic digital circuit, which is an AND
gate. The box symbolizes the AND function F (A, B) = A . B. This box has two inputs
A and B. If both A and B are 1, the output will be 1. In any other case, the output
will be 0. The input are shown at the entrance to the box, while the output is
depicted at the exit of the block. The truth table for this function is as follows:

55
 A B F(A, B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Table 3.4: Truth Table for F(A,B) = A.B
Example 2: Now, let us construct a more complex Boolean function with three
inputs, A, B, and C:
F (A, B, C) = A . B + A . C
This function uses AND, OR and NOT at the same time. The truth table for this
function is as follows:
Explanation:
• The parameters A, B, and C are included in the following example as the input
columns.
• The results of AND operation between two variable A and B are presented in
the column A · B.
• The column A standing for the NOT operation of A.
• Every value in the column A · C displays the result of AND operation between
the values in the Fifth column and the third column.
• The final column F (A, B, C) shows the output of the Boolean function
(A . B) + (A . C)
A B C A·B A A· C F(A, B, C)
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Table 3.5: Detailed Truth Table for F (A, B, C) = (A . B) + (A . C)
Usage in Computers:
There are many uses of Boolean functions in the computers for various
operations. Here are some examples of their usage:
• Arithmetic Operations: Boolean functions are used in Arithmetical Logic
Units (ALUs) of CPUs to perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and even division.
56
• Data Processing: Boolean functions are used to process binary data in
memory and storage devices, ensuring efficient data manipulation and
retrieval.
• Control Logic: Boolean functions are applied in computers to control various
parts of the system's operation to function in co-ordinated manner.

Boolean functions are also present in our everyday devices

like cell phones and calculators:
Cell Phones: In cell phone processing, when you dail a
number, or press a button on a phone, a Boolean function
evaluates these inputs as true or false and makes the
necessary output.
Calculators: Basic calculators use Boolean functions. When you feed it
with numbers and the operations to be performed, Boolean logic is
used to arrive at the right result.

Class activity
Consider what do you do with your cell phone or calculator on daily basis.
Can you distinguish activities that require logical choices, like entering a
password to unlock your smart phone or solving a math problem? Ask your
group members how Boolean functions may be utilized in the background.

George Boole, a mathematician who invented Boolean algebra

was born in Lincoln, England in the year 1815. His work laid the
debate and the basis for future digital revolution and computer
science as well as subsequent technologies of the future.

3.2.2 Logic Gates and their Functions

Logic gates are physical devices in electronic circuits that perform Boolean
operations. Each type of logic gate corresponds to a basic Boolean operation.
Examples of the logic gates are:
AND Gate: Implements the AND function. It outputs true only when both inputs
are True (1)
57
 Figure 3.3: AND Gate

Imagine a simple electronic circuit with an AND gate. If you press two switches
(both must be ON), a light bulb will turn on.

• Switch 1: ON (True)
• Switch 2: ON (True)
• Light bulb: ON (True) because both switches are ON.
If either switch is OFF, the light bulb will be OFF.
OR Gate: Implements the OR function. It outputs true when at least one input
is true.

Figure 3.4: OR Gate

NOT Gate: Implements the NOT function. It outputs the opposite of the input.
See Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5: NOT Gate

NAND Gate: This gate is achieved when an AND gate is combined with a NOT
gate. It generates true when at least one of the inputs is false. In other words,
it is the inverse of the AND gate, as presented in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: NAND Gate

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Example:
Imagine a safety system where an alarm should go on if either one of two sensors
detects an issue.
• Sensor 1: No issue (False)
• Sensor 2: Issue detected (True)
• Alarm: ON (True) because one sensor detects an issue.

XOR Gate:
The XOR (Exclusive OR) gate outputs true only when exactly one of the inputs is
true. It differs from the OR gate in that it does not output true when both inputs
are true. It is shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: XOR Gate

Example:
Imagine a scenario where you can either play video games or do homework, but
not both at the same time.

• Play video games: Yes (True)

• Do homework: No (False)
• Allowed? Yes (True) because only one activity is being done.

Class activities
Let's make learning these logical functions fun with an activity!
1. AND Adventure: Form pairs and give each pair two conditions they
need to meet to win a prize (like both wearing a specific color shirt).
2. OR Options: Make a list of fun activities. If at least one activity is
possible, the class gets extra playtime.
3. NOT Negatives: Ask true/false questions and have students shout
the opposite answer. For example, "Is the sky green?" Students
should shout "No!" (NOT True).
4. Construct a basic circuit using a breadboard, a battery, and LED
lights to represent an AND gate. Connect two switches which will
serve as, inputs A and B. In this experiment the LED will light up only
when both switches are pressed.

59
3.3 Simplification of Boolean Functions
Simplification of Boolean functions is a particularly important process in
designing an efficient digital circuit. Such simplified functions require fewer
gates making them compact in size, energy efficient and faster than the
complicated ones. Simplification means applying of some Boolean algebra rules
to make the functions less complicated.
Basic Boolean Algebra Rules:
Here are some fundamental Boolean algebra rules used for simplification:
1. Identity Laws
A+0=A
A.1=A
2. Null Laws
A+1=1
A.0=0
3. Idempotent Laws
A+A=A
A.A=A
4. Complement Laws
A+A=1
A.A=0
5. Commutative Laws
A + B = B+A
A.B=B.A
6. Associative Laws
(A + B)+ C = A + (B + C)
(A . B) . C = A . (B . C)
7. Distributive Laws
A . (B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)
A + (B . C) = ( A + B) . (A + C)
8. Absorption Laws
A + (A . B) = A
A . (A + B) = A
9. De Morgan's Theorems
A+B=A.B
A.B=A+B
10. Double Negation Law
A=A

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Simplification Examples
Example 1
Simplify the expression A + A • B.
Solution:
A + A • B = (A + A) • (A + B) (Distributive Law)
= 1 • (A + B) (Complement Law)
=A+B (Identity Law)

Example 2
Simplify the expression A • B + A • B.
Solution:

A•B+A • B = A + B + A • B (De Morgan’s Theorem)

= ( A +B ) Since A is already present in
= A +B (A . B), we can use absorption law
i.e A+ (A . B)= A

Example 3
Simplify the expression (A + B) • (A + B)
Solution:

(A + B) • (A + B) = A•(A+B)+B • (A+B) (Distributive Law)

= A+A•B+B•B (Absorption Law)
=A+A•B (Identity Law)
= A • (1 + B) (Distributive Law)

=A•1 (Null Law)

(Identity Law)
=A

Example 4
Simplify the expression A + B • (A + B)
Solution:

A + B • (A + B) = (A • B) • (A + B) (De Morgan’s Theorem)

=A•B•A+A•B•B (Distributive Law)
=A•B +A.B (Idempotent Law)
=A•B (Identity Law)

61
3.4. Creating Logic Diagrams
The logic diagrams depict the working of a digital circuit through symbols that
represent to its individual logic gates. To create a logic diagram:
• Find out the logic gates needed for the Boolean function.
• Arrange the gates to perform the operations as defined by the function of the
• circuit.
• Connect the inputs and the output of the gates correctly.
To summarize, knowledge of Boolean algebra and logic gates is crucial when it
comes to the creation and study of digital circuits. If students understand those
concepts, they can build efficient and effective digital systems.
3.5. Application of Digital Logic
Digital logic is an essential aspect for the functioning of several modern
electronic systems, such as computers, smart phones, and other digital gadgets.
Digital logic optimize in many ways in order to create and enhance circuits meant
to perform various tasks. Two important applications of digital logic are the
design of adder circuits and the use of Karnaugh maps for function simplification.
3.5.1 Half-adder and Full-adder Circuits
Adder circuits are widely used in the digital circuits to perform arithmetic
calculations. There are two general forms of adder circuits known as half-adders
and full adders.
3.5.1.1 Half-adder Circuits
A half adder is a basic circuitry unit that performs addition of two single-bit
binary digits. It has two inputs, usually denoted as A and B, and two outputs: the
sum (S) and the carry (C).
Truth Table for Half-adder:
A B Sum (S) Carry (C)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Table 3.6: Truth Table for Half-adder
Boolean Expressions for Half-adder:
S=A ⊕ B
C=A.B
In this case the symbol + represents the XOR operation. The sum output is high
when only one of the inputs is high, while the carry output is high when both
inputs are high. 62
Boolean Expressions:
Sum = A ⊕ B

Table 3.8: Half-Adder Circuit

3.5.1.2 Full-adder Circuits

A full-adder is a more complex circuit that adds three single-bit binary numbers:
two bits that belong to the sum and a carry bit from a previous addition. It has
three inputs, denoted as A, B, and Cin (carry input), and two outputs: called the
sum (S) and the carry (Cout) with both being integer values.
A B Cin Sum (S) Carry (Cout)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1

Table 3.7: Truth Table for Full-adder

Boolean Expressions:
Sum = A⊕B⊕Cin
Carry= (A.B) + (Cin . (A⊕B))

Table 3.9: Half-Adder Circuit

63
The sum output is high if the number of high inputs is odd whereas the carry
output is high if the number of high inputs is at least 2.
3.5.2 Karnaugh Map( K-Map)
A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a graphical representation which can be used to
solve Boolean algebra expressions and minimize a logic function where algebraic
computations are not employed. It is a technique in which the truth value of
Boolean function is plotted to enable the identification of patterns and to
perform term combining for simplification.

Minterm Variables Combination Minterm Expression

m0 A= 0, B= 0,C= 0 ABC
m1 A= 0, B= 0,C= 1 AB C
m2 A= 0, B= 1,C= 0 ABC
m3 A= 0, B= 1,C= 1 ABC
m4 A= 1, B= 0,C= 0 ABC
m5 A= 1, B= 0,C= 1 ABC
m6 A= 1, B= 1,C= 0 ABC
m7 A= 1, B= 1,C= 1 ABC
Table 3.8: Possible Minterms for A,B and C
3.5.2.1 Structure of Karnaugh Maps
A K-map is a matrix where each square is a cell, which corresponds to a
positioned combination. These cells are filled with '1' or '0' in reference to the
truth table of the Boolean function. The size of the K-map depends on the
number of variables:
• 2 Variables: 2x2 grid
• 3 Variables: 2x4 grid
• 4 Variables: 4x4 grid least
• 5 Variables: 4x8 grid (less common for manual simplification)
Every cell in the K-map represents a minterm, and the cells in each row of the K-
map differ by only one bit at any particular position, following the gray code
sequence.
3.5.2.2 Minterms in Boolean Algebra
In Boolean algebra, a minterm is a particular product term whereby every
variable of the function is present in either 1 its true form or its complement. Each
minterm corresponds to one and only one set of variable values that makes the
Boolean function equal to true or 1.
64
Minterm Notation For a Boolean function with variables A, B and C:
The minterm where A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1 is written as A B C.
Consider a Boolean function F(A,B,C). The possible minterms for this function are:
Possible Minterms for A,B,C
3.5.2.3 Creating Karnaugh Maps
To create a K-map, follow these steps:
1. Create a grid based on the number of variables that exists in the system.
2. Let us complete the grid using the output values in the truth table.
3. Arrange the 1s in the grid in the largest possible groups of size 1, 2, 4, 8 and so
on. Every group must have one or more 1s, must be a power of two, and they
must be in a continuous rows or columns.
Example: Simplifying a Boolean Expression with a K-map
To simplify the Boolean expression A . B + A . B + A . B using a Karnaugh map (K-
map):

1. Expression: A . B + A . B + A . B

Step 1: Draw the K-map Grid

For two variables A and B:

B=0 B=1
A=0 0 1
A=1 1 1

Step 2: Fill in the K-map

Determine the output for each combination of A and B based on the
expression:
• For A= 0 and B = 0: F = A . B+ A . B + A . B = 0.1+1.0+0.0=0
• For A= 0 and B = 1: F = A . B+ A . B + A . B = 0.0+1.1+0.1=1
• For A= 1 and B = 0: F = A . B+ A . B + A . B = 1.1+0.0+1.0=1
• For A= 1 and B = 1: F = A . B+ A . B + A . B = 1.0+0.1+1.1=1

Step 3: Group the 1s in the K-map

Group adjacent 1s to simplify the expression

B=0 B=1
A=0 0 1
A=1 1 1

65
From the K-map, we can form the groups:
1. Group of two 1s in the second column : A . B+ A . B
A . B+A . B = (A + A) . B = 1 . B = B
2. Group of two 1s in the second row: A . B + A . B
A . B+A . B = (B + B) . A = 1 . A = A
Final Simplified Expression
F (A, B) = B + A
Practical Usage:
Karnaugh maps are extensively used in digital circuit design to minimize the
number of gates needed for a given function. This leads to circuits that are faster,
cheaper, and consume less power.

Class Activity
Activity: Construct a digital circuit that includes both half-adders and
full-adders to add two 4-bit binary numbers. Create the truth tables,
Boolean expressions, and circuit diagrams for each step.

Summary
• Digital systems are the basis of the present-day electronics and
computing. They process digital data in form of '0' and '1'.
• Analog signals are continuous time varying signal.
• ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) is the process of converting the
continuous signals into discrete signals that can be processed by digital
devices for example computers and smart phones.
• DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts the digital signal back to the
analog signal.
• Digital logic is the basis of all digital systems. This is the technique we use
to process digital information in the form of binary numbers.
• Boolean algebra is a sub-discipline of mathematics based on operations
involving binary variables.
• In the case of AND operation the output is 1 only when both input values
are 1. Otherwise, the output is 0.
• In an OR gate, the result is 0 only when both the input values are 0.
Otherwise, the output is 1.
• The NOT operation the simplest logical operation in Boolean algebra,
which accept a single binary inputs and gives its opposite as the outputs.
• Boolean functions are mathematical expressions that represent logical
operations involving binary variables.
• A crucial element of digital circuit design is the logic diagram, which
represents the structure of the circuit by showing connections between
66
 logic gates.
• Adder circuits are widely used in the digital electronic systems with the
principal application in arithmetic operations.
• A half-adder is a digital circuit used to compute the addition of two
single-bit binary numbers.
• A full-adder is a more complex circuit that adds three single-bit numbers:
two main bits and a carry bit from a previous addition.
• A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a graphic aid that is employed in simplification
of Boolean expressions and minimizing logic functions without the used
for complex algebraic operations.
• A minterm in Boolean algebra is a specific product (AND) form of a Boolean
expression that includes all of the function's variables, either in their
normal or complemented form.

Multiple- Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Which of the following Boolean expressions represents the OR operation?
(a) A · B (b) A+B (c) A (d) A⊕B
2. What is the dual of the Boolean expression A 0 = 0?
(a) A + 1 = 1 (b) A + 0 = A (c) A . 1 = A (d) A.0=0
3. Which logic gate outputs true only if both inputs are true?
(a) OR gate (b) AND gate (c) XOR gate (d) NOT gate
4. In a half-adder circuit, the carry is generated by which operation?
(a) XOR operation (b) AND operation
(c) OR operation (d) NOT operation
5. What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 1101?
(a) 11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (d) 14
Short Questions
1. Define a Boolean function and give an example.
2. What is the significance of the truth table in digital logic?
3. Explain the difference between analog and digital signals.
4. Describe the function of a NOT gate with its truth table.
5. What is the purpose of a Karnaugh map in simplifying Boolean expressions?
Long Questions
1. Explain the usage of Boolean functions in computers.
2. Describe how to construct a truth table for a Boolean expression with an
example.
67
3. Describe the concept of duality in Boolean algebra and provide an example
to illustrate it.
4. Compare and contrast half-adders and full-adders, including their truth
tables, Boolean expressions, and circuit diagrams.
5. How do Karnaugh maps simplify Boolean expressions? Provide a detailed
example with steps.
6. Design a 4-bit binary adder using both half-adders and full-adders. Explain
each step with truth tables, Boolean expressions, and circuit diagrams.
7. Simplify the following Boolean function using Boolean algebra rules:
F (A, B) = A . B+A . B
8. Use De Morgan's laws to simplify the following function:
F (A, B, C) = A + B + AC
9. Simplify the following expressions
(a) A + B . (A + B)
(b) (A + B) . (A + B)
(c) A + A . (B + C )
(d) A . B+A . B
(e) (A . B) + (A . B )

68
 UNIT System
4 Troubleshooting
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain the importance of troubleshooting in maintaining and operating
computer systems effectively.
2. Describe how systematic troubleshooting helps prevent and resolve
computer issues.
3. Demonstrate the ability to systematically troubleshoot computer issues
4. Apply basic troubleshooting techniques, including Restarting a
computer, Identifying and addressing basic software hardware issues.
5. Identify and resolve common computer issues, such as Application
freezing, unresponsive peripherals, Software conflicts and operating
system crashes.
6. Implement strategies for maintaining a safe and organized computer
workspace.
7. Understand the importance of data backups and apply methods for
effective data protection
8. Diagnose and address hardware issues, including hardware failures like
RAM or hard drive issues. Performing component replacements and
upgrades.
9. Recognizing and addressing security threats such as malware infections.
10. Apply best practices for maintaining system security by updating
operating systems, creating and managing strong passwords,
recognizing and addressing malware threats.
11. Use built-in help features and internet resources effectively to
troubleshoot complex issues.
12. Communicate solutions and troubleshooting steps clearly to assist peers
and staff with computer-related problems.
13. Transfer troubleshooting knowledge to help others and collaborate
effectively in solving computer issues.

69
Introduction
System troubleshooting is a vital skill for keeping computers, machines, and
other equipment running smoothly. When things go wrong, troubleshooting
helps identify the problem and find a quick solution, preventing issues like
downtime, reduced productivity, and potential damage. For instance, if your
computer suddenly stops working, knowing how to troubleshoot can help you fix
it without needing costly professional help. This chapter will guide you through a
systematic process of troubleshooting, covering essential steps such as
identifying problems, testing theories, implementing solutions, and ensuring the
system is fully functional again. By mastering these techniques, you'll be able to
maintain the reliability and efficiency of any system you work with.
4.1 System Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting is essential for maintaining the smooth operation of systems,
whether they are computers, machines, or other types of equipment. When
something goes wrong, troubleshooting helps identify the problem and find a
solution quickly. For example, if your computer suddenly stops working, knowing
how to troubleshoot can help you get it running again without needing to call for
expensive professional help.
4.1.1 Systematic Process of Troubleshooting
The troubleshooting process involves several steps that help you systematically
identify and fix problems. These steps ensure that you don't overlook any
potential issues and that you solve the problem efficiently.
A systematic approach to troubleshooting involves the following steps:
1. Identify Problem
2. Establish a Theory of Probable Cause
3. Test the Theory to Determine the Cause
4. Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem
5. Implement the Solution
6. Verify Full System Functionality
7. Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes

Tech Detective Work: Troubleshooting is like being a detective for

technology. Just like a detective solves mysteries, you solve tech problems
by following clues and gathering evidence!

70
4.1.1.1 Identify Problem
The first step in troubleshooting is to identify the problem. This means
recognizing that something is not working as it should. For example, if you press
power button and your laptop does not turn on, the problem is clear that it won't
start.
4.1.1.2 Establish a Theory of Probable Cause
Once you have identified the problem, the next step is to come up with a theory
about what might be causing it. This involves thinking about what could have
gone wrong. For example, if your laptop does not turn on, possible causes might
be a dead battery, a faulty power cord, or an internal hardware issue.
4.1.1.3 Test the Theory to Determine the Cause
After establishing a theory, you need to test it to see if it is correct. This involves
checking if the suspected cause is actually the reason for the problem. For
example, if you think the laptop's battery is dead, you can test this theory by
plugging in the power cord and seeing if the computer turns on.
4.1.1.4 Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem
If your test confirms the cause of the problem, the next step is to come up with a
plan to fix it. This means deciding what steps you need to take to resolve the
issue. For example, if the problem is a dead battery, your plan of action might be
to replace the battery or keep the laptop plugged in until you can get a new one.
4.1.1.5 Implement the Solution
Once you have a plan, you need to put it into action. This means doing whatever
is necessary to fix the problem. For example, if your plan is to replace the battery,
you would buy a new battery and install it in your laptop.
4.1.1.6 Verify Full System Functionality
After implementing the solution, you need to check to make sure that the
problem is fully resolved and the system is working properly again. For example,
once you replace the battery, you should check to see if the laptop turns on and
operates as expected without plugging in the power cord.

Instant Fix: Sometimes, the quickest fix for a computer problem is to restart

it. This is like giving the computer a nap—sometimes it just needs a short
break to work properly again.

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4.1.1.7 Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes
The final step is to document everything you did during the troubleshooting
process. This includes what the problem was, what you thought was causing it,
what you did to fix it, and the outcome. This documentation is important for
future reference and can help you or others troubleshoot similar problems more
efficiently in the future. For example, you would write down that the laptop
wouldn't turn on due to a dead battery, that you replaced the battery, and that
the laptop is now working properly.
By following the above steps, you can troubleshoot problems systematically and
effectively, ensuring that systems continue to operate smoothly and efficiently.
4.1.2 Importance of Troubleshooting in Computing Systems
Troubleshooting is very important in computing systems because it helps keep
our computers, software, and networks running smoothly. When something
goes wrong with a computer system, it can disrupt our work, cause data loss, or
even lead to security issues. By knowing how to troubleshoot computing
systems, we can quickly find and fix problems, ensuring that everything works as
it should.
4.1.2.1 Preventing Downtime
Downtime occurs when a computer system is not operational. This can be very
costly, especially in businesses that rely on their systems to operate efficiently.
When a system is down, employees may not be able to work, leading to lost
productivity and revenue. With the help of troubleshooting, we identify and
resolve the system problems in very short time which facilitate to reduce the
possibilities of system downtime.
4.1.2.2 Ensuring Data Integrity
Data integrity means ensuring that data is accurate and reliable. Problems like
software bugs or hardware failures can corrupt data, leading to incorrect
information being stored or processed. Troubleshooting helps identify the
source of data corruption and prevent it from happening again, ensuring that
data remains accurate and reliable.
4.1.2.3 Improving Security
Computer systems are often targets for cyber-attacks. Troubleshooting can help
identify vulnerabilities and security breaches, allowing for quick action to protect
the system. This is important for maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data.
4.1.2.4 Enhancing Performance
Sometimes, computer systems do not perform as efficiently as they should.
Troubleshooting can identify the reasons for slow performance, such as
insufficient memory, software conflicts, or hardware malfunctions. By resolving
these issues, you can improve the overall performance of the system.
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4.1.2.5 Extending Equipment Life
Regular troubleshooting and maintenance can help extend the life of computer
equipment. By identifying and fixing small issues before they become big
problems, you can prevent unnecessary wear and tear on the system.
4.1.2.6 Saving Costs
Real-World Impact: Effective troubleshooting in businesses helps prevent costly
downtime and maintains productivity, showing how important these skills are in
the real world. Effective troubleshooting can save money by reducing the need
for expensive repairs or replacements. By identifying and resolving issues early,
you can avoid costly downtime and prolong the life of your
equipment.
Real-World Impact: Effective troubleshooting in businesses
helps prevent costly downtime and maintains productivity,
showing how important these skills are in the real world.
Example: If a printer is not working properly, troubleshooting might reveal a
simple paper jam that can be fixed easily, rather than needing to replace the
entire printer.
4.1.1.7 Enhancing User Experience
When computer systems work well, users have a better experience. They can
complete their tasks efficiently without encountering frustrating issues.
Troubleshooting helps ensure that systems are reliable and user-friendly.
Example: If an application keeps crashing, troubleshooting can identify if the
problem is due to software bugs or compatibility issues. Fixing the issue can
improve the user experience, making the application more stable and enjoyable
to use.
Troubleshooting is an essential skill in computing systems. It helps prevent
downtime, ensure data integrity, improve security, enhance performance, extend
equipment life, save costs, and provide a better user experience. By
understanding and applying troubleshooting techniques, we can keep our
computing systems running smoothly and efficiently.
Class activity
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction: Briefly explain the importance of troubleshooting in
computer systems.
2. Discussion: Divide students into small groups and provide each
group with a printed troubleshooting flowchart.
3. Task: Have each group discuss a scenario where a computer is not
turning on. Using the flowchart, they should identify potential
problems and suggest solutions. For example, checking if the power
cable is plugged in and if the power button is functioning.
4. Presentation: Each group presents their findings and solutions to
the class.
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4.2 Troubleshooting Strategies
Understanding basic troubleshooting strategies for software and hardware
issues can help keep your computing systems running smoothly. By identifying
common problems and knowing simple solutions, you can resolve issues quickly
and efficiently, ensuring minimal disruption to your work or activities.
4.2.1 Basic Software-Related Issues
4.2.1.1 Common Software Issues and Solutions
Issue: Application Freezing - An application freezing means that a program
stops responding and you cannot use it. This is a common problem and can
usually be fixed with a few simple steps:
Solution: Try pressing Ctrl + Alt + Delete to open the Task Manager. Find the
unresponsive application, select it, and click "End Task." This will force the
application to close. If the problem persists, consider reinstalling the application
or checking for updates.
Issue: Unresponsive Peripherals - Peripherals are external devices like
keyboards, mice, and printers. Sometimes, these devices can stop responding
due to software issues.
Solution: First, check the connections to make sure they are secure. If the device
is still unresponsive, try unplugging it and then plugging it back in. Updating the
drivers for the device can also help.
4.2.1.2 Restarting and Shutting Down
Issue: Importance of Restarting a Computer - Restarting a computer can fix
many software issues. It clears the memory, stops background processes, and
gives the system a fresh start.
Issue: Using the Power Button Effectively - The power button can be used to
shut down or restart a computer when it is not responding to normal commands.
Solution: Press and hold the power button for a few seconds to force the
computer to shut down. This should only be used as a last resort because it can
cause data loss if programs are not properly closed.

Restarting the Computer: Restarting a computer can fix up to

50% of all software issues. This is because a reboot clears the
system's memory and stops processes that might be causing
conflicts.
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 The Power of Documentation: Keeping track of your troubleshooting steps
is like writing a diary of your adventures. It helps you remember what
worked and what didn't, making future problems easier to solve.

4.2.2 Basic Hardware-Related Issues

4.2.2.1 Common Hardware Issues and Solutions
Issue: Cable Disconnection - Loose or disconnected cables are a common
hardware issue that can cause devices to stop working.
Issue: Overheating - Overheating can cause a computer to slow down, freeze, or
shut down unexpectedly.
Issue: Peripheral Devices - Peripheral devices like keyboards and monitors can
have various issues, from not being recognized by the computer to not working
correctly.

Cool Tools: Modern troubleshooting involves using special tools like memory
diagnostic apps (e.g., MemTest86) and hard drive health checkers (e.g.,
CrystalDiskInfo). These tools are like having superpowers that can see inside
your computer's brain! problems by following clues and gathering evidence!

4.2.2.2 Maintaining a Safe Workspace

Issue: Cable Management - Proper cable management can prevent accidental
disconnections and reduce the risk of tripping or damaging cables.
Solution: Use cable ties or organizers to keep cables neat and out of the way.
Labeling cables can also help identify them easily.
Cable Management: Good cable management is crucial. It's like organizing your
school supplies; when cables are neatly arranged, it's easier to find and fix issues.
Plus, it helps prevent accidental disconnections.
Example: In an office, using cable ties to bundle cables together can prevent
them from getting tangled and make it easier to identify which cable goes to
which device.

Cable Management: Good cable management is crucial. It's like organizing

your school supplies; when cables are neatly arranged, it's easier to find and
fix issues. Plus, it helps prevent accidental disconnections.

75
Issue: Proper Ventilation - Proper ventilation is crucial to prevent overheating
and ensure the computer runs efficiently.
Solution: Place the computer in a well-ventilated area, away from walls and
other obstructions. Regularly clean the vents and fans to remove dust buildup.
Example: Keeping a desktop computer on a desk with good airflow around it can
help prevent overheating and keep it running smoothly.
Class activity
Workspace Management
Objective: Learn how to maintain a safe and organized computer
workspace.
Required Material: Computers, cable ties, labels, ventilated computer
stands.
Activity Type: Individual
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction: Discuss the importance of a well-organized
workspace for preventing hardware issues.
2. Task: Each student will organize their workspace by managing
cables with ties and labels, and ensuring their computer is properly
ventilated using stands. For example, tying together cables to
prevent them from tangling and ensuring the computer is not
placed in a confined space to prevent overheating.
4.2.3 Hardware Diagnosis and Maintenance
4.2.3.1 Recognizing Hardware Failures
Recognizing hardware failures is necessary for maintaining a computer system's
functionality. Here are some common symptoms and diagnostic techniques of
RAM or Hard Drive Failures:
Issue: RAM Failures - Common signs of RAM issues include frequent system
crashes, Blue Screens Of Death (BSOD), and poor performance. The computer
may also fail to boot or restart randomly.
Solution: RAM Diagnostic Tools - Use built-in tools like Windows Memory
Diagnostic or third-party applications like MemTest86 to check for RAM issues.

Memory Failures: Faulty RAM can cause system crashes and

data corruption. RAM errors can account for up to 10% of all
computer crashes and Blue Screens Of Death (BSOD).
Reference: PCMag - Troubleshooting RAM Issues

76
Issue: Hard Drive Failures - Symptoms of hard drive failures include strange
noises (like clicking), slow performance, frequent crashes, and corrupted files.
The computer may also fail to boot or display error messages about the disk.
Solution: Hard Drive Diagnostic Tools - Use tools like SMART (Self-Monitoring,
Analysis, and Reporting Technology) status checks, or software like
CrystalDiskInfo, to monitor hard drive health.
4.2.3.2 Component Replacements and Upgrades
Upgrading or replacing hardware components can significantly improve your
computer's performance and extend its lifespan.
Upgrading RAM: To upgrade RAM, first determine the type and maximum
capacity your motherboard supports. Purchase compatible RAM sticks, power
off your computer, open the case, and insert the new RAM into the empty slots.
Example: If your computer is slow while multitasking (running multiple
applications at a time), adding more RAM can help improve its performance.
Replacing a Hard Drive: To replace a hard drive, back up your data, purchase a
compatible drive (that can work in your computer), power off your computer,
open the case, disconnect the old drive, and connect the new one. After installing
the new drive, you will need to reinstall the operating system and restore your
data from the backup.
Example: If your hard drive is failing, replacing it with a new one can prevent data
loss and restore your computer's functionality

Space Saver: Keeping your computer's storage clean by deleting

unnecessary files is like making space in your room. The more organized
your files are, the faster your computer will run—just like a tidy room is
easier to navigate.

4.2.4 Security and Maintenance

Understanding and applying regular maintenance and security measures are
essential for the proper and continued performance of a system. Using te
following security, maintenance and troubleshooting techniques, you can
effectively maintain and enhance the performance and security of your
computing systems.

77
 Class activity
Activity : Common Computer Issues
Objective: Recognize and resolve common computer issues.
Required Material: Computers, list of common issues, troubleshooting
guides.
Activity Type: Individual
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction: Briefly explain common computer issues like
application freezing and unresponsive peripherals.
2. Task: Provide students with a list of common issues and
troubleshooting guides.
Hands-on Practice: Each student will troubleshoot the issues on their
computer and document the steps they took to resolve them. For
example, if the mouse is unresponsive, check the USB connection or
replace the batteries.

Class activity
Activity : Security Practices
Objective: Learn and apply basic security practices.
Required Material: Computers, internet access, security software (e.g.,
antivirus).
Activity Type: Individual
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction: Discuss common security threats and the
importance of strong passwords and software updates.
2. Task: Each student will create a strong password for their
computer, run a security scan using antivirus software, and update
their operating system. For example, creating a password with a
mix of letters, numbers, and symbols, and using antivirus software
to scan for malware.
Documentation: Students will document the steps they took and the
outcomes.
4.2.4.1 Maintaining Software
Keeping software up to date and resolving a conflict is essential for security and
performance.
Installing Updates and Software Patches: Regularly installing updates and
patches ensures that your software is protected against vulnerabilities and
performs optimally. 78
Example: Updating your operating system and applications can protect your
computer from security threats and fix bugs that cause crashes.
Resolving Software Conflicts: Identify and uninstall conflicting software,
reinstall or update the affected applications, and check for compatibility issues.
Example: If two applications are causing system instability, removing one or
updating both to the latest versions can resolve the conflict.

The Power of Updates: Some updates, like those for

operating systems or antivirus software, can be essential for
security. For instance, the WannaCry ransomware attack in
2017 exploited a vulnerability in older Windows systems,
which had been patched in a security update.
Reference: BBC News - WannaCry Ransomware Attack

4.2.4.2 Addressing Security Threats

Threats protecting your computer from security threats are important for
maintaining data integrity and privacy.
Identifying and Removing Malware Infections: Use antivirus software to scan
for and remove malware. Regularly update the antivirus definitions and perform
full system scans.
Example: Running a full system scan with updated antivirus software can help
detect and remove malware that slows down your computer or steals your data.
Applying Operating System Updates for Security: Installing operating system
updates is essential for protecting your computer from newly discovered security
vulnerabilities.
Example: Regularly updating your operating system can prevent hackers from
exploiting security flaws to gain access to your system.
Creating and Managing Strong Passwords: Use a combination of upper (A-Z)
and lower-case (a-z) letters, numbers (0-9), and special characters (_, $, %, &, * @
etc.) to create strong passwords. Change passwords regularly and use a
password manager to keep track of them.
Example: Creating a strong password for your online accounts can protect you
from unauthorized access and identity theft.

79
4.2.5 Data Management and Backups
Effective data management and regular backups help in free up resources,
improve efficiency, and ensure data security. Here's how these practices can be
beneficial:
Data Management and Backups mean storing, and organizing data so it is easy
to find and use. It helps make sure the data is available, accurate, and ready when
needed. Regular backups involve making copies of data regularly to ensure it can
be recovered if it is lost, damaged, or during a disaster. These strategies are
necessary for keeping data safe and ensuring it can always be restored.
4.2.5.1 Managing Storage Space
Management of storage space is one of the key requirements for data
management. It is important to keep your computer running smoothly and
efficiently. Here is how you perform it:
Deleting Unnecessary Files: Regularly review your files and delete those you no
longer need. This can include old documents, downloaded files, and temporary
files.
Example: If your computer is running out of space, go through your download
folder and delete files you no longer need. This can free up a significant amount
of space.
Moving Files to Free Up Disk Space: Transfer large files, such as videos and
photos, to an external storage device or cloud storage to free up space on your
computer's internal drive.
Example: Moving a collection of vacation photos to an external hard drive can
free up gigabytes of space on your main drive, improving your computer's
performance.
4.2.5.2 Data Backup Methods
Backing up data is essential to prevent data loss in case of hardware failure or
other issues. Here are some common methods:
Using External Storage Devices: Use external hard drives or USB flash drives to
back up important files. This provides a physical copy of your data that you can
easily access and store safely.
Example: Copying your important documents and photos to an external hard
drive ensures that you have a backup in case your computer's hard drive fails.
Utilizing Cloud Solutions: Use cloud storage services like Google Drive,

80
Dropbox, or OneDrive to back up your data online. This allows you to access your
files from anywhere with an internet connection.
Example: Saving your school projects to Google Drive means you can access
them from any computer, even if your personal device is unavailable or
damaged.
4.2.6 Using Resources for Troubleshooting
When you encounter issues, there are many resources available to help you
troubleshoot effectively.

Data Backup: It's estimated that 60% of people have never

backed up their data. Regular backups can protect against
data loss from hardware failures, accidental deletions, or
malware attacks.
Reference: Backing Up Your Data - National Cyber Security
Centre

Built-in Help Features: Most operating systems and software applications

include built-in help features or guides that provide solutions to common
problems.
Example: If your printer is not working, you can use the built-in troubleshooting
guide in your computer's settings to find and fix the issue.
Internet Resources: Use online resources such as forums, tutorials, and FAQs to
find solutions to more complex problems. Websites like Stack Exchange, Reddit,
and YouTube are valuable for troubleshooting help.
Example: If you are experiencing a software error, searching the error message
on Google can lead you to forums where others have shared solutions.
4.1.7 Assisting Others
Helping others with their computer problems can reinforce your troubleshooting
skills and build a collaborative learning environment.
4.1.7.1 Communication and Collaboration
Importance of Effective Communication in Troubleshooting: Clearly explain
the issue and your troubleshooting steps when assisting others. Listen to their
descriptions and ask questions to gather more information.
Example: When helping a friend with a software problem, ask them to describe
the error message and the actions they took before the issue occurred.
Collaborating with Peers and Staff to Solve Problems: Work together with
classmates, teachers, or IT staff to troubleshoot issues. Sharing knowledge and
experiences can lead to faster and more effective solutions.
Example: Collaborating with a peer who has more experience with a particular
software can help you both learn new troubleshooting techniques.
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 Class activity
Collaborative Troubleshooting
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction: Explain the value of using online resources and
collaboration in troubleshooting.
2. Task: Provide groups with a list of complex computer issues.
3. Research and Solution: Each group will research solutions using
built-in help and internet resources, then apply the solutions to
resolve the issues. For example, if a computer is running slow,
research potential causes and solutions such as checking for
malware or clearing temporary files.
Presentation: Groups will present their solutions and the resources they
used to the class.
4.7.2.2 Sharing Troubleshooting Knowledge
Transferring Troubleshooting Skills to Assist Others: Share your
troubleshooting experiences and solutions with others. Create guides or
tutorials to help your peers understand how to fix common issues.
Example: After resolving a tricky software installation problem, you could write a
step-by-step guide and share it with your classmates, making it easier for them to
handle similar issues in the future.
Cooling and Overheating: Computers can overheat if their
cooling systems fail. High temperatures can reduce a CPU's
lifespan by up to 50%. Proper cooling and regular cleaning
can significantly extend a computer's life.
Reference: Tom's Hardware - How Overheating Affects
CPUs
Summary
· Troubleshooting is very important for maintaining a smooth operation of
systems like computers and machines.
· Troubleshooting helps identify and resolve problems quickly to prevent
downtime and system damage.
· Systematic Process of Troubleshooting
o Identify Problem: Recognize and define the issue (e.g., a computer
not turning on).
o Establish a Theory of Probable Cause: Develop ideas about what
might be causing the problem (For example, dead battery, faulty
power cord). 82
 o Test the Theory: Check if the suspected cause is correct (For example,
testing with a new power cord).
o Establish a Plan of Action: Create a plan to fix the issue (e.g., replacing
the battery).
o Implement the Solution: Apply the fix according to the plan (e.g.,
installing a new battery).
o Verify Full System Functionality: Ensure the problem is fully resolved
and the system works properly.
o Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes: Record the
troubleshooting process and results for future reference.
· Troubleshooting Strategies
o Basic Software-Related Issues:
§ Handle unresponsive applications and peripherals.
§ Use restarting and shutting down methods effectively.
o Basic Hardware-Related Issues:
§ Address cable disconnections and overheating.
§ Troubleshoot peripheral devices and maintain a safe
workspace.
o Hardware Diagnosis and Maintenance:
§ Recognize symptoms of RAM and hard drive failures.
§ Perform component replacements and upgrades.
· Security and Maintenance
o Maintaining Software: Install updates and resolve software conflicts.
o Addressing Security Threats: Use antivirus software, apply OS
updates, and manage passwords.
· Data Management and Backups
o Managing Storage Space: Delete unnecessary files and move files to
free up space.
o Data Backup Methods: Use external storage devices and cloud
solutions for regular backups.
· Using Resources for Troubleshooting
o Built-in Help Features: Utilize system help guides and
troubleshooting tools.
o Internet Resources: Search forums, tutorials, and FAQs for solutions.

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· Assisting Others
o Communication and Collaboration: Clearly explain issues and
collaborate with others for solutions.
o Sharing Troubleshooting Knowledge: Create guides and share
solutions to assist peers.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What is the first step in the systematic process of troubleshooting?
A). Establish a Theory of Probable Cause B). Implement the Solution
C). Identify Problem D). Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes
2. Why is effective troubleshooting important for maintaining systems?
A). It helps save money on repairs
B). It prevents the need for professional help
C). It ensures systems operate smoothly and efficiently
D). It allows for more frequent system updates
3. Which step involves coming up with a theory about what might be
causing a problem?
A). Test the Theory to Determine the Cause B). Establish a Theory of Probable
Cause C). Implement the Solution D). Verify Full System Functionality
4. After implementing a solution, what is the next step in the
troubleshooting process?
A. Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes
B. Test the Theory to Determine the Cause
C. Verify Full System Functionality
D. Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem
5. Which of the following is an example of identifying a problem in
troubleshooting?
A. Testing a laptop battery by plugging in the power cord
B. Coming up with a plan to replace a laptop battery
C. Noticing that a laptop does not turn on when the power button
is pressed
D. Writing down that a laptop battery was replaced
6. Why is documenting findings, actions, and outcomes important in
troubleshooting?
84
 A. It helps solve problems faster
B. It provides a record for future reference
C. It allows for more efficient testing
D. It ensures the solution is implemented correctly
7. What is the purpose of establishing a plan of action in troubleshooting?
A. To identify the problem
B. To verify full system functionality
C. To determine the cause of the problem
D. To decide on the steps needed to resolve the issue
8. Why is troubleshooting important in computing systems?
A. It ensures hardware components are always up to date
B. It prevents the need for data backups
C. It helps keep systems running smoothly and securely
D. It eliminates the need for software updates
9. What does troubleshooting help prevent by quickly identifying and
resolving issues?
A. The need for professional help
B. The need for software updates
C. Downtime and lost productivity
D. The need for regular maintenance
10. Which of the following is an example of ensuring data integrity through
troubleshooting?
A. Identifying a software bug that causes incorrect database results
B. Replacing a faulty printer
C. Using a cooling pad to prevent laptop overheating
D. Updating the operating system regularly
Short Questions
1. What is the first step in the systematic process of troubleshooting, and
why is it important?
2. After identifying a problem, what is the next step in troubleshooting, and
how does it help in resolving the issue?
3. Describe the importance of testing a theory during the troubleshooting
process. Provide an example.
4. Explain what the "Implement the Solution" step entails in a
troubleshooting.
85
 5. Why is it necessary to verify full system functionality after implementing a
solution?
Long Questions
1. Discuss the importance of troubleshooting in maintaining the smooth
operation of systems, especially computing systems.
2. Explain the systematic process of troubleshooting. Describe each step in
detail.
3. Using a case study where a printer is not printing, explain how you would
identify the problem and establish a theory of probable cause.
4. Discuss the importance of documenting findings, actions, and outcomes
during the troubleshooting process.
5. Analyze the various ways troubleshooting is vital in computing systems,
particularly in preventing downtime, ensuring data integrity, and
improving security. Provide specific examples and scenarios to support
your analysis.
6. Describe basic software-related troubleshooting strategies, including
handling application freezing and unresponsive peripherals.
7. Explain how to recognize hardware failures, particularly focusing on RAM
and hard drive issues.
8. Elaborate on the importance of maintaining software and addressing
security threats.
9. Describe common methods for identifying and removing malware
infections and applying operating system updates for security.
10. Describe the different data backup methods, including using external
storage devices and cloud solutions.

86
 UNIT
Software System
5
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify and explain the significance of system software and application
software.
2. Understand the role and main functions of system software.
3. Explain how operating systems manage hardware resources, provide user
interfaces, and run applications.
4. Describe how utility software enhances system performance, security, and
maintenance.
5. Understand how device drivers facilitate communication between hardware
devices and the operating system.
6. Recognize the main functions of commonly used application software, such
as word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, and graphic design
applications.
7. Discuss the uses and significance of various application software in different
domains (e.g., business, education, graphics design, etc.).
8. Differentiate between system software (e.g., operating systems, utility
software, device drivers) and application software in terms of their roles and
functions.
9. Proficiently use prominent system software including operating systems,
utility software, and device drivers.
10. Navigate the user interface, manage files, and perform system tasks using
operating systems.
11. Utilize utility software and tools for optimizing system performance and
maintaining security. Install, update, and troubleshoot device drivers for
various hardware components
12. Use commonly used application software to perform specific tasks or create
content (e.g., word processing, spreadsheets, presentations).
13. Identify appropriate software tools for specific tasks, taking into account their
functions and capabilities.
14. Use application software for productivity, creativity, and communication
purposes.
15. Demonstrate and differentiate between system software and application
software, understanding their roles within a computer system.
87
Introduction
Software is an integral part of any computing system, acting as the intermediary
between the user and the hardware. In this chapter, we will explore the
significance of system software and application software, understanding their
roles, functions, and applications in various domains. By the end of this chapter,
students will be proficient in identifying, using, and differentiating between
different types of software.
5.1 Software
Software is a collection of programs and instructions that tell a computer what to
do and how to do. Without software, computers would be useless machines.

The first computer virus, called "Creeper," was created in 1971

as an experimental self-replicating program. It simply
displayed the message, "Fm the creeper, catch me if you can!”

5.1.2 Types of Software

5.1.2.1 System Software
System software is designed to manage the system resources and provide a
platform for application software to run. It acts as a bridge
between the hardware and the user applications. Here are some examples:
• Operating Systems: Examples include Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux.
• Device Drivers: These include printer drivers, graphics card drivers, and sound
card drivers.
• Utility Programs: Examples are antivirus software, disk cleanup tools, and
backup software.
5.1.2.2 Application Software
Application software is designed to help users perform specific tasks. These
programs are built to fulfill user needs and are typically more varied than system
software. Examples include:
• Word Processors: Such as Microsoft Word and Google Docs.
• Web Browsers: Such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari.
• Games: Such as Minecraft, Fortnite, and Among Us.
• Media Players: Such as VLC Media Player and Windows Media Player.
5.1.2.3 Differentiating Between System Software and Application Software
• Purpose: System software manages and operates computer hardware,
making it possible for application software to run. Application software helps
the user to perform specific tasks.
• Examples: System software includes operating systems and device drivers.
Application software includes word processors, web browsers, and games.
• Installation: System software is usually pre-installed on a computer, while
application software can be installed by the user as needed.
88
 Always keep your system software updated to ensure your
computer runs smoothly and is protected from security threats.

Class activity
Make a list of all the software you use on your computer or tablet. Categorize
them into system software and application software. Discuss with your
classmates which software you nd most useful and why.

5.2 Introduction to System Software

System software is essential for the operation of a computer system, acting as an
intermediary between the hardware and the user applications. It ensures that the
hardware components of a computer work together efficiently and provides a
stable environment for application software to run. Here, we discuss the role and
main functions of system software in detail.
5.2.1 Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is a type of system software that manages all the
hardware and software on a computer. It acts as an intermediary between the
computer hardware and the user applications. The operating system ensures
that different programs and users running on a computer do not interfere with
each other. It also provides a stable and consistent way for applications to
interact with the hardware without having to know all the details of the hardware.
Some most commonly used operating systems are:
Windows: A popular OS for personal computers developed by Microsoft. It has a
start menu, taskbar, and windows for applications. See Figure 5.1.
macOS: An OS for Apple's Mac computers. It has a dock at the bottom of the
screen and unique features like Mission Control. See Figure 5.2.
Linux: An open-source OS that is used for everything from servers to desktop
computers. It can look different depending on the distribution (version) you use.
See Figure 5.3.
Android: An OS for smartphones and tablets, developed by Google. It is used on
many different devices from various manufacturers.
iOS: An OS for iPhones and iPads, developed by Apple. It is known for its smooth
performance. Let's study some key functions of an operating system.
89
 Figure 5.1: Screenshot of a Windows desktop
5.2.1.1 Managing Hardware Resources
One of the primary functions of an operating system is to manage the hardware
resources of a computer system. This includes the CPU, memory, disk drives, and
peripheral devices such as printers and keyboards. The OS ensures that each
application gets the necessary resources to function correctly without interfering
with other applications.
Example: When you open a web browser while listening to music on your
computer, the operating system allocates CPU time and memory to both the
web browser and the music player. It ensures that both applications run
smoothly by managing the resources effectively.
5.2.1.2 Providing a User Interface
The operating system provides a User Interface (UI) that allows users to
interact with the computer.
There are two main types of user interfaces:
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• Command-Line Interfaces (CLIs).
Graphical User Interface (GUI): A GUI allows users to interact with the
computer using visual elements such as windows, icons, and menus. This type of
interface is user-friendly and intuitive, making it easy for users to navigate and
perform tasks.
Example: Microsoft Windows and macOS are operating systems that use GUIs.
Users can click on icons to open applications, drag and drop files to move them,
and use menus to access different functions.
90
Command-Line Interface (CLI): A CLI requires users to type text commands to
perform specific tasks. This interface is more flexible and powerful, but it can be
more difficult for beginners to use.

Figure 5.2: Screenshot of a macOS desktop

Example: Linux and Disk Operating System (DOS) provide CLIs. Use can type
commands to copy files, run programs, and configure system settings.
5.2.1.3 Running Applications
The operating system is responsible for running applications on a computer. It
loads applications into memory, allocates the necessary resources, and manages
their execution. The OS also ensures that applications do not interfere with each
other and that they run efficiently.
Example: When you open a word processor like Microsoft Word, the operating
system loads the application into the computer's memory and allocates CPU
time for it to run. If you open multiple applications, the OS manages the
distribution of resources so that all applications can run simultaneously without
performance issues.

To keep your operating system running smoothly, regularly update it to the latest
version and perform routine maintenance tasks such as disk cleanup and virus scans.

Class activity
Explore the task manager (Windows) or activity monitor (Mac) on your
computer. Identify the different running applications and observe how much
CPU and memory each application is using. Discuss why the operating
system's role in managing these resources is crucial for the computer’s
performance.
91
5.2.2 Utility Programs
Utility programs are essential components of system software that enhance the
functionality of a computer system. They perform various tasks to ensure smooth
operation and efficient management of hardware, software, and data. Here are
some common utility programs along with their functionalities in real-life
scenarios.

Figure 5.3: Screenshot of a Linux desktop

5.2.2.1 Disk Cleanup
Functionality: Disk Cleanup scans your hard drive for temporary files, cached
files, and other unnecessary items that can be safely deleted.
Real-life Scenario: After using your computer for a while, you notice it's running
slower than usual. Running Disk Cleanup can help reclaim disk space, potentially
improving performance.
5.2.2.2 Antivirus Software
Functionality: Antivirus software scans files and incoming data for known
viruses and malware signatures. It also provides real-time protection to prevent
virus attacks.
Real-life Scenario: You receive an email attachment from an unknown sender.
Before opening it, you run your antivirus software to scan for any potential
threats, ensuring your computer remains safe.
5.2.2.3 Backup Software
Functionality: Backup software schedules regular backups of files and folders to
external drives, cloud storage, or network locations. It allows for full system
backups or selective file backups.
Real-life Scenario: You accidentally delete an important presentation file. Using
backup software, you retrieve the latest backup version of the file, ensuring
minimal disruption to your work. 92
File compression tools reduce le size to save storage space
and make le transfer faster.

5.2.2.4 File Compression Tools

Functionality: File compression tools compress one or multiple files into a single
archive format (e.g., ZIP, RAR) while preserving data integrity. They also provide
options for encryption and password protection.
Real-life Scenario: You need to send a large folder of high-resolution photos via
email. Using a file compression tool, you create a ZIP archive to reduce file size,
making it easier and quicker to upload and send.
These utility programs are essential for maintaining the efficiency, security, and
reliability of your computer system. Understanding their functionalities can help
you better manage and optimize your computing experience.
5.2.3 Device Drivers
Device drivers facilitate communication between hardware devices and the
operating system, ensuring that devices function correctly. Imagine your
computer as a superhero with many powers, but sometimes it needs help to talk
to its gadgets, like a printer, keyboard, or mouse. Here's where device drivers
come in. A device driver is like a translator between the computer and its gadgets
Printer Driver: Helps the computer send the correct signals to the printer, so it
can print documents.
• Graphics Card Driver: Makes sure the computer can display images and
videos correctly on the screen.
How Device Drivers Work
1. Installation: When you connect a new device to your computer, you often
need to install a driver.
2. Communication: The driver acts as a translator, converting general
instructions from the computer into specific instructions that the device can
understand.
3. Operation: Once installed, the driver helps the computer and the device to
work together smoothly.
Real-Life Analogy: TV Remote Control
Think of a device driver like a TV remote control:
• TV (Device): It can change channels, adjust the volume, and more, but it
needs instructions.
• Remote Control (Driver): Sends the correct signals to the TV to perform
these actions.
• You (Computer): You decide what you want to watch or adjust and use the
remote control to tell the TV.
93
 A Plug and Play (PnP) device automatically congures
itself when connected to a computer, simplifying
installation and use.

When installing a new device, always check for the

latest driver updates to ensure compatibility and
optimal performance.

The rst operating system was created in the 1950s

for IBM computers and was called GM-NAA I/O.
5.3 Application Software
Application software refers to programs designed to perform specific tasks for
users, ranging from productivity and creativity to entertainment and education.
These software applications utilize the capabilities of the underlying operating
system and hardware to fulfill user needs effectively. Here are some common
types of application software along with their functionalities and class activities:
5.3.1 Commonly used application software
5.3.1.1 Word Processing Software
Word processing software is a type of application software used for creating,
editing, formatting, and printing documents. These software programs are
essential tools for writing letters, reports, essays, and other text-based
documents. Word processors offer a variety of features that enhance the writing
and editing process, making it easier for users to produce professional-quality
documents.
Examples of Word Processing Software:
• Microsoft Word: Available on Windows and macOS, Microsoft Word is one
of the most widely used word processors. It offers a range of features
including text formatting, spell check, grammar check, and the ability to
insert images, tables, and charts.
• Google Docs: A web-based word processor available on any operating
system with internet access. Google Docs allows for real-time collaboration,
where multiple users can edit a document simultaneously. It also integrates
with other Google services.
• Apple Pages: Available on macOS and iOS, Apple Pages provides a user-
friendly interface with powerful tools for creating beautiful documents. It
includes templates, design tools, and easy integration with other Apple
products.
• LibreOffice Writer: Available on Windows, macOS, and Linux, LibreOffice
Writer is a free and open-source word processor. It offers a robust set of
features similar to Microsoft Word, making it a great alternative for users who
prefer open-source software. 94
 Al-based tools like Grammarly and Microsoft Editor are
revolutionizing word processing by providing advanced
grammar, style, and tone suggestions. These tools help users
write more clearly and effectively by offering real-time
feedback and corrections.

5.3.1.2 Spreadsheet Software

Spreadsheet software is a type of application software used for organizing,
analyzing, and storing data in tabular form. Spreadsheets consist of a grid of cells
arranged in rows and columns, where users can input data, perform calculations,
and create charts. This software is essential for tasks such as budgeting, financial
analysis, data management, and statistical analysis.
Examples of Spreadsheet Software:
• Microsoft Excel: Available on Windows and macOS, Microsoft Excel is one of
the most widely used spreadsheet programs. It offers powerful features
including complex formulas, pivot tables, and a variety of chart options.
• Google Sheets: A web-based spreadsheet available on any operating system
with internet access. Google Sheets allows for real-time collaboration, where
multiple users can edit a spreadsheet simultaneously. It also integrates with
other Google services.
• Apple Numbers: Available on macOS and iOS, Apple Numbers provides a
user-friendly interface with strong visualization tools for creating visually
appealing spreadsheets. It includes templates and easy integration with
other Apple products.
• LibreOffice Calc: Available on Windows, macOS, and Linux, LibreOffice Calc
is a free and open-source spreadsheet program. It offers a robust set of
features similar to Microsoft Excel, making it a great alternative for users who
prefer open-source software.
Al-based tools in spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft's
Ideas in Excel and Google Sheets' Explore feature, help users
analyze data by providing insights, suggesting formulas, and
creating charts automatically.

5.3.1.3 Graphic Design Software

Graphic design software is a type of application software used for creating,
editing, and managing visual content. These programs provide tools for drawing,
painting, photo editing, and creating illustrations, making them essential for
designers, artists, and anyone involved in visual media. Graphic design software
is used in various industries, including advertising, web design, publishing, and
multimedia production. 95
Examples of Graphic Design Software:
• Adobe Photoshop: Available on Windows and macOS, Adobe Photoshop is
one of the most popular graphic design programs. It offers powerful tools for
photo editing, digital painting, and graphic design.
• Adobe Illustrator: Available on Windows and macOS. Adobe Illustrator is a
vector graphics editor used to create logos, illustrations, and scalable
graphics that maintain quality at any size.
• CorelDRAW: Available on Windows and macOS, CorelDRAW is a vector
graphics editor known for its user-friendly interface and robust feature set,
ideal for creating professional graphics and layouts.
• GNU Image Manipulation Program (GIMP): Available on Windows,
macOS, and Linux, GIMP is a free and open-source graphic design program. It
offers many features similar to Adobe Photoshop, making it a great
alternative for users who prefer open-source software.
• Canva: A web-based graphic design tool accessible on any operating system
with internet access. Canva provides an easy-to-use interface with a wide
range of templates and design elements, making it perfect for beginners and
professionals alike.

Al-based tools in graphic design software, such as Adobe

Sensei in Photoshop and Illustrator, help designers by
automating repetitive tasks, suggesting design elements, and
enhancing images with advanced algorithms.
Summary
· Software systems include all the programs and applications that enable
us to perform specific tasks on a computer.
· The primary objective of software as a system is to manage hardware
resources and provide a platform for applications to run smoothly.
· System software manages the hardware and basic system operations,
while application software helps users perform specific tasks.
· The main functions of system software include managing hardware
resources, providing a user interface, and running applications.
· Utility software enhances system performance and ensures security and
maintenance, and device drivers, which facilitate communication between
hardware devices and the operating system.
· In business, application software streamlines operations, improves
productivity, and enhances communication.
· In education, it enhances the learning experience, improves
administrative efficiency, and facilitates communication between
teachers, students, and parents.
96
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary function of an operating system?
(a) To create documents
(b) To manage hardware resources and provide a user interface
(c) To perform calculations (d) To design graphics
2. Which software is used to enhance system performance and security?
(a) Operating system (b) Utility software
(c) Application software (d) Device drivers
3. What role do device drivers play in a computer system?
(a) Manage files
(b) Facilitate communication between hardware devices and the
operating system
(c) Create presentations
(d) Enhance graphics performance
4. Which of the following is an example of application software?
(a) Microsoft Word (b) BIOS (c) Disk Cleanup (d) Device Manager
5. What is the main purpose of a spreadsheet software?
(a) To edit text documents (b) To organize and analyze data
(c) To create visual content (d) To enhance system security
6. How does utility software differ from application software?
(a) Utility software manages hardware, while application software performs
specific tasks for users.
(b) Utility software creates documents, while application software
manages hardware.
(c) Utility software performs specific tasks for users, while application
software manages hardware.
(d) Utility software is free, while application software is paid.
7. Which type of software would you use to design a logo?
(a) Operating system (b) Spreadsheet software
(c) Graphic design software (d) Utility software
8. What is the function of system software?
(a) To facilitate communication between hardware and software
(b) To perform specific tasks for the user
(c) To create visual content
(d) To organize and analyze data
9. Why are operating system updates important?
(a) They increase screen brightness (b) They add more fonts
(c) They enhance security and fix bugs (d) They improve battery life
97
10. What is a common task you can perform using word processing software?
(a) Create and edit text documents
(b) Manage hardware resources
(c) Enhance system performance
(d) Organize and analyze data
Short Questions
1. Define system software and provide two examples.
2. Explain the primary functions of an operating system.
3. What is utility software and why is it important?
4. Describe the role of device drivers in a computer system.
5. Differentiate between system software and application software with
examples.
6. What are the main functions of spreadsheet software?
7. How can graphic design software be used in the field of education?
8. What is the significance of data backups and how can they be performed?
Long Questions
1. Discuss the importance of system software in a computing system.
2. Describe the roles of operating systems, utility software, and device drivers,
providing examples of each.
3. Explain the differences between system software and application software.
4. Describe the process of using utility software to optimize system
performance and maintain security. Provide detailed steps and examples of
common utility tools.
5. Explain how to install, update, and troubleshoot device drivers for hardware
components.
6. Discuss the main functions of commonly used application software, such as
word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, and graphic design
applications.

98
 UNIT Introduction to
6 Computer Networks
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand and explain computer networks as systems, their objectives,
components, and data communication among these components.
• Understand fundamental concepts in data communication, including sender,
receiver, protocol, message, and communication medium.
• Understand key concepts related to computer networks, including
networking devices, network topologies, and transmission modes.
• Understand the 5-layer OSI networking model and its related protocols.
• Understand the benefits of using computer networks, such as resource
sharing and data communication.
• Understand how data is transmitted across computer networks, including
packet and circuit switching, and secure communication through
encapsulation.
• Understand how protocols, data, packets, and network services like DNS and
DHCP function in a networked environment.
• Understand different methods of network security, their advantages, and
disadvantages.
• Understand real-world applications of computer networks, including various
network-based services and how they are used.
• Know standard protocols involved in TCP/IP communications.
• Know key networking terms like the 5-layer OSI networking model, packet
switching, circuit switching, router, TCP/IP, IP, UDP, DNS, DHCP, host,
browsers, layering, encapsulation, and various protocols involved in TCP/IP
communications.
• Differentiate between components of data communication.
• Differentiate networking devices and network topologies.
• Differentiate transmission modes.
• Identify and describe different types of networks using the 7-layer OSI
networking model.
• Explain how data is transmitted across networks and describe the standard
protocols involved.
• Define and explain the uses of protocols, data, packets, and network services
like DNS and DHCP.
• Describe different methods of network security and their advantages and
disadvantages.

99
Introduction
In today's interconnected world, computer networks play a vital role in the
functioning of societies and businesses. This chapter aims to provide a
comprehensive understanding of computer networks as systems, including their
components, objectives, and real-world applications.
6.1 Network as a System
A computer network is a system of linked devices and computers that may
exchange data and operate together. Networks can range from small, Local Area
Network (LANs, Local Area Networks) to large area network, WANs, including the
Internet. Networks are arranged of various elements that work together to
facilitate communication depicted in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Network Diagram

The primary components include:
• Nodes: Devices that are connected to the network, such as computers,
smartphones, and printers.
• Links: The connections between nodes, which can be wired (like Ethernet
cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi).
• Switches: Devices that connect multiple nodes within a network to forward
data.
• Routers: Devices that connect different networks and direct data packets
between them. 100
 The Internet is the largest network, connecting all the
networks worldwide!

• Example of Using Switches

• Imagine a file transfer in an office network. You send a file from your
computer to a colleague's computer in another room.
• The file is split into packets, and each packet has the destination MAC address
(your colleague's computer).
• The packets are sent to a network switch.
• The switch examines the Media Access Control address and forwards the
packets only to the port where your colleague's computer is connected.
• Once all packets are received, your colleague's computer reassembles them
into the original file.
Example: Air Travel System
Think of sending people via air travel. Here's how it relates:
• When traveling, passengers (data) might be split into groups (packets) and
assigned different flights (paths). In packet switching each group has a ticket
with the final destination (IP address).
• These groups might take different routes, through various airports (routers),
to reach the final destination.
6.1.1 Objectives of Computer Networks
The primary objective of computer network is to enable resource sharing, data
communication and collaboration:
1. Resource Sharing: Computer networks allow devices to share resources,
such as printers and storage, reducing costs and improving efficiency.
Example: In an office network, multiple computers can share a single printer,
reducing the need for multiple printers.
2. Data Communication: Networks facilitate data transfer, enabling
communication through emails, instant messaging, and video conferencing.
Example: Employees in different locations can collaborate through video
conferencing tools like Zoom or Microsoft Teams.
3. Connectivity and Collaboration: Networks connect devices, allowing for
remote access and collaboration, improving productivity and flexibility.
Example: A team can work on a shared document in real-time using cloud-
based services like Google Drive.
101
 The World Wide Web (WWW) was invented by Tim Berners-Lee
in 1989, revolutionizing how we access and share information.

6.2 Fundamental Concepts in Data Communication

Data communication involves the exchange of data between a sender and a
receiver through a communication medium. Key components include the
sender, receiver, message, protocol, and medium.
6.2.1 Components of Data Communication
It comprises of five basic components:
1. Sender: The device that sends the data. Example: A computer sending an
email.
2. Receiver: The device that receives the data. Example: A smartphone
receiving the email.
3. Message: The data being communicated. Example: The content of the email.
4. Protocol: A set of rules governing data communication. Example: The HTTP
protocol used for web communications.
5. Medium: The physical or wireless path through which data travels. Example:
Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi.
6.3 Networking Devices
Networking devices include hubs, switches, routers, and access points are
responsible for the management and direction of network traffic.
6.3.1 Switch
Switch is a network device that connects multiple network devices such as
computers, printers, and servers, within a network and allows these devices to
communicate with each other efficiently. Switches play an important role in
modern networks by efficiently managing data traffic and ensuring that
information reaches the correct device.
How Does a Switch Work?
A switch is used at the Data Link layer which is called the Layer 2of the OSI model
(Section 6.6). It uses hardware address of a device called Media Access Control
(MAC)addresses to forward data to the correct device. When a data packet
reaches at the switch, it reads the destination MAC address and sends the packet
only to the device with that address, rather than broadcasting it to all devices.

102
 Figure 6.3: A network switch connecting multiple devices.

First time, switch forwards or broadcast data to all connected devices. Once it
has learned address of devices, it starts sending data to exact destination.

A switch is like a smart traffic conductor that directs data

traffic only to the intended destination, making the network
faster and more efficient.

Did you know that your home router often includes a switch
and a wireless access point? This allows you to connect
multiple devices both wired and wirelessly!

6.3.2 Router
A router is a networking device that interconnects
networks or allows devices to connect to it. It directs
data packets between different networks. Think of it as
a traffic director on the internet, making sure that data
gets from one place to another efficiently. Figure 6.2
illustrates how a mobile internet connection (via SIM
card) integrates with a home network. Alternatively,
an Ethernet cable can be used to obtain internet
access and distribute it among home devices. In
enterprise environments, different types of routers
are employed, as depicted in Figure 6.2. Mobile Wi-Fi Router
Figure 6.2: A typical home router

103
 SIM stands for Subscriber Identity Module.
A SIM card is a small card inserted into a mobile device that
contains unique information to identify and authenticate the
subscriber on a mobile network. It allows the device to connect
to the network, make calls, send messages, and access Internet.

How Does a Router Work?

Packets: Each packet contains part of the data and the address of the destination.
The main job of router is to find the best path for each data packet to deliver its
destination.

Routers use something called a routing table to decide the best

path for data packets. This table lists the possible paths and
helps the router make efcient decisions!

Class activity
Human Network Activity: Create a simple network using the students
in the class. Assign roles like computer, router, and data packet. Use
strings to represent Ethernet cables and have students pass a ball
(representing data) along the strings to simulate how a router directs
data.

To keep your network running smoothly, always use high-

quality Ethernet cables and ensure your switch is placed in a
cool, ventilated area to prevent overheating.

6.3.3 Access Point

An Access Point (AP) is a networking
device that facilitates the connection of
wireless devices to a wired network. It
works as a link between your computers
and smartphones or any other wireless
device and the internet.

Figure 6.4: A typical Access Point

104
How Does an Access Point Work?
An Access Point works by receiving data from the wired network and transmitting
it wirelessly to your devices. It also receives data from your wireless devices and
sends it to the wired network.

Access Points use radio waves to transmit data, similar to

how your favorite radio station broadcasts music!

Class activity
Create a human network with students. Assign roles such as Access Point,
Router, and Devices. Use ropes to represent connections. Show how data
moves from the Access Point to the Router and then to another network.

Did you know that modern Access Points can connect

hundreds of devices simultaneously, making them perfect
for schools, offices, and even stadiums?

When setting up an Access Point, place it in a central location to ensure the

best coverage and signal strength for all your devices!

6.4 Network Topologies

Network topologies are methods
used to define the arrangement of
different devices in a computer
network, where each device is
called a node. The reliability and
performance of a network are
impacted by the way its devices are
linked.
Figure 6.5: Bus Topology
6.4.1 Bus Topology
In a Bus topology, all devices share
a single communication line called a bus. Each device is connected to this central
cable.
105
Example: Imagine a chalkboard in a classroom where every student can see the
notes written by the teacher. Here, the chalkboard represents the shared
communication line.

Bus topology is easy to set up but if the main cable fails, the
whole network goes down!

6.4.2 Star Topology

In a star topology each node in network communicates with the others via a
central switch or hub. The hub works as a data flow repeater.
Example: Think of a school principal's office connected to all classrooms
through intercoms. The principal's office is the hub, and the classrooms are the
nodes.

Figure 6.6: Star Topology

Class activity
Create a star topology model using strings and paper cups to simulate
the connections between a central switch and peripheral nodes.

Hub is a networking device used to connect multiple

computing devices in LAN-It always broadcasts data.

106
6.4.3 Ring Topology
In a Ring topology, each device is connected in a
circular pathway with other devices. Data travels
in one direction, passing through each
device.
Example: Consider a relay race where each
runner passes the baton to the next runner in
a circle until it reaches the starting point again.

Figure 6.7 Ring Topology

Ring topology can handle high trafc, but if one connection fails, the whole
network is affected. Then 2-way ring can solve this issue to some extent.

6.4.4 Mesh Topology

In a Mesh topology, each device is connected to
every other device. This provides high redundancy
and reliability.

Figure 6.8: Mesh Topology

Example: Imagine a city where every house is directly connected to every other
house by roads. If one road is blocked, there are multiple alternative routes.

Mesh topology is very reliable because if one link fails, data

can be rerouted through other links.

Class activity

Draw your own network diagram using one of the topologies and
explain how data travels from one device to another.

107
6.5 Transmission Modes
Network communication modes describe how data is transmitted between
devices. There are three primary modes: Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex
as shown in Figure 6.13. Let's explore each mode with examples and real-life
analogies!
6.5.1 Simplex Communication
In Simplex communication, data transmission is unidirectional, meaning it flows
in only one direction. A advice can either send or review data in this
communication.

Figure 6.9: Simplex Communication

Example: Keyboard to computer is an example of simplex communication.

In Simplex communication, the direction of data flow is fixed,

making it useful for applications where only one-way
communication is needed!

6.5.2 Half-Duplex Communication

In Half-Duplex communication, data transmission can occur in both directions,
but not simultaneously. One device must wait for the other to finish transmitting
before it can start.

Figure 6.10: Half-Duplex Communication

108
 Class activity
Use walkie-talkies or toy telephones to demonstrate Half-Duplex
communication. Let students take turns speaking and listening.

6.5.3 Full-Duplex Communication

Full-duplex communication allows for simultaneous data delivery in both
directions. Both devices may transmit and receive data simultaneously at the
same time.

Figure 6.11: Full-Duplex Communication

Example:
Telephone conversations are an example of Full-Duplex communication. Both
people can talk and listen at the same time without waiting for their turn.

Full-Duplex communication allows for more efcient data

transmission, making it ideal for modern communication
systems like internet browsing and video calls !

The first telephones were Half-Duplex, where only one person

could speak at a time. Modern phones use Full-Duplex, allowing
both people to talk and listen simultaneously!

Class activity
Draw a diagram of each communication mode and label the direction of
data flow. Explain your diagrams to the class.

The first message sent over the ARPANET, the precursor to the
internet, was "LO." It was meant to be "LOGIN," but the system
crashed after the first two letters.

109
6.6 The OSI Networking Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a framework used to
understand how different networking protocols interact. It has 7 layers, each with
a specific function. Let's explore these layers with examples and relate them to
daily life.

Figure 6.12: OSI Model

Layer 1: Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is liable for the actual connection between devices. The
process of sending unprocessed data bits via a physical medium is the focus
here.
Example: Imagine the hardware that connects computers, like a Network
interface cables, repeaters, hubs and connectors.

The Physical Layer includes everything from the cables to the

voltage levels used to transmit data!

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

Error detection and correction, as well as node-to-node data transport, are
handled by the Data Link Layer. It ensures error-free data transmission from the
Physical Layer.
Example: Think of the Data Link Layer as traffic lights at intersections, which
manage the flow of cars (data) and prevent collisions.

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 Class activity
Draw a simple network with devices and label the physical
connections and data link layer responsibilities.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for data transfer between different networks.
It determines the best path for data to travel from the source to the
destination.
Example: Imagine a GPS system finding the best route for you to travel from
home to school.

The Network Layer uses IP addresses to route data between

networks!

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer ensures that data is transferred from one process rerunning
on source end system to a process souring on destination end system. It
manages data flow control and error checking.
Example: Think of the Transport Layer as a delivery service that ensures your
package arrives safely and on time.

The Transport Layer uses protocols like Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP) to ensure reliable data transfer!

Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer manages sessions between applications. It establishes,
maintains, and terminates connections between devices.
Example: Imagine a phone call where the session layer sets up the call, keeps it
connected, and ends it when you hang up.
Class activity
Role-play a phone call and discuss how the session is established,
maintained, and terminated.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer translates data between the application layer and the
network. It formats and encrypts data to ensure it is readable by the receiving
system.
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Example: Think of the Presentation Layer as a translator converting a book from
one language to another so that more people can read it.

The Presentation Layer handles data encryption and

compression!

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer is the closest to the end user. It provides network services
directly to applications, such as email, web browsing, and file transfer.
Example: Imagine the Application Layer as a waiter taking your order in a
restaurant and bringing your food.
Class activity
List the applications you use daily and identify which rely on the
Application Layer for network services.
6.7 Ipv4 and Ipv6
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are unique identifiers assigned to devices
connected to the Internet. There are two primary versions: IPv4 and IPv6. Let's
explore the differences between them with examples and relate them to daily
life.
6.7.1 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and the most widely used
today. It uses a 32-bit address scheme, allowing for approximately 4.3 billion
unique addresses. To find the total number of unique IPv4 addresses, we
calculate 232, which represents all possible combinations of 32 bits, i.e., 232
=4,294,967,296.

Figure 6.13: IPv4 Address Format

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 IPv4 addresses are written in four sets of decimal
numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255 (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

6.7.1 Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

IPv6 is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol designed to replace IPv4.
It uses a 128-bit address scheme, allowing for an almost limitless number of
unique addresses.
Example: Imagine an IPv6 address like a digital fingerprint. It can provide a
unique identifier not just for houses on a street, but for every grain of sand on a
beach. e.g 2001 : 0000: 130 F : 0000 : 0000 : 0900 : 876A : 130B

IPv6 was developed to address the depletion of IPv4

addresses due to the rapid growth of the internet and
connected devices.

6.8 Protocols and Network Services

6.8.1 Introduction to Protocols
Protocols are sets of rules that govern data communication. Common protocols
include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP and SMTP.
Example: HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used for transferring web pages
over the internet.
6.8.2 DNS and DHCP
Domain Name System (DNS)
DNS translates domain names to IP addresses, making it easier for users to
access websites.
Example: When you type www.example.com in a browser, DNS translates it to
the corresponding IP address.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network, simplifying
network management.
Example: When a device connects to a Wi-Fi network, DHCP assigns it an IP
address.
6.9 Network Security
Network security involves measures to protect data and prevent unauthorized
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access to computer networks. Let's explore the importance of network security
and some key concepts with examples.
6.9.1 Importance of Network Security
Network security is important for several reasons:
• Data Protection: Ensuring that sensitive information is not accessed or
altered by unauthorized users.
• Preventing Attacks: Defending against malicious attacks that can disrupt
networks and steal data.
• Maintaining Privacy: Safeguarding personal and confidential information
from being compromised
• Ensuring Availability: Ensuring that network resources are available and
accessible to authorized users.
6.9.2 Key Concepts in Network Security
Firewalls
Firewalls are security systems that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules.

Figure 6.14: Firewall Concept

Firewalls act as barriers between trusted internal networks and

untrusted external networks, like a security checkpoint.

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Encryption
Encryption transforms data into a secure format that can only be read or
understood by authorized parties with the correct decryption key.
Decryption is the process of converting the encrypted data back to its original
form.
Example:
Plain Text: Hello, World!
Encrypted Text (using a simple shift cipher): Khoor, Zruog! where each letter in
the plaintext is replaced by the letter that is 3 positions down the alphabet.
Decryption: Converting "Khoor, Zruog!" back to "Hello, World!" using the same
shift cipher in reverse.
Ciphertext Exchanged Between Countries
Countries often exchange sensitive information securely using encryption. The
encrypted data, known as ciphertext, can only be read by the intended recipient
who has the decryption key. This ensures national security and protects classified
information from being intercepted and read by unauthorized parties.
Class activity
Encrypt a simple message using a shift cipher with a key of 3 (each
letter is shifted by 3 places in the alphabet). Then, exchange messages
with a classmate and decrypt each other's messages.
\
During World War II, the Allies used the Enigma machine to encrypt
their communications. The ability to decrypt German Enigma-
encrypted messages significantly contributed to their victory.

Use strong encryption algorithms to protect sensitive

information, making it unreadable to unauthorized users.

Passwords and Authentication

Passwords and authentication methods ensure that only authorized users can
access network resources.
Class activity
Discuss the importance of strong passwords and practice creating secure
passwords using a password generator.
6.9.3 Common Threats to Network Security
• Malware: Malicious software such as viruses, worms, and ransomware that
can damage or steal data.
• Phishing: Attempts to trick users into revealing sensitive information
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 through deceptive emails or websites.
• Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks: Overwhelming a network with traffic to
disrupt its normal operation and make it unavailable.
• Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Intercepting communication between two
parties to steal information or alter messages.
6.10 Types of Networks
Networks are classified based
on their size, range, and
purpose. Let's explore some
common types of networks
and understand how they
work.
6.10.1 P e r s o n a l A r e a
Network (PAN)
A PAN is a small network used
for communication between Figure 6.15: Personal Area
personal devices, such as Network (PAN)
smartphones, tablets, and laptops, within a short range. Example: Bluetooth
connections between a smartphone and a wireless headset form a PAN.

The range of a PAN is typically a few meters, perfect for

personal device communication.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network that connects computers and devices within a limited area,
such as a home, school, or office building.

Figure 6.16: Local Area Network (LAN)

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Example: The computer network in your school that connects all the computers
in the lab is a LAN.
Class activity
Draw a diagram of your school's computer network, labeling the different
devices and connections.
6.10.1 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is a network that spans a city or a
large campus, connecting multiple LANs
together.
Example: The network that connects various
branches of a university across a city is a
MAN.
Figure 6.17: Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN)

A MAN can cover an area of up to 50 kilometers, making it ideal

for city-wide connectivity.

6.10.1 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN covers a large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs and MANs.
The internet is the largest example of a WAN.
Example: The network that connects different branch offices of a multinational
company across countries is a WAN

Figure 6.18: Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 Use a Virtual Private Network (VPN) to securely connect to a
WAN and protect your data when accessing public networks.
6.10.1 Campus Area Network (CAN)
A CAN is a network that connects multiple LANs within a limited geographical
area, such as a university campus or a business park.
Example: The network that connects various departments and buildings within a
university is a CAN.
Understanding the different types of networks helps us comprehend how data
travels from one device to another, whether within a single room or across the
globe. Each network type serves a specific purpose and is designed to handle
various ranges and sizes.
6.11 Real-World Applications of Computer Networks
6.11.1 Business
In business, networks enable efficient communication, resource sharing, and
data management.

Figure 6.19: Campus Area Network (CAN)

Example: Companies use intranets to share information and resources securely
within the organization.
6.11.1 Education
Educational institutions use networks to provide online learning platforms,
virtual classrooms, and access to educational resources.
Example: Universities use Learning Management Systems (LMS) like Blackboard
and Moodie to deliver course content and assessments.
6.11.2 Healthcare
Healthcare networks facilitate the sharing of patient information, telemedicine,
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and access to medical databases.
Example: Hospitals use Electronic Health Records (EHR) systems to store and
retrieve patient data efficiently.
6.12 Standard Protocols in TCP/IP Communications
6.12.1 Introduction to TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the fundamental
suite of protocols for internet communication.
6.12.2 Key Protocols
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Ensures reliable data transfer.
• Internet Protocol (IP ): Handles addressing and routing of data packets.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP ): Provides faster, but less reliable, data
transfer.
• Domain Name System (DNS): Translates domain names to IP addresses.
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Automatically assigns IP
addresses.
6.13 Network Security Methods
6.13.1 Firewalls
Monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic.
6.13.2 Encryption
Protects data by converting it into a secure format.
6.13.3 Antivirus Software
Detects and removes malicious software.
Example: A combination of firewalls, encryption, and antivirus software provides
robust network security.
Class activity
Have students discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different
network security methods.

Summary
• A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and devices
that communicate and share resources.
• The primary objectives of computer networks are to enable resource sharing,
data communication, and connectivity between devices.
• Data communication involves the exchange of data between a sender and a
receiver through a communication medium.
• Protocols are sets of rules that govern data communication. Common
protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP and SMTP.
• A router is a device that connects different networks together and directs
data packets between them.
• When you send data over the internet, it gets broken down into smaller
pieces called packets.
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• A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices (like computers,
printers, and servers) within a Local Area Network (LAN).
• An Access Point (AP) is a network device that allows wireless devices to
connect to a wired network.
• Network topologies refer to the arrangement of different elements (links,
nodes, etc.) in a computer network.
• In a Bus topology, all devices share a single communication line called a bus.
Each device is connected to this central cable.
• In a Star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The
hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• In a Ring topology, each device is connected to two other devices, forming a
circular data path. Data travels in one direction, passing through each device.
• In a Mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device. This
provides high redundancy and reliability.
• In Simplex communication, data transmission is unidirectional, meaning it
flows in only one direction.
• In Half-Duplex communication, data transmission can occur in both
directions, but not simultaneously.
• In Full-Duplex communication, data transmission can occur in both
directions simultaneously.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a framework used to
understand how different networking protocols interact.
• Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are unique identifiers assigned to devices
connected to the Internet. There are two primary versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
• DNS translates domain names to IP addresses, making it easier for users to
access websites.
• DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network, simplifying
network management.
• Network security involves measures to protect data and prevent
unauthorized access to computer networks.
• Encryption transforms data into a secure format that can only be read or
understood by authorized parties with the correct decryption key.
• A PAN is a small network used for communication between personal devices,
such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops, within a short range.
• A LAN is a network that connects computers and devices within a limited
area, such as a home, school, or office building.
• A MAN is a network that spans a city or a large campus, connecting multiple
LANs together.
• A WAN covers a large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs and
MANs. The internet is the largest example of a WAN.
• A CAN is a network that connects multiple LANs within a limited
geographical area, such as a university campus or a business
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Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary objective of computer networks?
(a) Increase computational power
(b) Enable resource sharing and data communication
(c) Enhance graphic capabilities
(d) Improve software development
2. Which device is used to connect multiple networks and direct data packets
between them?
(a) Switch (b) Hub (c) Router (d) Modem
3. Which layer of the OSI model is responsible for node-to-node data transfer
and error detection?
(a) Physical Layer (b) Data Link Layer
(c) Network Layer (d) Transport Layer
4. What is the function of the Domain Name System (DNS)?
(a) Assign IP addresses dynamically
(b) Translate domain names to IP addresses
(c) Secure data communication
(d) Monitor network traffic
5. Which method of data transmission uses a dedicated communication path?
(a) Packet Switching (b) Circuit Switching
(c) Full-Duplex (d) Half-Duplex
6. What is encapsulation in the context of network communication?
(a) Converting data into a secure format
(b) Wrapping data with protocol information
(c) Monitoring network traffic
(d) Translating domain names to IP addresses
7. Which protocol is used for reliable data transfer in the TCP/IP model?
(a) HTTP (b) FTP (c) TCP (d) UDP
8. What is the main purpose of a firewall in network security?
(a) Convert data into a secure format
(b) Monitor and control network traffic
(c) Assign IP addresses
(d) Translate domain names
9. Which network topology connects all devices to a central hub?
(a) Ring (b) Mesh (c) Bus (d) Star
10. What is a key benefit of using computer networks in businesses?
(a) Increase computational power

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 (b)Enable resource sharing and efficient communication
(c)Enhance graphic capabilities
(d)Improve software development
Short Questions
1. Define data communication and list its key components.
2. Explain the role of routers in a computer network.
3. What are the main functions of the Network Layer in the OSI model?
4. Describe the difference between packet switching and circuit switching.
5. What is the purpose of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP )?
6. How does encapsulation ensure secure communication in a network?
7. Differentiate between TCP and UDP in terms of data transfer reliability.
8. Explain the importance of encryption in network security.
9. What are the advantages of using a star topology in a network?
10. How do firewalls contribute to network security?
Long Questions
1. Discuss the objectives of computer networks and provide examples of how
they facilitate resource sharing and data communication.
2. In a Simplex communication system, assume data is transmitted at a rate of
500 bits per second (bps). Compute the time to transmit a message if:
(a) it is of 10 kilobits. (b) it is of 10 kilobytes.
3. Describe how data is transmitted across computer networks using packet
switching and circuit switching.
4. Discuss the role and importance of protocols in data communication. Explain
the functions of key protocols such as TCP/IP, HTTP, DNS, and DHCP.
5. Evaluate different methods of network security, including firewalls,
encryption, and antivirus software.
6. Describe real-world applications of computer networks in business,
education, and healthcare.
7. Compare and contrast the different types of network topologies (star, ring,
bus, and mesh).
8. Consider a shift cipher with a shift amount of 4.
(a) Encrypt the message "SECURITY".
(b) Decrypt the message "WMXYVMI".
9. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number. Calculate the total number of unique IPv4
addresses possible.
(a) Show the calculation for the total number of IPv4 addresses.
(b) How many addresses are left if 10% of the total addresses are
reserved for special purposes?
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 UNIT Computational
7 Thinking
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define computational thinking and its key components: decomposition,

pattern recognition, abstraction, and algorithms.
• Explain the principles of computational thinking, including problem
understanding, problem simplification, and solution selection and design.
• Describe algorithm design methods, specifically flowcharts and
pseudocode, and understand the differences between them.
• Create and interpret flowcharts to represent algorithms visually.
• Write pseudocode to outline algorithms in a structured, human-readable
format.
• Engage in algorithmic activities, such as design and evaluation techniques.
• Conduct dry runs of flowcharts and pseudocode to manually verify their
correctness.
• Understand the concept and importance of LARP (Logic of Algorithms for
Resolution of Problems).
• Implement LARP activities to practice writing algorithms and drawing
flowcharts.
• Identify different types of errors in algorithms, including syntax errors,
logical errors, and runtime errors.
• Apply debugging techniques to find and fix errors in algorithms.
• Recognize common error messages encountered during LARP and learn
how to address them.
• Demonstrate problem-solving skills by applying computational thinking
principles to real- world scenarios.
• Evaluate the efficiency of different algorithms and improve them based
on performance analysis.

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Introduction
Introduction Computational thinking is an essential skill that enables individuals
to solve complex problems using methods that align with processes involved in
computer science. This chapter begins by defining computational thinking and
breaking it down into its fundamental components: decomposition, pattern
recognition, abstraction, and algorithms. These components are essential for
simplifying complicated problems, identifying patterns that can lead to
solutions, focusing on relevant details while ignoring unnecessary ones, and
creating step-by-step procedures for solving problems. Understanding these
concepts is not only beneficial for computer scientists but also for anyone
looking to improve their problem-solving skills across various fields.
In addition to defining computational thinking, this chapter explores the
principles that guide it, such as understanding the problem at hand, simplifying it
to make it more manageable, and selecting the best solution design. The chapter
introduces different methods for designing algorithms, including the use of
flowcharts and pseudocode, and explains how to distinguish between these two
approaches. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of practicing algorithm
design and evaluation through hands-on activities like LARP (Logic of
Algorithms for Resolution of Problems). Lastly, the chapter covers essential
aspects of error identification and debugging, providing techniques for
recognizing and fixing common errors encountered during the implementation
of algorithms. By mastering these skills, students will be well-equipped to tackle
a wide range of computational problems efficiently and effectively.
7.1 Definition of Computational Thinking
Computational Thinking (CT) is a problem-solving process that involves a set of
skills and techniques to solve complex problems in a way that a can be executed
by a computer. This approach can be used in various fields beyond computer
science, such as biology, mathematics, and even daily life

Computational thinking is not limited to computer science. It

is used in everyday problem solving, such as planning a trip or
organizing tasks.

Let's break down computational thinking into its key components:

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7.1.1 Decomposition
Decomposition is the method of breaking down a complicated problem into
smaller, more convenient components.
Decomposition is an important step in computational thinking. It involves
dividing a complex problem into smaller, manageable tasks. Let's take the
example of building a birdhouse. This task might look tough at first, but if we
break it down, we can handle each part one at a time.
Here's how we can decompose the task of building a birdhouse. Figure 7.1 shows
the decomposed tasks for building a birdhouse.
• Design the Birdhouse: Decide on the size, shape, and design. Sketch a plan
and gather all necessary measurements.
• Gather Materials: List all the materials needed such as wood, nails, paint, and
tools like a hammer and saw.
• Cut the Wood: Measure and cut the wood into the required pieces according
to the design.
• Assemble the Pieces: Follow the plan to assemble the pieces of wood
together to form the structure of the birdhouse.
• Paint and Decorate: Paint the birdhouse and add any decorations to make it
attractive for birds.
• Install the Birdhouse: Find a suitable location and securely install the
birdhouse where birds can easily access it.

Figure 7.1: Building a Birdhouse

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 Class activity
Decompose a Task
Think of a complex task you do regularly, like organizing a school event
or cooking a meal. Break it down into smaller, manageable parts. Write
down each step and discuss with your classmates how decomposition
makes the task easier to handle.

7.1.2 Pattern Recognition

Pattern recognition involves looking for similarities or patterns among and
within problems. For instance, if you notice that you always forget your
homework on Mondays, you might recognize a pattern and set a reminder
specifically for Sundays.
Pattern recognition is an essential aspect of computational thinking. It involves
identifying and understanding regularities or patterns within a set of data or
problems. Let's consider the example of recognizing patterns in the areas of
squares.
The upper row in Figure 7.2 represents the side lengths of squares, ranging from
1 to 7. The lower row shows the corresponding areas of these squares. Here, we
can observe a pattern in how the areas increase.
• Side Length 1: Area = 12 = 1
• Side Length 2: Area = 22 = 4 (1 + 3)
• Side Length 3: Area = 32 = 9 (1 + 3 + 5)
• Side Length 4: Area = 42= 16 (1 + 3+ 5 + 7)
• Side Length 5: Area = 52= 25 (1 + 3 + 5+ 7 + 9)
• Side Length 6: Area = 62= 36 (1 + 3 + 5+ 7 + 9 + 11)
• Side Length 7: Area = 72= 49 (1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11+ 13)
We can see that the area of each square can be calculated by adding consecutive
odd numbers. For example, the area of a square with a side length of 3 can be
found by adding the first three odd numbers: 1 + 3 + 5 = 9.
Visual/Numerical Pattern
Goes up by 1

Goes up by consecutive odd numbers starting at 3

Figure 7.2: Pattern in areas of squares with sides from 1 to 7
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 Class activity
Create a table with side lengths from 1 to 10. Calculate the areas of the
squares using the pattern of adding consecutive odd numbers. Verify your
results by squaring the side lengths and see if the pattern holds.

7.1.3 Abstraction
Abstraction is a fundamental concept in problem solving, especially in computer
science. It involves simplifying complex problems by breaking them down into
smaller, more manageable parts, and focusing only on the essential details while
ignoring the unnecessary ones. This helps in understanding, designing, and
solving problems more efficiently.
• Definition: Abstraction is the process of hiding the complex details while
exposing only the necessary parts. It helps reduce complexity by allowing us
to focus on the high-level overview without getting lost in the details.
• Example: Making a Cup of Tea - High-level Steps: 1. Boil water. 2. Add tea
leaves or a tea bag. 3. Steep for a few minutes. 4. Pour into a cup and add
milk/sugar if desired.

When solving complex problems, try to break them down into smaller parts
and focus on the main steps. This will helps you understand the problem
better and find a solution more easily. By using abstraction, we can tackle
complex problems by dealing with them at a higher level.

7.1.3 Algorithms
An algorithm is a step-by-step
collection of instructions to solve a
problem or complete a task similar to
following a recipe to bake a cake..
An algorithm is a precise sequence of
instructions that can be followed to
achieve a specific goal, like a recipe or a
set of directions that tells you exactly
what to do and in what order.

Figure 7.3: Algorithm example: Recipe

127 to bake a cake
• Example 1: Baking a Cake: In Figure7.3, we see a recipe for baking a cake. The
recipe provides a list of ingredients and step-by-step instructions to mix
them and bake the cake. This is an example of an algorithm because it
outlines a clear sequence of steps to achieve the goal of baking a cake.
• Example 2: Planting a Tree: Here is a simple algorithm to plant a tree, an
activity that can be very meaningful and beneficial:
1. Choose a suitable spot in your garden.
2. Dig a hole that is twice the width of the tree's root ball.
3. Place the tree in the hole, making sure it is upright.
4. Fill the hole with soil, pressing it down gently to remove air pockets.
5. Water the tree generously to help it settle.
6. Add mulch around the base of the tree to retain moisture.
7. Water the tree regularly until it is established.
This algorithm gives clear instructions on how to plant a tree, making it easy
to follow for anyone.
Class activity
Let's create an algorithm! Think of something you do every day, like
brushing your teeth or packing your school bag. Write down the steps
you follow, one by one. Share your algorithm with your class and see if
your friends can follow it!

Did you know that algorithms are not just used in computers?
They are everywhere! When you follow directions to your
friend's house or play a board game with rules, you are using
algorithms. Algorithms help us solve problems logically.

Class activity
• Outline an algorithm for applying to the Board of Intermediate and
Secondary Education (BISE) for 9th Grade Examination.
Algorithm Challenge
• Work in pairs to create an algorithm for a common task, such as making
a sandwich or getting ready for school. Write down each step clearly,
then exchange algorithms with another pair. Follow their algorithm
exactly as written and see if you can complete the task.

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7.2 Principles of Computational Thinking
Computational thinking involves several key principles that guide the process of
problem-solving in a structured manner.
7.2.1 Problem Understanding
Understanding a problem involves identifying the core issue, defining the
requirements, and setting the objectives. Understanding the problem is the first
and most important step in problem-solving, especially in computational
thinking. This involves thoroughly analyzing the problem to identify its key
components and requirements before attempting to find a solution.
“If I had an hour to solve a problem I'd spend 55 minutes thinking about the
problem and 5 minutes thinking about solutions”. — Albert Einstein
Importance of Problem Understanding:
• Clarity and Focus: By fully understanding the problem, you gain clarity on
what needs to be solved. This helps you focus on the right aspects without
getting distracted by irrelevant details.
• Defining Goals: Proper understanding of the problem allows you to define
clear and achievable goals. You can determine what the final outcome should
look like and set specific objectives to reach that outcome.
• Efficient Solutions: When you comprehend the problem well, you can
devise more efficient and effective solutions. You can choose the best
methods and tools to address the problem, saving time and resources.
• Avoiding Mistakes: By thoroughly understanding the problem, you can
avoid common pitfalls and mistakes. Misunderstanding the problem can lead
to incorrect solutions and wasted effort.
Example: Building a School Website
Imagine you are asked to build a website for your school. Before jumping into
coding, you need to understand the problem:
1. Identify Requirements: What features does the website need? For example,
pages for news, events, class schedules, and contact information.
2. User Needs: Who will use the website? Students, teachers, parents?
Understanding your audience helps in designing user-friendly interfaces.
3. Technical Constraints: What resources and tools are available? Do you have
access to a web server and the necessary software?
By understanding these aspects, you can plan and build a website that meets the
needs of your school community.

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 Always take time to thoroughly understand a problem before starting to
solve it. Ask questions, gather information, and clarify any doubts. This
foundational step will lead to better and more effective solutions.

7.2.2 Problem Simplification

Simplifying a problem involves breaking it down into smaller, more manageable
sub-problems. Example: To design a website, break down the tasks into
designing the layout, creating content, and coding the functionality.
7.2.3 Solution Selection and Design
Choosing the best solution involves evaluating different approaches and
selecting the most efficient one. Designing the solution requires creating a
detailed plan or algorithm.
7.3 Algorithm Design Methods
Algorithm design methods provide a range of tools and techniques to tackle
various computational problems effectively. Each method has its strengths and
weaknesses, making it suitable for different types of problems. Understanding
different methods allows one to choose the most appropriate approach for a
given problem, leading to more efficient and elegant solutions. Let's discuss two
of these methods.
7.3.1 Flowcharts
Flowcharts are visual representations of the steps in a process or system,
depicted using different symbols connected by arrows. They are widely used in
various fields, including computer science, engineering, and business, to model
processes, design systems, and communicate complex workflows clearly and
effectively.
7.3.1.1 Importance of Flowcharts
• Clarity: Flowcharts provide a clear and concise way to represent processes,
making them easier to understand at a glance.
• Communication: They are excellent tools for communicating complex
processes to a wide audience, ensuring everyone has a common
understanding.
• Problem Solving: Flowcharts help identify bottlenecks and inefficiencies in a
process, aiding in problem-solving and optimization.
• Documentation: They serve as essential documentation for systems and
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 processes, which is useful for training and reference purposes.

The first standardized flowchart symbols were developed in

1947 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

7.3.1.2 Flowchart Symbols

Flowchart symbols are visual representations used to illustrate the steps and flow
of a process or system as shown in Table 7.1.
Symbol Name Description

Oval (Terminal) Represents the start or end of a

process. Often labeled as
"Start" or "End."

Rectangle Represents a process, task, or

(Process) operation that needs to be
performed.

Parallelogram Represents data input or

(Input/Output) output (e.g., reading input from
a user or displaying output on
a screen).

Diamond Represents a decision point in

(Decision) the process where the flow can
branch based on a yes/no
question or true/false
condition.

Arrow (Flowline) Shows the direction of flow

within the flowchart,
connecting the symbols to
indicate the sequence of steps.

Table 7.1: Flowchart symbols

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 Flowcharts were popularized by computer scientists such as
John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine in the early days of
computing.

Figure 7.4: Flowchart of the Shop Order Process

Class activity
Create a flowchart for a daily routine activity, such as getting ready for
school. Include decision points like choosing what to wear based on
the weather.

Example: A Shop Near Your House: Suppose a shop takes orders via cell phone
messages. The flowchart in Figure 7.4 outlines the order processing steps. The
input is the order, and the outputs are item delivery or a notification to the
customer if the item is unavailable.
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 Decisions are made regarding item availability and customer payment. If the
customer does not accept the item or make the payment, the item is returned to
the shop, and the customer rating is decreased by 1. The customer's rating
increases by 1 if they pay for the item. If the item is unavailable, the shop notifies
the customer; otherwise, the shop picks, packs, and ships the item.
Enhancing Flowchart by Using Customer Rating
Note that while the customer rating is included in the flowchart shown in Figure
7.4, it is not utilized. Let's revise the flowchart to ensure only customers with a
rating greater than 0 are attended to. The updated flowchart is shown in Figure
7.5.

Figure 7.5: Flowchart of the shop using customer's rating

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 Class activity

Modify Figure 7.5 to ensure that customer ratings are within the valid
range of 0 to 5, inclusive. Ratings cannot be negative or exceed 5

Example: A flowchart for a login system showing steps such as inputting a

username and password, verifying credentials, and granting access shown in
Figure 7.6. A user can make a maximum of five attempts.

Figure 7.6: Flowchart for a login system

Class activity
Draw a flowchart for selecting the school cricket team. The team can have
a maximum of 11 players, and each player must have parental permission.

7.3.2 Pseudocode
Pseudocode is a method of representing an algorithm using simple and informal
language that is easy to understand. It combines the structure of programming
134
clearity with the readability of plain English, making it a useful tool for planning
and explaining algorithms.
What is Pseudocode?
Pseudocode is not actual code that can be run on a computer, but rather a way to
describe the steps of an algorithm in a manner that is easy to follow. It helps
programmers and students focus on the logic of the algorithm without worrying
about the syntax of a specific programming language.
Example-1
Determining whether a number is even or odd is a fundamental task in
programming and computer science. An even number is divisible by 2 without
any remainder, whereas an odd number has a remainder of 1 when divided by 2.
Below is the pseudocode for this process, followed by an explanation.
Algorithm 1 Pseudocode for determining if a number is even or odd.
1: Procedure CheckEvenOdd(number)
2: Input: number {The number to be checked}
3: Output: "Even" if number is even, "Odd" if number is odd
4: Begin
5: if (number % 2 == 0) then
6: print "Even"
7: else
8: print "Odd"
9: End if
10: End
Explanation
1. Procedure Declaration: The pseudocode begins with the declaration of the
procedure 'CheckEvenOdd' which takes a single input, 'number'.
2. Input: The procedure accepts a variable 'number' which is the integer to be
checked.
3. Output: The procedure outputs "Even" if the number is even, and "Odd" if the
number is odd.
4. Begin: Mark the start of the procedure.
5. Condition Check: The condition 'if (number % 2 == 0)' checks if the
remainder of the number when divided by 2 is zero. The modulo operator '%'
is used for this purpose.
6. Even Case: If the condition is true, the procedure prints "Even".
7. Odd Case: If the condition is false, the procedure prints "Odd".
8. End: Marks the end of the procedure.
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Example-2
Determining whether a number is prime is a fundamental task in number theory
and computer science. A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that
has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. Below is the pseudocode for this
process, followed by an explanation.
Algorithm 2 Pseudocode for determining if a number is prime.
1: Procedure Is Prime(number)
2: Input: number {The number to be checked}
3: Output: True if number is prime, False otherwise
4: Begin
5: if (number <= 1) then
6: return False
7: end if
8: for i from 2 to sqrt(number) do
9: if (number % i == 0) then
10: return False
11: end if
12: end for
13: return True
14: End
Explanation
1. Procedure Declaration: The pseudocode begins with the declaration of the
procedure 'IsPrime' which takes a single input, 'number'.
2. Input: The procedure accepts a variable 'number', the integer to be checked.
3. Output: The procedure will output 'True' if the number is prime, and 'False'
otherwise.
4. Begin: Mark the start of the procedure.
5. Initial Check: The condition 'if (number <= 1)' checks if the number is less
than or equal to 1. If true, the procedure returns 'False' because numbers less
than or equal to 1 are not prime.
6. Loop Through Possible Divisors: The 'for' loop iterates from 2 to the square
root of the integer. This is because a greater factor of the number is a multiple
of a previously tested smaller factor.
7. Divisibility Check: Inside the loop, the condition 'if (number % i == 0)'

136
 checks if the number is divisible by 'i' without a remainder. If true, the
procedure returns 'False' because the number has a divisor other than 1 and
itself.
8. Prime Confirmation: If no divisors are found in the loop, the procedure
returns 'True', confirming the number is prime.
9. End: Marks the end of the procedure.

Class activity
Create Your Own Pseudocode: Divide the students into small groups and
assign each group a different simple problem, such as finding the
maximum number in a list or calculating the factorial of a number. Ask
them to write the pseudocode for their assigned problem and then
present it to the class.

Pseudocode is often used in software development before

writing the actual code to ensure that the logic is sound and to
facilitate communication between team members who may
be using different programming languages.

Why Use Pseudocode?

Using pseudocode has several benefits:
• Clarity: It helps in understanding the logic of the algorithm without worrying
about syntax.
• Planning: It allows programmers to outline their thoughts and plan the steps
of the algorithm.
• Communication: It is a universal way to convey the steps of an algorithm,
making it easier to discuss with others.
•
7.3.3 Differentiating Flowcharts and Pseudocode
Flowcharts and pseudocode are both tools used to describe algorithms, but they
do so in different ways. Understanding their differences can help you decide
which method is more suitable to use for your scenario.

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 Pseudocode Flowcharts
· Pseudocode uses plain language · Flowcharts use graphical symbols
and structured format to describe and arrows to represent the flow
the steps of an algorithm. of an algorithm.
· It is read like a story, with each · It is like watching a movie, where
step is written out sequentially. each symbol (such as rectangles,
· Pseudocode communicates the diamonds, and ovals) represents
steps in a detailed, narrative -like a different type of action or
format. decision, and arrows indicate the
· It is particularly useful for connection and direction of the flow.
documenting algorithms in a way · Flowchart c ommunicates the
that can be easily converted into process in a visual format, which
actual code in any programming can be more intuitive for
language. understanding the overall flow
and structure.
· They are useful for identifying the
steps and decisions in an
algorithm at a glance.

Table 7.2 Difference between Pseudocode and Flowcharts

Example-3
Algorithm 3 presents the pseudocode for checking a valid username and
password.
1. Procedure CheckCredentials(username, password)
2. Input: username, password
3. Output: Validity message
4. Begin
5. validUsername = "user123" {Replace with the actual valid username}
6. validPassword = "pass123" {Replace with the actual valid password}
7. if (username == validUsername) then
138
 8: if (password == validPassword) then
9: print "Login successful"
10: else
11: print "Invalid password"
12: end if
13: else
14: print "Invalid username"
15: end if
16: End

7.4 Algorithmic Activities

7.4.1 Design and Evaluation Techniques
Techniques to essential algorithms are essential to understand how efficiently
they solve problems. In this section, we will explore different techniques for
evaluating algorithms, focusing on their time and space complexities.
7.4.1.1 Time Complexity
Time Complexity measures how fast or slow an algorithm performs. It shows how
the running time of an algorithm changes as the size of the input increases.
Here's an easy way to understand it:
Imagine you have a list of names, and you want to find a specific name. If you
have 10 names, it might only take a few seconds to look through the list. But what
if you have 100 names? Or 1,000 names? The time it takes to find the name
increases as the list gets longer. Time complexity helps us understand this
increase.

Time complexity is usually expressed using Big O notation,

like O(n), O(logn), or O(n²). It helps us compare different
algorithms to see which one is faster!

When writing an algorithm, consider how many steps it takes to complete

the task. Fewer steps means a faster algorithm!

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 Class activity
Think of a simple task, like finding the largest number in a list. Write
down the steps you would take to complete this task. Now, imagine the
list has 10 numbers, then 100 numbers. How do the steps change?

Some algorithms can perform the same task much faster than
others. For example, sorting a list of 100 items might take one
algorithm 1 second and another algorithm 10 seconds!

7.4.1.2 Space Complexity

Space complexity measures the amount of memory an algorithm uses relative to
input size. It is essential to consider both the memory required for the input and
any extra memory used by the algorithm.
Designing and evaluating algorithms involves activities like dry runs and
simulations to ensure they work as intended.
7.5 Dry Run
A dry run involves manually going through the algorithm with sample data to
identify any errors.
7.5.1 Dry Run of a Flowchart
A dry run of a flowchart involves manually walking
through the flowchart step-by-step to understand how Start
the algorithm works without using a computer. This helps
identify any logical errors and understand the flow of
Input first no. A
control.
Example: Calculating the Sum of Two Input 2nd no. B
Numbers
Consider the flowchart given in figure 7.7 for adding two
Sum = A + B
numbers:
Steps to dry run this flowchart:
Display Sum
1. Start
2. Input the first number (e.g., 3)
Stop
3. Input the second number (e.g., 5)
Figure 7.7: Flowchart
4. Add the two numbers (3 + 5 = 8)
for adding two numbers
Class activity
Dry Run a Flowchart
Draw a flowchart for finding the largest of two numbers. Perform a dry run
for the numbers 7 and 4. Write down each step and the values of variables.
140
5. Output the result (8)
6. Stop
7.5.2 Dry Run of Pseudocode
A dry run of pseudocode involves manually simulating the execution of the
pseudocode line-by-line.
This helps in verifying the logic and correctness of the algorithm.
Example: Finding the Maximum of Two Numbers
Consider the pseudocode for finding the maximum of two numbers:
Did you know that different algorithms can solve the same
problem more efficiently? For instance, one algorithm might
quickly find the highest marks in a list, while another might take
much longer. Learning how to evaluate and choose the best
algorithm is a key skill in computer science!
Start

Algorithm 4 FindMax Input NI , N2

1. Input: num1, num2
2. if num1 > num2 then
3. max = num1 No
NI > N2
4. else
5. max = num2 Max=N2
6. end if Yes
7. Output: max
Max=N1

output Max

End
Figure 7.8: Flowchart for finding
maximum of two numbers

Steps to dry run this pseudocode:

1. Input num1 and num2 (e.g., 10 and 15)
2. Check if num1 > num2 (10>15: False)
3. Since the condition is False, max = num2 (max = 15)
4. Output max (15)

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 • Dry running your code or algorithm helps catching errors
early in the development process, saving time and effort.
• Many professional programmers and computer scientists
use dry running as a debugging technique to ensure their
algorithms work correctly!

7.5.3 Simulation
Simulation is we use of computer programs to create a model of a real-world
process or system. This helps us understand how things work by testing different
ideas or algorithms without needing to try them out in real life.
Why Use Simulation?
1. Testing Algorithms: We can use simulation to see how well an algorithm
works with different types of data. For example, if we want to test a new way
to sort numbers, we can simulate it with different sets of numbers to see how
fast it is.
2. Exploring Scenarios: Simulation allows us to create many different
situations to see what happens. For example, in a science experiment about
plant growth, we can simulate different amounts of water or sunlight to find
out which conditions help plants grow best.
Benefits of Simulation
• Cost-Effective: It is often cheaper and faster to run simulations than to
conduct real experiments.
• Safe: We can test dangerous situations, like a fire in a building, without
putting anyone at risk.
• Repeatable: We can run the same simulation multiple times with different
settings to observe how things change.
Examples of Simulation
1. Weather Forecasting: Meteorologists use simulations to predict the
weather. They input data about temperature, humidity, and wind speed into a
computer model to see how the weather might change over the next few
days.
2. Traffic Flow: City planners can simulate traffic to see how changes to roads or
traffic lights might affect the flow of cars. This helps them design better roads
and reduce traffic jams.

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7.6 Introduction to LARP (Logic of Algorithms for Resolution of
Problems)
LARP stands for Logic of Algorithms for resolution of Problems. It is a fun and
interactive way to learn how algorithms work by actually running them and
seeing the results. Think of it as a playground where you can experiment with
different algorithms and understand how they process data.

For the latest versions and updates of LARP software, check

trusted educational and coding platforms, or search for
"LARP software download" on your favorite search engine.

7.6.1 Why is LARP Important?

LARP helps you:
• Understand how algorithms work. For instance, refer to Figure 7.9, which
illustrates an algorithm designed to determine the applicability of tax on the
annual salary of a person.
• See the effect of different inputs on the output.
• Practice writing and improving your own algorithms.

7.6.2 Writing Algorithms

Writing algorithms using LARP involves a structured and simplified approach to
developing logical solutions for computational problems. LARP employs a clear
syntax that begins with a START command and ends with an END command,
ensuring that each step of the algorithm is easy to follow. Within this framework,
instructions are provided in a straightforward manner, such as using WRITE to
display messages, READ to input values, and conditional statements like
IF...THEN...ELSE to handle decision-making processes. By breaking down
complex problems into manageable steps, LARP allows learners to focus on the
logical flow of the algorithm without getting stuck on complex coding syntax.
This method not only aids in understanding the fundamental concepts of
algorithm design but also enhances problem-solving skills by encouraging clear
and logical thinking.
Here's an example of a simple algorithm to check if a number is even or odd:

143
 Figure 7.9: LARP Software

START
WRITE "Enter a number"
READ number
IF number % 2 == 0 THEN
WRITE "The number is even"
ELSE
WRITE "The number is odd"
ENDIF
END
7.6.3 Drawing Flowcharts in LARP
Drawing flowcharts in LARP involves visually representing the algorithm's steps
using standard flowchart symbols such as rectangles for processes, diamonds for
decisions, and parallelograms for input/output operations. Once the flowchart is
created, it can be executed in LARP by translating the flowchart into LARP syntax,
which uses straightforward commands like START, WRITE, READ, IF...THEN...ELSE,
and END. This process allows students to visualize the logic of their algorithm
144
and see its step-by-step execution. For example, Figure 7.9 shows a flowchart for
determining whether a student's grade is above 'A' or not. We can execute the
flowchart to verify its correctness. This hands-on approach reinforces
understanding of how a flowchart works.
7.7 Error Identification and Debugging
When we write algorithms or create flowcharts in LARP, we sometimes make
mistakes called errors or bugs. These mistakes can prevent our algorithms from
functioning correctly. Error handling and debugging are processes that help us
find and fix these errors.

Figure 7.10: Flowchart in LARP

7.7.1 Types of Errors
There are three main types of errors you might encounter:
• Syntax Errors: These occur when we write something incorrectly in our
algorithm or flowchart. For example, missing a step or using the wrong
symbol.
• Runtime Errors: These happen when the algorithm or flowchart is being
145
 executed. For example, trying to perform an impossible operation, such as
dividing by zero.
• Logical Errors: These are mistakes in the logic of the algorithm that cause it to
behave incorrectly. For example, using the wrong condition in a decision step.

Syntax errors are the easiest to find because the LARP tool
usually points them out. However, logical errors are the
hardest to find because the algorithm still runs but does not
procedure correct answers.

7.7.2 Debugging Techniques

Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors in an algorithm or
flowchart. Here are some common debugging techniques:
• Trace the Steps: Go through each step of your algorithm or flowchart to see
identity where it goes wrong.
• Use Comments: Write comments or notes in your algorithm to explain what
each part is supposed to do. This can help you spot mistakes.
• Check Conditions: Ensure that all conditions in decision steps are correct.
• Simplify the Problem: Break down the algorithm into smaller parts and test
each part separately.

Always read error messages carefully. They often tell you exactly where
the problem is.

7.7.3 Common Error Messages in LARP

Here are some common error messages you might see in LARP and what they
mean:
• Missing Step - You probably forgot to include an important step in your
algorithm.
• Undefined Variable - You are using a variable that hasn't been defined yet.
• Invalid Operation - You are trying to perform an operation that is not
allowed, like dividing by zero.

146
 Class activity
Create a simple flowchart in LARP that calculates the average of three
numbers. Introduce a syntax error, a runtime error, and a logical error in
your flowchart. Then, try to fix them using the debugging techniques we
discussed.

The term "debugging" comes from an actual bug—a

moth—that was found causing problems in an early
computer. The moth was removed, and the process was
called "debugging"

Summary
· Computational thinking is important skill that enables individuals to solve
complex problems using methods that mirror the processes involved in
computer science.
· Decomposition is the process of breaking down a complex problem into
smaller, more manageable parts.
· Pattern recognition involves looking for similarities or patterns among
and within problems.
· Abstraction involves simplifying complex problems by breaking them
down into smaller, more manageable part, and focusing only on the
essential details while ignoring the unnecessary ones.
· An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instructions to solve a problem or
complete a task.
· Understanding the problem is the first and most important step in
problem-solving, especially in computational thinking.
· Simplifying a problem involves breaking it down into smaller, more
manageable sub-problems.
· Choosing the best solution involves evaluating different approaches and
selecting the most efficient one.
· Flowcharts are visual representations of the steps in a process or system,
depicted using different symbols connected by arrows.
· Pseudocode is a way of representing an algorithm using simple and
informal language that is easy to understand. It combines the structure of
programming languages with the readability of plain English, making it a
useful tool for planning and explaining algorithms.
· Time Complexity is a way to measure how fast or slow an algorithm
performs. It tells us how the running time of an algorithm changes as the
147
 size of the input increases.
· Space complexity measures the amount of memory an algorithm uses in
relation to the input size. It is important to consider both the memory
needed for the input and any additional memory used by the algorithm.
· A dry run involves manually going through the algorithm with sample
data to identify any errors.
· Simulation is when we use computer programs to create a model of a real-
world process or system.
· LARP stands for logic of Algorithm for Resolution of Problems. It is a fun
and interactive way to learn how algorithms work by actually running
them and seeing the results.
· Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors in an algorithm or
flowchart.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following best defines computational thinking?
(a) A method of solving problems using mathematical calculations only.
(b) A problem-solving approach that employs systematic, algorithmic,
and logical thinking.
(c) A technique used exclusively in computer programming.
(d) An approach that ignores real-world applications.
2. Why is problem decomposition important in computational thinking?
(a) It simplifies problems by breaking them down into smaller, more
manageabl parts.
(b) It complicates problems by adding more details.
(c) It eliminates the need for solving the problem.
(d) It is only useful for simple problems.
3. Pattern recognition involves:
(a) Finding and using similarities within problems
(b) Ignoring repetitive elements
(c) Breaking problems into smaller pieces
(d) Writing detailed algorithms
4. Which term refers to the process of ignoring the details to focus on the main
idea?
(a) Decomposition (b) Pattern recognition
(c) Abstraction (d) Algorithm design
148
5. Which of the following is a principle of computational thinking?
(a) Ignoring problem understanding (b) Problem simplification
(c) Avoiding solution design (d)Implementing random solutions
6. Algorithms are:
(a) Lists of data
(b) Graphical representations
(c) Step-by-step instructions for solving a problem
(d) Repetitive patterns
7. Which of the following is the first step in problem-solving according to
computational thinking?
(a) Writing the solution (b) Understanding the problem
(c) Designing a flowchart (d) Selecting a solution
8. Flowcharts are used to:
(a) Code a program
(b) Represent algorithms graphically
(c) Solve mathematical equations
(d) Identify patterns
9. Pseudocode is:
(a) A type of flowchart
(b) A high-level description of an algorithm using plain language
(c) A programming language
(d) A debugging tool
10. Dry running a flowchart involves:
(a) Writing the code in a programming language
(b) Testing the flowchart with sample data
(c) Converting the flowchart into pseudocode
(d) Ignoring the flowchart details
Short Questions
1. Define computational thinking.
2. What is decomposition in computational thinking?
3. Explain pattern recognition with an example.
4. Describe abstraction and its importance in problem-solving.
5. What is an algorithm?
6. How does problem understanding help in computational thinking?
7. What are flowcharts and how are they used?
8. Explain the purpose of pseudocode.
9. How do you differentiate between flowcharts and pseudocode?
10. What is a dry run and why is it important?
11. Describe LARP and its significance in learning algorithms.
12. List and explain two debugging techniques.
149
Long Questions
1. Write an algorithm to assign a grade based on the marks obtained by a
student. The grading system follows these criteria:
• 90 and above: A+
• 80 to 89: A
• 70 to 79: B
• 60 to 69: C
• Below 60: F
2. Explain how you would use algorithm design methods, such as flowcharts
and pseudocode, to solve a complex computational problem. Illustrate your
explanation with a detailed example.
3. Define computational thinking and explain its significance in modern
problem-solving. Provide examples to illustrate how computational thinking
can be applied in different fields.
4. Discuss the concept of decomposition in computational thinking. Why is it
important?
5. Explain pattern recognition in the context of computational thinking. How
does identifying patterns help in problem-solving?
6. What is an abstraction in computational thinking? Discuss its importance and
provide examples of how abstraction can be used to simplify complex
problems.
7. Describe what an algorithm is and explain its role in computational thinking.
Provide a detailed example of an algorithm for solving a specific problem,
and draw the corresponding flowchart.
8. Compare and contrast flowcharts and pseudocode as methods for algorithm
design. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and
provide examples where one might be preferred over the other.
9. Explain the concept of a dry run in the context of both flowcharts and
pseudocode. How does performing a dry run help in validating the
correctness of an algorithm?
10. What is LARP? Discuss its importance in learning and practicing algorithms.
11. How does LARP enhance the understanding and application of
computational thinking principles? Provide a scenario where LARP can be
used to improve an algorithm.

150
 UNIT Web Development with
8 HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand JavaScript syntax and data types.
• Work with variables, operators, and functions in JavaScript.
• Handle events and user input with JavaScript.
• Create simple programs using JavaScript.
• Create HTML forms and style them.
• Use JavaScript to handle events with operators, variables, and
functions.
• Develop static web pages.
• Apply HTML tags appropriately to create web pages.
• Create a basic HTML page.
• Add text, images, and links to a page.
• Create lists and tables.
• Apply styles to HTML elements.
• Work with fonts, colors, and backgrounds.
• Create web pages to display data in the paragraphs and lists.
• Familiarize students with CSS syntax.
• Create layouts with CSS.
• Add animations and transitions with CSS.
• Develop, test, and debug static web pages.
• Organize images and text effectively.
• Use JavaScript along with HTML to handle events using operators,
variables, and functions.

151
Introduction
In this chapter, the fundamentals of web development, Hyper Text Markup
Language (HTML), JavaScript and Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) will be explained.
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to understand JavaScript syntax and
data types, work with variables, operators, and functions, handle events and user
inputs, create simple programs, and develop static web pages using HTML and
CSS.
8.1 Web Development
Process of creating websites and web applications is called Web development. It
means using various programming languages and tools to design, build, and
maintain websites.
8.1.1 Why Learn Web Development?
Web development is a valuable skill for several reasons:
• Digital Literacy: When you learn web development, you find out how
websites are made. You learn about HTML, which is like the skeleton of a web
page, CSS, which makes the web page look nice, and JavaScript, which makes
the web page interactive. This helps you understand how the internet works.
• Career Opportunities: Opens up a wide range of job prospects in the
growing IT industry. Web developers can get many different kinds of jobs.
You can become a web developer, web designer, and more. Many companies
need web developers to create and maintain their websites. This means you
can find good jobs in many places.
• Problem-Solving: When you build a website, you solve many problems. For
example, if a website is slow, you figure out why and fix it. This helps you think
logically and solve problems better.
• Creativity: Allows you to create visually appealing and interactive websites.
Web development lets you be creative. You can design websites with cool
layouts, colors, and interactive features. For example, you can create a
personal blog or a portfolio to show your artwork, making your own unique
website.
• Entrepreneurship: With web development skills, you can start your own
online business. For example, if you make crafts, you can build a website to
sell them. Or, you can create a new web service, like a fun app, and share it
with the world.

Hotmail, one of the first web-based email services, was

created by students Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith while they
were at Stanford University. It was later acquired by Microsoft
for $400 million.
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8.2 Basic Components of Web Development
Web development involves creating websites and web applications. It has two
main components:
1. Front-end Development: This focuses on what users see and interact with
on a website. The following fundamentals are used to design interactive
Front-ends:
• HTML structures the content on web pages, like headings, paragraphs,
images, and links.
• CSS styles the content on web pages, changing colors, fonts, and layout to
enhance the appearance.
• JavaScript adds interactivity to web pages, making them dynamic and
engaging. It allows features such as forms, animations, and games.
2. Back-end Development: This manages the behind-the-scenes functinality
of a website, including servers, databases, and application logic. Key back-
end technologies are:
• Web Servers are computers that store and deliver web pages to users
when they enter a URL.
• Databases store and manage data, like user information, product details,
and website content.
• Back-end Programming Languages like PHP, Python, and Ruby handle
tasks such as processing forms, and managing user logins.

The first website was created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991 and

it is still accessible at http: //info.cern.ch. It was a simple page
with links to information about the World Wide Web project.

Figure 8.1: Types of Web Development

153
Example: Login System
A login system is a common feature in web development, allowing users to
access their accounts on a website. This example will illustrate the roles of
front-end and back-end development, as well as the concept of full-stack
development.
3. Full-Stack Development
In the case of login system, a full-stack developer will create the User Interface
(UI) for front-end and handle user authentication and database interaction for
back-end.

Figure 8.2: Graphical abstract of login system

Full-stack developers are in high demand because they can

manage and develop all aspects of a web application, making
them versatile and valuable in the tech industry.

8.3 Getting Started with HTML

HTML is the standard language used to create web pages. Think of HTML as the
building blocks of a website. Just like LEGO pieces (as shown in Figure 8.3) come
together to build a structure, HTML tags come together to build a web page.

154
 Figure 8.3: LEGO Pieces
8.3.1 History of HTML
HTML was created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991. It was designed to make sharing
of information on the internet easy. Over the years, HTML has gone through
many changes and improvements to make it more powerful and easier to use.
• HTML 1.0 (1991): The very first version of HTML. It was simple and had basic
features to create text and links.
• HTML 2.0 (1995): Introduced more tags and features, allowing for creating
more complex web pages.
• HTML 3.2 (1997): Added new tags for creating tables, scripts, and applets.
• HTML 4.0 (1997): Brought major improvements, including support for
multimedia elements like images and videos.
• HTML 4.01 (1999): Minor improvements in version 4.0
• HTML5 (2014): The latest version of HTML. It includes new elements for
better multimedia support, graphics, and more interactive web pages.
8.3.2 Setting up a Development Environment
To start creating websites, you need a few basic tools and environments:
• Text Editor: This is where you write your HTML code. Popular text editors
include Notepad++, Sublime Text, and Visual Studio Code.
• Web Browser: You will use this to view and test your HTML files. Common
web browsers are Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.
Start with a simple text editor and a web browser. Once you are comfortable with
HTML, you can explore more advanced tools.

Start with a simple text editor and a web browser. Once you are
comfortable with HTML, you can explore more advanced tools.
155
 Figure 8.4: Fundamentals of website development environment

8.3.3 Creating a “Hello, World!“ HTML Application

To create a basic HTML application that displays "a message" on a web page,
follow these simple steps:
8.3.3.1 Writing the HTML Code
1. Open your text editor, You can use Notepad, Notepad++, Sublime Text, or
any other text editor.
2. Write the following HTML code into your text editor.
3. Save your file with a html extension, for example, My_first_website.html.
HTML Code Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>My First Web Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to My Website</h1>
<p>This is my first web page. I am learning HTML in the 9th
class!</p>
</body>
</html>

156
8.3.3.2 Viewing the HTML File
1. Open Your Web browser (Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and others).
2. Double-click on your file named My_first_website.html.
3. You should see the text welcome to my website displayed on the web page as
shown in Figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: HTML in Web Browser

When saving your HTML files, always remember to add the .html extension at
the end of your file name. This helps your computer recognize it as a web
page. If you are using Notepad, make sure to select "All Files" in the "Save as
type" dropdown, then type your file name followed by .html (e.g.,
hello_world.html).

If you make any changes to the HTML file, refresh the web
page in your browser to see the updated content.

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8.4 HTML Basic Structure
A structured HTML document is easier to read and understand. Properly nested
and well-organized elements help developers and browsers interpret the
content correctly. This organization ensures that the web page displays as
intended.
Every HTML document has a basic structure where:
• <!DOCTYPE html>: This line tells the browser that this is an HTML5
document.
• <html>: This is the root element of an HTML page.
• <head>: This section contains meta-information about the HTML document,
like the title.
• <title>: This sets the title of the web page, which appears in the browser tab.
• <body>: This section contains the content of the web page that you see in the
browser.
• <h1>: This defines a large heading.
• <p>: This defines a paragraph.
8.4.1 HTML Tags
Elements that make up an HTML document are called tags. A web page's
structure and content are defined by them. On the basis of structure, HTML Tags
are categorized into two types:
1. Paired tags: Comes in pairs an opening Tag and closing Tag i.e <p> .....</p>.
2. Unpaired Tags: Do not need closing Tags. They are also known as self-closing
Tags i.e., <img>, <br>.
8.5 Creating Content with HTML
Content in HTML is the main information on a web page that users read and
interact with. It includes text, images, videos, links, and other elements that
convey the purpose and message of the page. This makes it easier for people to
find your site.
8.5.1 Headings
Headings in HTML, ranging from <h1> to <h6>, are used to define the structure
and hierarchy of content on a web page. Here's why they are important:
Importance of Headings
1. Organizing Content Headings helps organize the content into sections
and subsections, making it easier for users to read and understand. <h1> is
typically used for the main title of the page, while <h2> to <h6> are used for
subheadings in decreasing order of importance.
158
2. Search Engine Optimization (SEO): Search engines use headings to
understand the structure and main topics of a web page. Proper use of headings
can improve the page's SEO, helping it rank higher in search results.
3. Consistent Formatting: Using standard heading tags ensures consistent
formatting across different browsers and devices.
8.5.1.1 Example
Here is an example of how different heading levels can be used to organize
content in a hierarchical structure:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Importance of Headings in HTML</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Main Title (h1)</h1>
<p>This is the main title of the page.</p>
<h2>Subheading 1 (h2)</h2>
<p>This is a subheading under the main title.</p>
<h3>Subheading 2 (h3)</h3>
<p>This is a subheading under Subheading 1.</p>
</body>
</html> Output

159
8.5.2 Paragraphs
Paragraphs in HTML are used to organize and separate text into readable
sections. Each paragraph creates a block of text with space above and below it,
making the content easier to read. Paragraphs starts with the <p> tag and it
ends with <\p>
8.5.3 Links
Links in HTML are used to connect one web page to another. They allow you to
click on words or images to go to different parts of the same web page or to other
web pages on the internet.
Links are created using the <a> tag.
<a href= " http s : / /www. example .com" > V i s i t Example.com< / a>
<a href=" mailto : example @ example .com">Send Email</ a>
Sometimes, links in HTML can also let you click to send an email. These special
links start with mailto: and when you click them, they open your email program
so you can send a message to the email address in the link.
8.5.4 Images
Images are important in HTML because they make web pages more attractive
and engaging. Additionally, using images helps with branding, as logos and
specific visuals make it easier for users to recognize a brand. Lastly, including
alternate text for images ensures that visually impaired users can understand
what the images represent.
Images are added using the <img> tag.
<img src=" image . jpg " alt="A description II of the I___Iimage ">”
8.5.5 Lists
Lists improve readability by breaking complex ideas into simpler parts, allowing
users to scan for details easily. Overall, lists make the content more organized
and accessible for everyone. You can create ordered (numbered) and unordered
(bulleted) lists.
8.5.5.1 Unordered List

<ul> Output can be given side by

<li>Item 1</ li> Result

<li>Item 2</ li>

<li>Item 3</ li>

</ ul>
160
8.5.5.2 Ordered List
<ol>
<li >First item</ li> Result
<l i >Second item</ li>
<l >3rd item</ li>

</ ol>
8.5.6 Creating Tables in HTML
Tables in HTML are used to display data in a structured format, allowing for easy
comparison and organization of information. A table is created using the
<table> tag, which contains rows defined by <tr> (table row) tags, and each row
consists of cells represented by <td> (table data) tags. Additionally, headings for
the table can be added using <th> (table header) tags to provide context for the
data.
Example:
<table> Output
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Age</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Alice</td>
<td>14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Bob</td>
<td>15</td>
</tr>
</table>
8.5.7 HTML Comments
In HTML, comments can be extremely useful for:
• Explaining the purpose of a specific section of code
• Leaving reminders for future edits
• Temporarily disabling code for testing purposes
Syntax of HTML Comments
HTML comments begin with <!-- and end with -->. Any text placed within these
markers will be treated as a comment and will not be rendered by the browser.
<!-- This is a comment --> 161
8.6 Styling with CSS
Styling with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is very important for improving the
visual appearance of webpages and improving user experience. CSS allows web
developers to control the colors, fonts, layout, and overall design of HTML
elements, separating the content from the presentation. CSS offers various
properties and selectors to apply styles to specific elements, enabling responsive
design that automatically adjusts to different screen sizes and devices.
8.6.1 Basic Structure of CSS
The basic structure of CSS is essential for applying styles to HTML elements
effectively. CSS is composed of rules that consist of selectors and declarations.
Selectors specify which HTML elements the styles will apply to, while declarations
define the specific styles to be applied, including properties and their
corresponding values. A typical CSS rule follows this format:
selector { property: value;
}
For example, a simple CSS rule can changes
the color and size of all headings on a web
page:
h1 {
color: red;
font-size: 24px;
}
In this example, the CSS rule targets all
'<h1>' elements, setting their text color to red and font size to 24 pixels.
8.6.2 Integrating CSS in HTML
Integrating CSS with HTML is essential for
styling web pages and it can be done in
three primary ways: inline, internal, and
external styles.
1. Inline Styles: This method involves
adding CSS directly to individual HTML
elements using the style attribute. For
example, <h1 style="color: blue;">Hello World</h1> changes the color of
the heading to blue. While easy for quick changes, inline styles can make the
code cluttered and less maintainable.
2. Internal Styles: CSS can also be included in the <head> section of an HTML
document using the <style> tag. This method allows you to define styles for
the entire page without affecting others.
162
For instance:
<style> h1 {
color: yellow;
}
</style>
3. External Styles: The most efficient method for larger projects is to use an
external CSS file, which is linked to the HTML document with the <link> tag in the
<head> section. This keeps the HTML clean and allows for easy updates across
multiple pages.
For example:
<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
By integrating CSS in these ways, developers can create visually appealing and
well-organized web pages that enhance user experience.
8.6.4 Styling HTML Elements with Fonts, Colors, Backgrounds Styling Fonts
You can change the appearance of text on a web page using CSS. This includes
changing the font family, size, weight, and style.

You can use different fonts by specifying their names in CSS. For
example, you can set the font to Arial or Times New Roman.
Example of Styling Fonts
Here is how you can style the font of a paragraph:
P{
font-family: Arial, sans-serif;
font-size: 16px;
font-weight: bold;
font-style: italic;
}
In this example:
• font-family: Arial, sans-serif; sets the font to Arial. If Arial is not available, it
will use a generic sans-serif font.
• font-size: 16px; sets the font size to 16 pixels.
• font-weight: bold; makes the text bold.
• font-style: italic; makes the text italic.
8.6.3.1 Styling Backgrounds
CSS is a language used to style web pages. One of the fun that you can do with
CSS is to change the background of a web page or elements on it. Here are a few
163
ways you can style backgrounds of a web page with CSS:
• Background Color: You can change the background color of a web page or
any HTML element using the background-color property. For example, if you
want a blue background, you can write:
body { background-color: blue;
}
• Background Image: You can set an image as the background of a web page
using the background-image property. For example, font family issue as the
background, you can write:
body {
background-image: url(“your-image.jpg”);
}
• Background Repeat: Sometimes, the background image is small, and you
want it to repeat across the page. You can use the background-repeat
property to do this. For example:
body {
background-image: url(“your-image.jpg”); background-repeat: repeat;
}
• Background Position: You can position the background image exactly
where you want it using the background-position property. For example, to
center the image, you can write:
body {
background-image: url(“your-image.jpg”); background-position: center;
}
• Background Size: You can control the size of the background image using
the background-size property. For example, to cover the entire page with the
background image, you can write:
body {
background-image: url(“your-image.jpg”); background-size: cover;
}
Using these properties, you can create colorful and appealing backgrounds for
web pages.
8.6.4 Creating Layouts and Organizing Content
Creating layouts and organizing content on a web page is an important part of
web design. CSS helps you arrange different parts of your web page in an
organized way. Here are some basic methods to create layouts and organize
content:
• Divs and Sections: HTML elements like <div> and <section> are used to
group content together. You can then use CSS to style and position them.
164
For example:
<div class="container">
<section class="header">This is the header</section>
<section class="content">This is the main content</section>
<section class="footer">This is the footer</section>
</div>
• CSS Grid: The CSS Grid Layout is a powerful tool for creating complex layouts. It
allows you to arrange items into rows and columns. For example:
.container {
display: grid;
grid-template-columns: auto auto;
grid-gap: 10px;
}
.item
{ padding: 20px;
background-color: lightgrey;
}
• CSS Flexbox: Flexbox is another layout tool that helps in arranging items in a
flexible and responsive way. It is useful for aligning items in a row or column.
For example:
.container
{ display: flex;
justify-content: space-between;
}
.item
{ padding: 20px;
background-color: lightgrey;
}
• Positioning: CSS positioning properties like position, top, left, right, and
bottom allow you to place elements exactly where you want them on the
webpage. For example:
.box
{ position: absolute;
top: 50px;
left: 100px;
width: 200px;
height: 100px;
background-color: lightblue;
}
• Margins and Padding: Margins and padding are used to create space around
165
and inside elements. Margins create space outside the element, while padding
creates space inside the element.
For example:
.box
{ margin: 20px;
padding: 10px;
background-color: lightgrey;
}

Always test your web page in different browsers to ensure that it looks and
works the same way everywhere. This helps you catch any browser-specific
issues early.

Class activity

In this activity, you will practice creating a basic web page layout
using HTML and CSS. Follow these steps:
1. Create a new HTML file and name it “index.html”.
2. Add the basic structure of an HTML document.
3. Inside the <body> tag, create a <div> with the class name
"container".
4. Inside the <div>, add three sections with class names
"header", "content", and "footer".
5. Link the CSS file to your HTML file using the <link> tag in the
<head> section.
6. Use CSS to style the .container class with a grid layout, and
apply background colors to the .header, .content, and .footer
sections.
7. Test your web page in a browser to see your layout

166
8.6.5 Adding Animations and Transitions Using CSS
CSS animations and transitions can make your web pages more engaging by
adding movement and effects. Let us learn how to use them!
8.6.5.1 Adding Animations
CSS allows you to add animations to your web page to make it more interactive.
Animations can change the way elements look or move over a period of time.
Here are some basic steps to create animations with CSS:
• Define Keyframes: Keyframes are used to specify the start and end points of
an animation, as well as any intermediate steps. For example:
@keyframes example {
from {background-color: red;} to {background-color: yellow;}
}
This keyframe animation changes the background color from red to yellow.
• Apply the Animation: To apply the animation to an element, use the animation
property.
For example:
.animated-box
{ width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background-color: red;
animation-name: example;
animation-duration: 4s;
}
This will change the background color of the box change from red to yellow for
four seconds.
• Loop and Timing: You can also set how many times the animation should
repeat and its timing function. For example:
.animated-box {
animation-iteration-count: infinite; /* Animation will repeat forever */-animation-
timing-function: linear; * /Animation will progress at a constant speed */
}
8.6.5.2 Adding Transitions
CSS allows you to add transitions to a web page to make changes between styles
smooth and visually appealing. Transitions can change properties like color, size,
or position gradually, instead of instantly. Here are some basic steps to create
transitions with CSS:
• Set the Initial Style: First, define the initial style for the element you want to
animate. For example:
.box {
167
width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background-color: red;
transition: background-color 2s, width 2s;
}
This sets the initial size and color of the box, and specifies that changes to the
background color and width should transition over 2 seconds.

• Define the Hover State: Next, define the styles for the element when it is
hovered over. For example:
.box:hover {
background-color: yellow; width: 200px;
}
This will change the background color to yellow and double the width of the box
when the mouse hovers over it.

8.7 Introduction to JavaScript

JavaScript is a programming language that is
used to make websites
interactive and engaging. It
allows developers to create
things like animations, games,
and responsive features that
react when you click buttons or
move your mouse. For example,
when you see a pop-up
message on a web page or when
an image changes when you
hover over it, that's JavaScript at
work. Execution of JavaScript in
a flowchart is shown in Figure
8.7.
Figure 8.7: JavaScript Execution

168
 JavaScript was created in just 10 days by Brendan Eich in 1995. It
was initially called Mocha, then LiveScript, and finally JavaScript.

8.7.1 Basic Syntax and Examples

Here is a simple example to display an alert message using JavaScript:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>JavaScript Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to JavaScript</h1>
<script>
alert(“Hello, 9th Class Students!”);
</script>
</body>
</html>

Figure 8.8: Alert Message Example

Class activity
Activity: Displaying an Alert
1. Open a text editor (e.g., Notepad).
2. Write the HTML and JavaScript code as shown above.
3. Save the file as “index.html”.
4. Open the file in a web browser to see the alert message.

169
8.7.1 Variables and Data Types
In JavaScript, you can store data using variables. A variable is like a container that
holds information which can be used and manipulated in your code.
8.7.1.1 Declaring Variables
To declare a variable in JavaScript, you use the var, let, or const keyword. Here's
an example using var:
<script>
var name = "Athar";
var age = 15;
alert("Name: " + name +," Age: " + age);
</script>
8.7.1.2 Dry Run Example
Let's dry-run the above script to understand how it works step-by-step:
1. Declare variables: name = "Athar"; and age = 15;
2. Display alert: alert("Name: " + name + ", Age: "+ age);
This will result in an alert box showing: Name: Athar, Age: 15.
8.7.1.3 Data Types
Variables can store different types of data. Here are some common data types in
JavaScript:
String:
A sequence of characters used for text.
var name = "Athar"; // String
Number:
Represents both integer and floating-point numbers.
var age = 15; // Number
Boolean:
Represents true or false values.
var isStudent = true; // Boolean
Array:
A collection of values stored in a single variable. var scores = [90, 85, 88]; // Array

Always use quotes for strings and no quotes for numbers and booleans.

You can change the value of a variable after it has been

declared. For example, age = 16; will change the value of age
to 16.

170
 Class activity
Create your own variables with different data types. For example, create a
variable for your favorite color, your current grade, or whether you like
coding.

JavaScript is the most popular programming language in

the world. It is used by 95.2% of all websites, as of 2021.

8.7.2 Functions in JavaScript

Functions allow you to reuse code and perform specific tasks. They are like mini-
programs that you can run whenever you need them. Let's learn how to create
and use functions in JavaScript.
8.7.2.1 Simple Function
Here's an example of a simple function that displays a greeting message:
<script>
function greet() {
alert(“Hello, Student!”);
}
greet(); // This calls the function to execute
</script>
In this example:
• The function greet() declares a function named greet.
• alert(“Hello, Student!”); is the code that runs when the function is called.
• greet(); calls the function, displaying the alert message.
8.7.2.2 Function with Parameters
Sometimes, you want your function to do something with input values. You can
achieve this using parameters.
8.7.2.3 Function with Multiple Parameters
You can also create functions that take multiple parameters. Here's an example:
<script>
function addNumbers(a, b) {
var sum = a + b;
alert(“The sum is: “ + sum);
}
addNumbers(5, 3); // This calls the function with the parameters 5 and 3
</script> 171
 Parameters are placeholders for values that you pass to the function. You
can use these values inside your function.
In this example:
• The function addNumbers(a, b) declares a function that takes two
parameters, a and b.
• var sum = a + b; calculates the sum of a and b.
• alert('The sum is: ' + sum); displays the result of the addition.
• addNumbers(5, 3); calls the function with the arguments 5 and 3, resulting in
the alert message "The sum is: 8".

Functions can take any number of parameters. You can

pass different values each time you call the function.

Creating a Function Class activity

1. Write a function that takes a name as a parameter and displays a
personalized greeting. Call the function with your name to see the
greeting.
2. Write a function that calculates the area of a rectangle given its length
and width.
8.7.3 Handling Events and User Input
JavaScript allows you to make your web page interactive by handling events and
user input. An event is an action that occurs when a user interacts with a
webpage, like clicking a button or pressing a key.
HTML Events
HTML events are actions that occur in the browser, often triggered by user
interactions. Events can be used to make web pages interactive by executing
JavaScript code when a specific event occurs.
Common HTML Events
Here are some common events you might encounter:
• onclick: Triggered when an element is clicked.
• onload: Triggered when a page or an image has finished loading.
• onmouseover: Triggered when the mouse pointer moves over an element.
• onmouseout: Triggered when the mouse pointer moves out of an element.
• onkeyup: Triggered when a key is released on the keyboard.
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8.7.3.1 Managing Events and User Interactions with JavaScript
Let us learn how to manage events and user interactions step-by-step.
Event Handlers
An event handler is a function that runs when a specific event occurs. You can
attach event handlers to HTML elements to make them respond to user actions.
Example: Button Click Event
Here's an example of how to handle a button-click event:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html >
<head>
<title>Button Click Event</title>
<script>
function showMessage() {
alert(“Button was clicked!”);
}
</script>
</head>
<body>
<button onclick="showMessage()">Click Me!</button>
</body>
</html>

Use descriptive names for your functions to make your code easier to
understand.
8.7.4 Creating Interactive Elements
In this section, we will learn how to make web pages interactive by developing
simple programs and forms. We will also learn how to integrate JavaScript with
HTML to add interactive functionality.
8.7.4.1 Developing Simple Programs and Forms
Forms allow users to input data, which can be processed using JavaScript. Here is
an example of a simple form that takes a user's name and displays a greeting
message.
Example: Simple Form
Create an “index.html” file with the following content:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Interactive Form</title>
<script>
function greetUser() {
173
 var name = document.getElementById('name').value;
alert("Hello, " + name + "!");
}
</script>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome!</h1>
<form>
<label for="name">Enter
your name:</label>
<input type="text"
id="name" name="name">
<button type="button" onclick="greetUser()">Submit</button>
</form>
</body>
</html>

In this example:
• The form element contains an input field for the user to enter their name and
a button to submit the form.
• The onclick attribute of the button calls the greetuser () function when the
button is clicked.
• The greetuser () function gets the value of the input field and displays an alert
with a greeting message.
8.7.4.2 Integrating JavaScript with HTML for Interactive Functionality
JavaScript can be used to add interactive functionality to HTML elements. Let's
create a simple program that changes the background color of the page when a
button is clicked.
Example: Changing Background Color
Add the following content to your index.html file:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-
scale=1.0">
<title>Change Background Color</title>
174
 <script src="script.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to the Color Changer!</h1>
<button onclick="changeColor()">Change Background Color</button>
</body>
</html>
Add the following content to your script.js file:
function changeColor() {
document.body.style.backgroundColor = “lightblue”;
}
You can use JavaScript to change any CSS property of an
HTML element, such as color, font-size, or visibility.

Class activity
Create a button that hides an element on the page when clicked.
Experiment with different JavaScript functions and HTML elements.

By combining JavaScript with HTML, you can create interactive and dynamic web
pages that respond to user input and actions. Keep practicing to discover more
ways to make your web pages engaging and interactive.
8.8 Developing and Debugging
Testing and debugging are important steps in web development. They help you
find and fix errors in your code to ensure your web pages work correctly.
8.8.1 Debugging Techniques
Debugging is the process of finding and fixing issues in your code. Here are some
common debugging techniques:
1. Using Browser Developer Tools
Most web browsers have built-in developer tools that help you debug your code.
For example, you can use the console to see error messages and set break points
to pause your code and examine its behavior.
<script>
console.log(“This is a debug message”);
var x = 10;
console.log(“The value of x is: “ + x);
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</script>
2. Reading Error Messages
When something goes wrong, your browser will usually display an error
message. Reading these messages carefully can help you understand what went
wrong and how to fix it.
3. Checking Your Code
Go through your code line by line to check for common issues like missing
semicolons, unmatched braces, or incorrect variable names.
8.8.2 Identifying and Fixing Common Issues
Here are some common issues in web development and how to fix them:
1. Broken Links
Make sure all your links point to the correct URLs. Double-check the paths to
your files.
2. Incorrect HTML Structure
Ensure your HTML tags are properly nested and closed.
3. CSS Issues
Verify that your CSS selectors are correct and that there are no typos in your
styles.
8.8.3 Deploying and Testing
After developing your web page, it's important to test it across different browsers
and devices to make sure it works for all users.
8.8.3.1 Strategies for Testing Web Pages
1. Cross-Browser Testing
Web pages can look different in different browsers. Test your web page in
multiple browsers like Chrome, Firefox, and Edge to ensure consistency.
2. Responsive Design Testing
Make sure your web page looks good on all devices, including desktops, tablets,
and smartphones. Use tools like the browser's responsive design mode to test
how your page looks on different screen sizes.
3. User Testing
Ask your friends or family members to use your web page and provide feedback.
They may find issues that you missed.

You can use the browser's inspector tool to see how your CSS is
applied to elements.

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 Summary
• Web development is the process of creating websites and web applications. It
involves using various programming languages and tools to design, build,
and maintain websites.
• Front-end Development focuses on what users see and interact with on a
website.
• Back-end Development manages the behind-the-scenes part of a website,
like servers, databases, and application logic.
• HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It's the standard language
used to create web pages. Think of HTML as the building blocks of a website.
• Content in HTML is the main information on a web page that users read and
interact with.
• Headings in HTML, ranging from <h1> to <h6>, are used to define the
structure and hierarchy of content on a web page.
• Paragraphs in HTML are used to organize and separate text into readable
sections.
• Links in HTML are used to connect one web page to another. They allow you
click on words or images to go to different parts of the same page or to other
pages on the internet.
• In HTML, comments are used to insert notes or explanations within the code.
• Styling with CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is essential for enhancing the visual
appearance of web pages and improving user experience.
• JavaScript is a programming language that is used to make websites
interactive and engaging.
Debugging is the process of finding and fixing issues in your code.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following tag is not a correct HTML tag?
(a) <div> (b) <span> (c) <head> (d) <footer>
2. What does CSS stand for?
(a) Cascading Style Sheets (b) Computer Style Sheets
(c) Creative Style Sheets (d) Colorful Style Sheets
3. Which of the following tag is used to create a hyperlink in HTML?
(a) <link> (b) <a> (c) <href> (d) <nav>
4. Which property is used to change the background color in CSS?
(a) color (b) background-color
(c) bgcolor (d) background
5. Which HTML attribute is used to define inline styles?
(a) class (b) style (c) font (d) styles
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6. Which of the following is the correct syntax for a CSS rule?
(a) selector {property: value;} (b) selector: {property=value;}
(c) selector {property=value} (d) selector: {property: value;}
7. In JavaScript, which markup is used for comments?
(a) /* */ (b) // (c) <– (d) /* */
8. How do you include JavaScript in an HTML document?
(a) <script src="script.js"></script> (b) <java src="script.js"></java>
(c) <js src="script.js"></js> (d) <code src="script.js"></code>
9. Which HTML tag is used to create an unordered list?
(a) <ol> (b) <ul> (c) <li> (d) <list>
10. Which tag is used to display a horizontal line in HTML?
(a) <br> (b) <hr> (c) <line> (d) <hline>
Short Questions
1. What is the purpose of the <head> tag in HTML?
2. Explain the difference between an ordered list and an unordered list in
HTML.
3. How do you add a comment in CSS?
4. What are the different ways to apply CSS to an HTML document?
5. How can you include JavaScript in an HTML file?
6. Describe the syntax for creating a hyperlink in HTML.
7. What is the function of the <div> tag in HTML?
8. How do you link an external CSS file to an HTML document?
9. What is the use of the <table> tag in HTML?
10. Explain the box model in CSS.
Long Questions
1. Discuss the fundamental differences between HTML, CSS, and JavaScript in
the context of web development.
2. Explain the process of setting up a development environment for web
development. By disscussing the necessary softwares and tools.
3. Create a basic HTML page that includes a header, a paragraph, an image, and
a hyperlink.
4. How do you style a table using CSS? Create a sample table and apply styles to
it.
5. Describe the different CSS selectors and provide examples of each.
6. Explain the process of creating a responsive web page using CSS with the
help of examples and explanations.
7. Write a JavaScript function that changes the background color of a web page
when a button is clicked. Provide the complete code and explain how it works.
8. How do you add animations and transitions using CSS? Provide examples
and explain the properties involved.

178
 UNIT Data Science
9
Student Learning Outcomes
and Data Gathering
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand Data Types: Identify and differentiate between qualitative and
quantitative data, and explain their importance in data analysis.
• Organise and Analyse Data: Organise data effectively and apply basic data
analysis techniques to draw meaningful conclusions from both structured and
unstructured data.
• Utilize Data Collection Methods: Gain knowledge of various data collection
methods and tools, including surveys, questionnaires, and online sources, and
understand how to use these methods to gather relevant data.
• Describe Data Storage Techniques: Describe different data storage techniques
such as spreadsheets, databases, data warehouses, and NoSQL, and
understand their applications in managing data.
• Apply Data Visualization Techniques: Organize the importance of data
visualization and be able to use various tools to create visual representations of
data, such as charts and graphs, to effectively communicate information.
• Pre-process and Analyse Data: Learn data pre-processing techniques and apply
quantitative and qualitative analysis methods to interpret data and generate
insights.
• Utilize Collaborative Tools and Cloud Computing: Understand the role of cloud
storage and collaborative tools in data management, and apply best practices
for data protection and remote access.
• Address Ethical Data Considerations: Be aware of ethical practices related to
data privacy, confidentiality, and legal frameworks, and understand the
importance of secure data handling.
• Explore Data Science Fundamentals: Gain an introduction to data science,
including its definition, scope, and fundamental principles, and understand the
impact of data science on various applications.
• Understand Big Data and Its Applications: Explain the concept of big data, its
characteristics, and its practical applications in domains, such as retail,
healthcare, finance, and transportation.
• Recognize Data Science Tools and Techniques: Learn about various data
science tools and techniques, including predictive modelling and graph
analytics, and understand their applications in solving real-world problems.
• Recognize Future Trends in Data Handling: Identify emerging trends in data
analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, and make informed
predictions about future developments in digital data management and
analysis.
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Introduction
This chapter explores various aspects of data management and its impact on our
understanding of information. We begin by examining different types of data
and effective ways to collect and store it. You will learn methods for organising
and analysing data, using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. We'll also
look into data visualisation, which helps us understand complex information
through charts and graphs. Next, we will discuss collaborative tools and cloud
computing, along with ethical issues involved in working with data. Finally, we
introduce data science, big data, and future trends in digital data handling,
showing how technology is advancing data analysis to make it more powerful
and insightful.
9.1 Data
Data consists of raw facts collected about things around us that we can process
to generate useful information. It can take many forms, such as numbers, words,
measurements, observations, or even images and sounds, and may originate
from various sources.
Examples:
1. Weather Data: Information on temperature, humidity, and wind speed
collected from weather stations.
2. Sales Data: Records of product sales, quantities, and prices at a store.
For example, selling 50 units of a product at 100 Rupees each in a day.
3. Survey Responses: Answers from a survey about customer satisfaction.
For example, 80% of customers rating their experience as "satisfactory"
or better.
4. Website Data: Information on website visitors, such as number of visitors
per day and the pages they visit. For example, 500 visitors viewing the
homepage on a Monday.
5. Social Media Data: Likes, comments, and shares on social media posts.
For example, a post receiving 200 likes and 50 comments.
Understanding data is essential in today's world, as it allows us to comprehend
situations, make informed decisions, solve problems, and drive innovation.

Weather Data Impact: Weather data helps meteorologists predict storms

and extreme weather conditions. By analyzing weather data, scientists can
issue early warnings for hurricanes, potentially saving lives.

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9.2 Data Types
Data can be divided into two broad categories namely qualitative and
quantitative.
9.2.1 Qualitative Data
Qualitative data refer to categories or labels used to describe the qualities or
characteristics of something rather than its quantity. This type of data offer a way
to categorize and provide insights into opinions, behaviours, and experiences
through descriptions rather than numbers. Key characteristics of qualitative
data include non-numeric, descriptive, and categorical attributes.
• Non-Numeric: Qualitative data is represented by words, labels, or symbols
instead of numbers. It describes attributes rather than quantities. Examples
include the names of students in a class (e.g., Ali, Badar, Qasim) and the
colours of cars in a parking lot (e.g., red, blue, green), where “name” and
“colour“are attributes.
• Categorical: Qualitative data can be into categories or classes based on their
characteristics. Examples include types of fruit (e.g., apple, banana, orange),
job titles (e.g., manager, engineer, accountant), and book genres (e.g., fiction,
non-fiction, mystery).
Types of Qualitative data
Qualitative data is further classified into two types namely Nominal and Ordinal
data.
• Nominal Data: Nominal data is used to label or categorize items without
implying any order. Each item is unique and separate. Examples include
gender (male, female), types of fruits (apple, banana, orange), and colours
(red, blue, green). Nominal data is helpful for grouping and categorizing
information. For instance, a survey asking about favourite colours might list
responses such as 'red', 'blue', or 'green', which help indicate preferences
without ranking them. On nominal data, you can check for equality, group
items into categories (e.g., all red fruits together), count items in each
category, and find the most frequent category (mode).
• Ordinal Data: Ordinal data represents categories with a meaningful order,
though the differences between categories are not uniform. Examples
include customer satisfaction ratings (satisfied, neutral, unsatisfied),
education levels (high school, bachelor's, master's), and shirt sizes (small,
medium, large, extra-large). Ordinal data helps in ranking items
meaningfully.
In addition to the operations applicable to nominal data, ordinal data allow for
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comparisons (e.g., bachelor's level is higher than light school), ranking items
(e.g., from least to most satisfied), finding the median value (e.g., median
satisfaction level), and analysing frequency distribution (e.g., the number of
people at each education level).

Did you know that every day, people generate over 2.5
quintillion bytes of data? That's a 2 followed by 18 zeros! This
data comes from various sources like social media, online
shopping, and sensors in smart devices.

9.2.2 Quantitative Data

Quantitative data consists of numbers used to measure the quantity or amount
of something. These data types answer questions like "How much?" or "How
long?" and can be useful for mathematical calculations and statistical analyses.
Key characteristics of quantitative data include being numerical, measurable,
countable, and arithmetical.
• Numerical: Quantitative data is expressed in numbers, representing a
measurable quantity. Examples include heights in centimetres, weights in
kilograms, and test scores.
• Measurable: Quantitative data can be measured using instruments or tools.
Examples include using a ruler for length, a scale for weight, and a
thermometer for temperature.
• Countable: Quantitative data can be counted or enumerated, particularly for
discrete data. Examples include the number of students in a class or the
number of cars in a parking lot.
• Arithmetical: Quantitative data can be used in arithmetic operations. For
instance, multiplying the unit price of a fruit by its weight to find the total
price, or calculating annual school fees by multiplying monthly fees by the
number of months.
Types of Quantitative Data
Quantitative data ca be further classified into two main types: discrete and
continuous.
• Discrete Data: Discrete data consist of distinct, separate values that are
countable, often in whole numbers. Discrete data answer questions like "How
many?" or "How often?"
For example, counting oranges in a basket might show there are 16, answering
"How many?" similarly, tracking the number of oranges falling from a tree each
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week, with counts like 5 on Monday, 7 on Wednesday, and 4 on Friday, helps
answer "How often?"
Operations Performed on Discrete Data
All operations that can be performed on nominal and ordinal data can also be
performed on discrete data. In addition to logical and grouping operations
discussed in qualitative data section, arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction) and statistical operations (average, range) can be performed on
discrete data. For example, the difference between marks of two students in a
class can be calculated by subtracting their marks. Statistical operations like
calculating the average marks of students in a class (75, 63, 92, 55, 70 their
average is 71), and determining the range of marks in class (minimum value 55 to
maximum value 92) can also performed.
• Continuous Data: Continuous data consists of values that can take any
number within a given range, including fractions or decimals. Examples
include student heights (150.5 cm, 160.2 cm), fruit weights (1.5 kg, 2.2 kg), and
room temperatures (22.5°C, 23.7°C).
Example
Continuous data are used when measuring items and can help answer questions
about the extent or duration of something. For example, measuring the height of
a plant, might reveal that it is 32.5 centimetres tall. If you measure how long it
takes for the plant to grow from 20 to 30 centimetres, might show that it took 15
days. These measurements provide detailed information about the amount
(height) or duration (growth time), helping us understand how much or how long
something occurs.
Operations Performed on Continuous Data
All operations that can be performed on discrete data can also be performed on
continuous data. In addition to logical, grouping and arithmetic operations
division can also be performed on continuous data. For example, you can divide a
2.5 kg of meat (continuous data) among ten persons (yielding 0.25 kg each) but
cannot divide 3 cars (discrete data) among five persons.
Table 9.1 compares four types of data highlighting their nature, examples, and
application in data analysis.

Social Media Data Trends: Social media platforms collect vast amounts of
data about user interactions. For example, Facebook uses this data to
recommend friends and tailor ads based on users’ likes and interests.

183
Aspect Nominal Data Ordinal Data Discrete Data Continuous Data
Labels or categories Categories with a Distinct, separate Values that can take
Definition without a specific meaningful order, but values that are any number within a
order. uneven differences. countable. range.
Categorizes items Measures the extent
Ranks items in a Counts specific items
Purpose without implying or duration of
meaningful order. or occurrences.
rank. something.
Numbers, including
Words, labels, Words, labels, Numbers, whole or
Representation fractions and
symbols. symbols with order. discrete values.
decimals.
Ordered, but
Measurable, can
Non-numeric, differences between Countable, often
Characteristics include fractions or
categorical. categories are not whole numbers.
decimals.
uniform.
Satisfaction ratings
Gender (male, Number of
(satisfied, neutral, Height of students
female); students in a class
unsatisfied); (150.5 cm, 160.2 cm);
Types of fruits (30);
Education levels Weight of fruits
Examples (apple, banana, Number of cars in a
(high school, (1.5 kg, 2.2 kg);
orange); parking lot (15);
bachelor's, master's); Temperature
Colours (red, blue, Number of books
Shirt sizes (small, (22.5°C, 23.7°C).
green). on a shelf (50).
medium, large).
Equality, grouping, Equality, grouping,
Equality, comparison,
Equality, grouping, counting, arithmetic arithmetic
Operations ranking, median,
counting, mode. operations without operations
frequency distribution.
division including division
Mean, median, Mean, median,
Statistical Mode, frequency Median, mode,
range, standard range, standard
Analysis counts. frequency distribution.
deviation. deviation.
Categorizing,
Understanding order Measuring precise
understanding Counting specific
Usage or levels of a amounts, durations,
preferences or occurrences or items.
characteristic. or extents.
attributes.

Table 9.1 Comparison of Data Types

184
 Digital Data Explosion: The amount of digital data created
and consumed globally is so vast that it's predicted to reach
175 Zettabytes by 2025. That's a 1 followed by 21 zeros!

Class activity
Exploring Data Types
Activity Type: Group
Task Details:
Group Formation: Divide the class into small groups. Assign each group a
type of data (Qualitative, Quantitative, Nominal, Ordinal, Discrete,
Continuous).
Research and Design: Each group researches their assigned data type and
creates a poster or presentation. They should include:
1. Definition: Clear explanation of the data type.
2. Characteristics: Key features of the data type.
3. Examples: Real-life examples or scenarios where this data type is used.
4. Operations: Possible operations or analyses that can be performed with
this data type.
Presentation: Each group presents their poster to the class explaining their
data type and answering any questions from classmates.
Class Discussion: Facilitate a class discussion on how different data types
are used in various real-life situations and data analysis.
For more activities, you can visit, https://mentossacademia.com

9.3 Organising and Analysing Data

Organizing data systematically is very important for clear analysis and
interpretation. When data is well-organised, it helps reduce errors. For example,
imagine you have a list of students and their test scores, a messy, list might lead
to accidentally recording a score under the wrong student's name. Organizing
the data neatly in a table reduces such mistakes.
Importance of Organising Data
• Proper organisation saves time. Think about searching for a book in a messy
room versus a neatly arranged bookshelf. Similarly, when data is organised,
it's easier to find and analyse. For instance, if you have sales data arranged by
date in a spreadsheet, you can quickly see how sales have changed over time
without having to search through random numbers.
185
• Moreover, organised data improves clarity. When data is presented clearly,
it's easier to understand and interpret. For example, a chart showing monthly
sales figures is much easier to understand than a long list of numbers.
• By organising data into tables, charts, and graphs, you can quickly grasp what
the data is saying, making it simpler to draw conclusions and make decisions.
To make data easy to understand, it can be organised into tables, charts, and
graphs. Here's how:
Data Tables: Imagine you have data about students' scores in different subjects.
An example of this data is shown in table 9.2.
Student Math Science English
Ali 85 78 90
Sara 78 88 85
Ahmed 92 82 87
Fatima 90 80 89
Bilal 67 75 70
Table 9.2

Tables like this help present data clearly, making it easy to compare and
analyse the scores of different students across various subjects.

Charts: Charts are visuals

representation of data designed to
make complex information easier to
understand. Charts help identify
patterns, trends and outliers in
datasets. Common types of charts
include:
• Bar charts
• Line charts
• Pie charts Fig 9.1 Pei Chart

Fig 9.9 chart

186
Graphs: Graphs are visuals
tools used to represent data
and show relationship
between different data
points. Common types of
graphs include:
• Line graphs
• Bar graphs
• Scatter plots
• Histograms etc.
Fig 9.2 Graphs
9.3.1 Data Collection
Methods and Tools
Data collection is the process of gathering information to answer questions,
make decisions, or understand something better. There are different methods
and tools for collecting data, each with its own way of gathering and recording
information.
Methods of Data Collection
Here's a simple explanation of the main methods:
· Surveys: Surveys collect information from people by asking them questions.
This can be done on paper, over the phone, or online. For example, to find out
your classmates' favourite ice cream flavours, you might create a survey with
questions like "What is your favourite ice cream flavour?" and give it to your
classmates to fill out.
Best Practices in Survey Design and Administration
• Be clear and specific
• Keep it short and simple
• Use multiple choice and rating scales
• Ensure anonymity
• Test your survey before sending it out
• Analyse the results

• A free tool from Google that helps you create surveys and collect
responses online. Link for Google Forms is h ps://forms.google.com/
• Microsoft Office tools allows you to create surveys and quizzes Link for
Microso Forms is h ps://forms.office.com/
• SurveyMonkey is also a popular tool for creating detailed surveys. Link for
SurveyMonkey is https://www.surveymonkey.com/
187
· Questionnaires: Questionnaires are similar to surveys but are often
written forms that people fill out. They usually have a set of questions that
need to be answered. For instance, if your school wants to know which
activities students enjoy most, they might give out a questionnaire with
questions like, "Which school activity do you enjoy the most? (e.g., sports,
art, music)", where students choose their answers from the options
provided.
· Interviews: Talking to individuals one-on-one to gather detailed
information. Example: Interviewing a school teacher to understand their
experience and challenges.
· Observations: Watching and noting what happens in a particular
situation. Example: Observing how students behave during a group
project to understand how they work in a team.
· Online Data Sources: These include websites, databases, and digital
tools where you can find and collect information. For example, if you're
researching the most popular pets, you might use the internet to find
statistics or articles about pet ownership.
9.3.1.1 Gathering Data from Online Sources
In today's world, we can find lots of information online to help with school
projects. We can gather, extract and integrate this information to answer almost
any question. For example, if you want to know how social media affects
teenagers, you would collect information from different sources, extract useful
data from it and integrate it into a coherent and comprehensible report. Here's
how you can do it:
Data Gathering: Data gathering means collecting information from various
places to help with your research or school projects.
1. Online Databases: These are special websites where you can find a lot of
information, such as articles and reports. For example, you can use Google
Scholar or IEEE Xplore databases. Search for keywords like “how social media
affects teenagers” to find useful articles and studies.
2. Online Resources: These include educational websites, government portals,
and news outlets. For example, Wikipedia, the National Institute of Health
(USA), and BBC.com. Use Google search engine to search for articles and
check if the information is accurate by looking at who wrote it and where it's
from.
Data Extraction: Data extraction is about finding and saving the most relevant
information from a larger set of data.
1. Identify Relevant Data: Look for specific details about how social media
impacts teenagers. Search for keywords like “teenage social media usage
statistics” and find sections in articles with important statistics or quotes.
2. Copy and Save: Highlight the key information you find. For example, if an
article says “70% of teenagers feel stressed because of social media,” copy
188
 this information and paste it into a document. Keep your data organised by
topic or source.
3. Use Tools: Some websites have tools to help you gather and organise data.
Look for options like “Export” or “Download” to get articles in formats like
PDFs.
Data Integration: Data integration involves combining information from
different sources to get a complete perspective.
1. Organise Data: Put all your saved information into one place, such as a
document or spreadsheet. For example, create a Google Sheets file titled
“Social Media Impact Research” where you list all key statistics and quotes.
2. Compare and Merge: Review data from different sources and find common
themes. For instance, if many sources say that social media increases anxiety
among teenagers, note this. Combine similar findings into one summary.
3. Create Summaries: Write a brief overview of what you found. Highlight the
main points, such as how many teenagers report feeling anxious due to social
media. Make charts or graphs to show trends, such as bar graph of anxiety
levels among teens.

Class activity
Data Collection and Organization
Activity Type: Individual
Activity Task Details:
· Create Survey:
1. Design a short survey with clear, specific questions on a topic of
choice (e.g., favourite school subject).
2. Ensure questions are designed to gather meaningful data.
· Collect Responses:
1. Share the survey link with classmates or a small group to gather
responses.
2. Collect data over a specified period.
· Organise Data:
1. Enter the collected data into a spreadsheet.
2. Organise the data into tables and use basic spreadsheet functions to
clean and prepare it.
· Create Visuals:
1. Use spreadsheet tools to create at least one chart or graph (e.g., bar
chart, pie chart).
2. Label charts clearly and ensure they represent the data accurately.
· Share Findings:
1. Present the findings to the class.
2. Explain the visuals and what they reveal about the data.
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9.4 Data Types
With respect to storage and processing, data has two types: structured and
unstructured data.
9.4.1 Structured Data
Structured data is organised and formatted to be easily searchable and
analysable. Examples include data in spread sheets and traditional databases.
Think of a spread sheet with rows and columns where each row is a record (such
as student) and each column is an attribute (such as Student ID, Student Name,
Class, Date of Birth, Fee Status, and Height) as shown in table 9.3.

Student Date of Fee

ID Student Name Class Birth Status Height
001 Ali Akbar 9th 3/25/2009 Paid 4.7
002 Faheem Aslam 9th 5/7/2008 Paid 4.9
003 Munir Ahmad 9th 6/11/2009 Unpaid 5.2
Khalid
004 Mahmood 9th 9/13/2009 Paid 5.6
005 Kamran Malik 9th 7/21/2009 Paid 5.3
Table 9.3 Structured data
9.4.2 Unstructured Data
Unstructured data is more free-form and doesn't fit into a specific format.
Examples include text from emails, social media posts, videos, and images. This
type of data is harder to organise but can be very valuable.“Develop a sound
sense of discipline character, initiative and a solid academic background. You
must devote yourself whole-heartedly to your studies, as that is your first
obligation to yourselves, your parents and the State. You must learn to obey for
only then you can learn to command.”

Structured vs. Unstructured Data: Structured data, like spreadsheets, is

neatly organised into rows and columns, making it easy to search and
analyse. Unstructured data, like emails or social media posts, is more chaotic
and requires special tools to process.
9.5 Data Storage Techniques
When we talk about data storage methods, we're referring to the different ways
we can save and organise information so that we can easily access and use it later.
Here we look at four important data storage technologies: Spreadsheets,
Databases, Data Warehouses, and NoSQL.
190
9.5.1 Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets are tools that help us organise data in rows and columns, much like
a simpler version of a database. They are often used for tasks that don't require
complex data management. Spreadsheets like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets
allow users to input data into cells organised in rows and columns. You can
perform calculations, create charts, and sort data easily. These are commonly
used for personal budgeting, simple data analysis, and small business inventory
management.
9.5.2 Databases
Databases are like digital filing cabinets where information is stored in an
organised way. They are designed to handle large amounts of structured data
and allow users to easily find and manipulate this data. Information in databases
is stored in tables, similar to spreadsheets. Each table has rows and columns,
where rows represent individual records, and columns represent the attributes of
those records. These are used in many everyday applications like banking
systems, online shopping websites, and school records.
9.5.3 Data Warehouses
Data Warehouses are specialized types of databases designed for storing and
analysing large amounts of data collected from various sources. They are used to
help organizations make decisions based on data analysis. Data warehouses are
used by companies to analyze business performance, track sales, and
understand customer behaviour. Prominent examples of data warehouse
include Amazon Redshift, a data warehouse service offered by Amazon Web
Services, and Google BigQuery, a fast and scalable data warehouse offered by
Google Cloud.
9.5.4 NoSQL
NoSQL stands for "Not Only SQL" and refers to a variety of database
technologies that are designed to handle different types of data that may not fit
well into traditional databases. NoSQL databases are flexible and can store
unstructured data, which is data that doesn't follow a specific format. Unlike
traditional databases that use tables, NoSQL databases can use various
structures like documents, key-value pairs, graphs, or columns to store data.
NoSQL databases are often used in big data applications, real-time web
applications, and content management systems.
Example
Examples of popular NoSQL databases include MongoDB which stores data in
JSON-like documents and Cassandra, which is designed to handle large
amounts of data across many servers without a single point of failure.
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9.6 Data Visualization
Data visualization is the process of turning numbers and information into
pictures. These pictures make it easier for us to understand what the data is
telling us. When we look at data in the form of charts or graphs, it becomes
simpler to see patterns, trends, and relationships.
9.6.1 Importance and Benefits of Data Visualization
Data visualization is important because it makes understanding data much
easier. Imagine trying to understand a list of hundreds of numbers. It's tough,
right? But if those numbers are displayed as a bar chart, it's much easier to see
what's going on. Visualizations provide quick insights, allowing you to grasp
what the data is saying without having to read through all the details. This is
particularly useful for making better and faster decisions. For example, a business
can quickly see which products are selling well and which are not.
There are several techniques and tools for visualizing data including charts,
graphs and dashboards.
Some popular tools for visualizing data include Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets
and Tableau.
• Microsoft Excel: A spreadsheet tool that can create various charts and
graphs.
• Google Sheets: Similar to Excel, it allows you to create and share
visualizations online.
• Tableau: A powerful tool specifically designed for creating detailed and
interactive visualizations.
• Microsoft Power BI: Power BI allows users to create a wide variety of
visualizations, including charts, graphs, maps, and more, to represent data in
an intuitive and understandable format.
9.6.2 Visualizing Different Data Types
Different types of data can be visualized in different ways. Here are some
common types of data and how we can visualize them:
Nominal Data: Nominal data represents categories without any specific order.
Bar charts and pie charts are great for showing nominal data.
Ordinal Data: Ordinal data represents categories with a specific order but
without a uniform scale. Bar charts and stacked bar charts are effective for
visualization for ordinal data.
Discrete Data: Discrete data consists of distinct, separate values. Visualization
technique of histograms and dot plots are useful.
Continuous Data: Continuous data can take any value within a range.
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Visualization technique of line graphs, scatter plot and box plot are commonly
used for continuous data.

Human Brain and Visualization: Did you know that the human
brain processes visuals 60,000 times faster than text? This is why
charts and graphs can make complex information easier to
understand quickly!
Visualizing Ancient Data: The earliest known example of data
visualization dates back to 1786 when William Playfair created the first line
graph. He used it to show trade and economic data!

9.7 Data Pre-Processing and Analysis

9.7.1 Data Pre-processing
Data pre-processing is the first and most important step in working with data. It
involves getting the data ready for analysis by cleaning and organizing it. Think
of it like preparing ingredients before cooking a meal; you need to wash, chop,
and measure everything so that the cooking process goes smoothly.
9.7.1.1 Data Pre-processing Techniques
In data pre-processing, we use various techniques to ensure the data is accurate
and ready for analysis. Here are some important steps and techniques:
Evaluating Data Quality:
Before using data, we need to check its quality, ensuring it is accurate, complete,
and reliable. We ask questions like: Is any data missing? Are there errors or
incorrect entries? Is the data consistent and up-to-date?
Example
Imagine you have a list of students' names and their test scores. You need to
check if all students have scores recorded, if the scores are correct, and if they are
from the current session.
Identifying Errors, Outliers, and Biases:
Errors are mistakes in the data.
Example
Check, if the data is within a valid range. For instance, if maximum marks of a
subject are 100 and a student's score is recorded as 105, it's clearly an error
because scores can't exceed 100.
Outliers are unusual or extreme values that don't fit the pattern of the rest of the
data.
Example
In a list of test scores, if most students scored between 50 and 80, but one
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student scored 5, the score of 5 is an outlier.
Biases are distortions that affect the accuracy of the data.
Example
If a survey only includes answers from students in one school, it may not
represent the opinions of all students in the city. Hence if you want to analyse
opinion of entire city students then this data would be biased due to the limited
sample.
9.7.2 Implementing Data Validation and Cleaning Processes
Once we identify issues, we need to fix them by validating and cleaning the data.
Data Validation involves checking data completeness and accuracy.
Validating data completeness means to ensure that no data is missing.
Example
For Example making sure every student has a test score recorded.
Validating data accuracy ensures the data is correct. For example verifying that
all test scores are between 0 and 100.
Data Cleaning involves error removing, handling missing data and dealing with
outliers. Errors are either corrected or the incorrect data is deleted.
Example
For example changing a score of 105 to a valid number like 95, or if the valid
number is not known, deleting this record from data.
To handle missing data, decide how to deal with gaps for example if a student's
test score is missing, you might use the average score of the class to fill in the gap.
To deal with Outliers, decide whether to keep, change, or remove unusual
values. For example investigating why a student scored 5 and determining if it's
an error or a true value.

Data Cleaning as Cooking: Think of data cleaning like

preparing ingredients for a recipe. Just like you wash and
chop vegetables before cooking, you need to clean data to
ensure it's ready for analysis.

9.7.3 Data Analysis Techniques

Data analysis involves examining data to discover useful information, draw
conclusions, and support decision-making. There are two main types of data
analysis: quantitative and qualitative.
9.7.3.1 Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis deals with numbers and measurable data. It helps us
understand patterns, relationships, and trends in numeric data.
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Statistical Analysis: Statistical analysis uses math to make sense of data. Here
are some key concepts:
• Measures of Centre: Measures of centre are statistical tools that help us
understand the central point or typical value in a set of data. They provide a
summary of a dataset by identifying the middle point. The three most
common measures of centre are the mean, median, and mode.
• Mean (Average): The sum of all values divided by the number of values,
representing the average.
Example
For example, if five students have scores of 70, 80, 90, 100, and 110, the mean
score is (70+80+90+100+110) / 5 = 90.
The mean is useful when you want to find a single value that represents a typical
data point in a dataset. It can only be applied on numeric data and works best
when data lacks extreme values or outliers.
• Median: The middle value when all values are arranged in order. If there is an
even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.
Example
For example, for the scores 70, 80, 90, 100, and 110, the median is 90. For 70, 80,
90, 100, 110, and 120, the median is 95.
The median is useful when the dataset has outliers (extremely high or low values)
that could distort the mean. It gives a better representation of the typical value in
such cases.
• Mode: The value that appears most frequently. There can be more than one
modes if multiple values appear with the same frequncy.
Example
For example, in the scores 70, 80, 80, 90, and 100, the mode is 80 and the scores
70, 70, 80, 80, 90, 100 has two modes 70 and 80.
The mode is useful for understanding the most common value in a dataset. It is
particularly helpful for qualitative data where we want to know the most frequent
category.
• Measures of Spread: Measures of spread (also known as measures of
dispersion) are statistical tools used to describe the amount of variation or
diversity in a dataset. They provide degree to which data points differ from
the average value (mean) or median. Here are the key measures of spread:
• Range: The range is the simplest measure of spread. It is the difference
between the highest and lowest values. For example, for the test scores 60,
75, 83, 91, and 95, the range is 95 - 60 = 35.
• Variance: Variance measures how spread out the values are from the
mean. It gives a sense of how much the values in a dataset vary from the
mean. Formula for the variance is:
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 = Sigma symbol; used to represent sum of values

For example, for the dataset [2, 4, 6], the mean is 4. The variance is calculated
as [(2-4)² + (4-4)² + (6-4)²] / 2 = (4 + 0 + 4) / 2 = 8 / 2= 4.
• Standard Deviation: This measures the amount of variation or spread in a set
of data. A low standard deviation means that the data points are close to the
mean, while a high standard deviation means that the data points are spread
out over a wide range. Formula for standard deviation is:

Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It provides a measure of the
average distance of each data point from the mean. For example, for data set
[2,4,6], the variance is 4, So the standard deviation is 4 = 2.

9.7.3.2 Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis deals with non-numeric data such as text, images, and
sounds. It helps us understand meanings, concepts, and experiences.
Methods for Analysing Qualitative Data
One common method is Content Analysis, which involves counting the number
of times specific words or themes appear in a text. For example, researchers
might analyse a set of interviews to count how many times students mention
"homework stress." This method helps to quantify the presence of specific
themes or ideas within qualitative data.
Another method is Thematic Analysis, which involves identifying and
interpreting themes or patterns within qualitative data. For instance, by reading
through student essays, researchers can find common themes like "difficulty
with math" or "enjoyment of science." This method provides a deeper
understanding of the underlying themes and patterns in the data.
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 Class activity
Analysing and Interpreting Data
Activity Type: Group
Activity Task Details:
· Data Organization:
1. Each group receives a data set (e.g., student test
scores).
2. Organise the data into a structured table.
· Create Graphs:
1. Use graphing tools or paper to create graphs (e.g., bar
chart, line graph) to represent the data visually.
2. Ensure graphs are appropriately labelled and scaled.
· Analyse Results:
1. Analyse the graphs to identify trends, patterns, or
outliers in the data.
2. Discuss possible interpretations of the results.
· Report Findings:
1. Prepare a brief report summarizing the analysis.
2. Share the report with the class, highlighting key
findings and insights.
9.8 Collaborative Tools and Cloud Storage
In today's world, working together and sharing information online is essential.
Collaborative tools make this possible, allowing people to work together, share
files, and access their work from anywhere.
9.8.1 Cloud Storage for Data Management
Using cloud storage for managing data has become an essential part of how we
store, access, and share information. It allows us to save files on the internet for
access from any device, make backups to protect our data, and work on
documents with others in real-time.
9.8.2 Remote Access
Remote access refers to the ability to connect to and use a computer or network
from a distant location. This means you can work on files, use software, or access
resources on a computer or network that is not physically near you. For example,
if you save a school project on a cloud storage service like Google Drive while at

Cloud Storage Evolution: Storing files in the cloud is like

having an infinite bookshelf. Instead of cluttering your
physical space, your documents, photos, and videos can be
stored online, freeing up room for more important things.
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home, you can later access and edit that same project from a computer at school.
Remote access is made possible through the internet, allowing you to connect to
your files and applications from anywhere, as long as you have an internet
connection. Following is the activity flow for remote access.
· Save Your Work: Open Google Drive and upload your project file.
· Access from Anywhere: Log into Google Drive from any device
(computer, tablet, phone) and open your project.
· Continue Working: Make changes, add new information, or review
your work from wherever you are.
9.8.3 Data Backups
Data Backups are copies of important data or files stored separately from the
original to protect against data loss. Backups are essential to ensure that you can
recover your data if something goes wrong, such as accidental deletion,
hardware failure, or a computer virus. For example, if you are working on a school
project and save it on your computer. To ensure you don't lose your work, you
create a backup by saving a copy on Google Drive or a USB. This way, if your
computer crashes or the file is accidentally deleted, you can easily recover it from
Google Drive or the USB. Following is the activity flow for data backup on a cloud
service.
· Automatic Backups: Set up your device to automatically back up
important files to a cloud service like OneDrive.
· Restore Files: If you lose a file, log into your cloud account and
download the backup version.
· Resume Work: Continue working on your restored file without
worrying about losing data.
9.8.4 Collaborative Authoring
Collaborative authoring is the process of multiple people working together to
create, edit, and improve a document or project in real-time, often using online
tools and platforms that allow everyone to contribute and see each other's
changes instantly. For example, if your teacher assigns a group project to design
presentation on climate change, your group can use Google Slides to design the
presentation. All students do their respective task such as to create the outline,
design various slides including introduction, significance, conclusion etc., and
everyone can comment and suggest changes. Here everyone can add their slides
and notes to the same file remotely at their convenience. Following is the activity
flow for collaborative authoring.
· Create a Shared Presentation: In Google Slides, create a presentation
called “Climate Change Presentation” and share it with your friends.
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 · Upload Files: Each group member work on their slides and notes.
· Edit Together: Open the files and make edits together, ensuring
everyone's input is included.
9.8.5 Benefits of Collaborative Tools
1. Enhanced Productivity: When multiple students work on different sections
of a project simultaneously the project gets done faster. This saves time and
allows everyone to contribute their best work.
2. Version Control: Google Docs automatically saves every change, so you can
go back to previous versions if needed. You don't lose work, and you can see
who made which changes in the document.

Global Collaboration: Cloud-based tools have enabled people

to work together on projects from different parts of the world.
For instance, a student in Pakistan can collaborate on a science
project with peers in the USA and Australia simultaneously.

9.9 Introduction to Data Science

Data science is like being a detective, but instead of solving crimes, you solve
problems using data. Imagine you want to figure out why some students do
better in exams than others. Data science helps you gather information about
students' study habits, look for patterns, and find out what makes a difference.
For example, you might discover that students who study in groups tend to score
higher. By using data science, you can make better decisions and find solutions
to everyday problems. It combines computer skills, math, and business
knowledge to turn raw data into useful insights, just like turning ingredients into
a delicious recipe.
9.9.1 Understanding Data Science
Knowing about data science is important because it helps us make better
decisions in our daily lives. For example, if you understand how to analyse data,
you can figure out the best time to study when you're most focused. Businesses
use data science to learn what their customers like and improve their products.
Sports teams use data to create better strategies and enhance their performance.
Even doctors use data science to predict health trends and provide better care.
By learning data science, you can solve problems more effectively and make
smarter choices, whether at school, work, or in everyday life.
9.9.2 Interdisciplinary Nature of Data Science:
Data science is unique because it combines different fields to work with data
effectively. It includes:
· Computer Science: For handling and organizing data.
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 · Mathematics and Statistics: For analysing data and finding patterns.
· Business Knowledge: For applying these insights to real-life problems
and making informed decisions.
9.9.3 Data Science Workflow
Data Science Workflow, refers to the systematic process used by data
scientists to extract insights and knowledge from data. Here are the steps
of Data Science Workflow process:
· Problem Identification: Understanding and clearly defining the
problem you are trying to solve.
· Data Collection: Gather information from various sources. For example, if
you want to know how many students like different sports, you might
conduct a survey. This is like collecting ingredients for a recipe.
· Data Cleaning: After collecting data, it's important to clean it by
removing errors and organizing it. Imagine your room is messy, and you
need to put everything in its right place. Data cleaning involves fixing
mistakes and making the data useful.
· Data Analysis: This step involves looking closely at the data to find
patterns or answers. For example, if you have weather data from the past
month, you can analyse it to predict if it will rain tomorrow. It's like solving
a puzzle by examining the pieces.
· Data Interpretation: Once you have analysed the data, you need to
understand it and draw conclusions. This is like reading a story and
understanding its meaning. For example, after analysing survey results,
you might conclude that most students prefer outdoor sports over
indoor ones.
· Data Visualization: To make data easier to understand, you can create
charts and graphs. This is like drawing a map to help someone find their
way. For example, you might create a bar chart showing the number of
students who like each sport, making it clear which sports are most
popular.
Example
Imagine a school wants to understand why some students arrive late. They start
by collecting data on arrival times (data collection). Next, they clean the data by
fixing any errors (data cleaning). They then analyse the data to find patterns, like
whether bad weather or traffic is causing the delays (data analysis). They
interpret these patterns to understand why students are late (data
interpretation). Finally, they create a chart to show the most common reasons for
being late (data visualization). This entire process of collecting, cleaning,
analysing, interpreting, and visualizing data is what data science is all about!
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 Visualizing Data Types Class activity
Activity Type: Group
Activity Task Details:
· Assign Data Types:
1. Divide the class into groups, each assigned a specific
data type (nominal, ordinal, discrete, continuous).
· Create Visualizations:
1. Each group creates a poster using appropriate charts or
graphs for their assigned data type:
§ Nominal Data: Bar charts or pie charts.
§ Ordinal Data: Bar charts or stacked bar charts.
§ Discrete Data: Histograms or dot plots.
§ Continuous Data: Line graphs, scatter plots, or
box plots.
· Present Findings:
1. Each group presents their poster and explains why the
chosen visualization method is appropriate.
2. Discuss the effectiveness of different visualizations for
different data types.
9.10 Big Data and its Applications
Big Data refers to extremely large and complex sets of data that are difficult to
process using traditional methods. Imagine trying to organise a huge pile of
documents, photos, and videos from thousands of people. This pile is so big and
varied that special tools are needed to make sense of it all. Big Data involves
using advanced technology to analyse and find useful information in this
massive amount of data.
9.10.1 Introduction to Big Data
Big Data is a term used to describe extremely large and complex data sets that
can't be managed with traditional tools. To understand Big Data better, we can
look at its defining characteristics, often referred to as the "Three Vs."
Volume: This refers to the sheer amount of data collected. For example, consider
the countless posts, likes, and comments shared on social media platforms every
day. This enormous amount of information is an example of "volume" in Big Data.
It's like trying to fit a huge pile of puzzle pieces into one box—they just keep
coming!
Velocity: This is about the speed at which data is generated and processed. For
instance, think about how quickly posts are sent and received. The fast flow of
this information means that data is constantly being updated and processed in
real-time. Imagine a busy highway with cars zooming by; this is similar to the
rapid pace at which data moves in Big Data.
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Variety: This refers to the different forms data can take. Data is not just numbers;
it can also include text, images, videos, and more. For example, a company might
collect customer reviews as text, product photos as images, and sales figures as
numbers. Just like having a mixed bag of different types of candy, Big Data
includes a wide range of data types and formats.
9.10.2 Practical Applications of Big Data
Businesses: Big Data is valuable because it helps businesses make better
decisions. By analysing vast amounts of data, companies can uncover trends and
patterns that might not be noticeable with smaller data sets. For instance, a
retailer can use Big Data to determine which products are most popular at
different times of the year. This helps them stock the right items and improve
sales.
In addition to improving product offerings, Big Data helps businesses
understand their customers better. By examining customer feedback and
behaviour, companies can make their products and services better.
Retail: Stores use Big Data to understand what customers like and to boost sales.
For example, an online shop might analyse your browsing history and past
purchases to suggest products you might be interested in. It's like how a friend
might recommend books based on the ones you've enjoyed before.
Healthcare: Hospitals and doctors use Big Data to monitor patient health and
predict disease outbreaks. For instance, by analysing patient records, they can
anticipate flu seasons and prepare vaccines in advance. It's similar to preparing
for a storm by checking weather patterns to ensure you're ready.
Finance: Banks use Big Data to detect fraud and manage risks. For example,
analysing transactions helps them spot unusual activities that might indicate
fraud. This is like having a security system that alerts you if someone tries to break
into your house.
Transportation: Companies like Uber use Big Data to optimize routes and
manage rides. They analyse data from previous trips to find the quickest routes
and predict where rides will be needed most. It's like a GPS system that learns the
best routes based on past traffic patterns.
9.10.3 Tools and Techniques in Data Science
Data science relies on various tools and technologies to help manage, analyse,
and visualize data effectively. These tools and techniques are essential for
turning raw data into useful insights.
9.10.3.1 Data Science Tools
Excel: Excel is a widely-used spreadsheet program that helps you organise and
analyse data. For example, if you have a list of your test scores, you can use Excel
to create graphs that show your progress over time. This makes it easy to see how
you're improving and identify any patterns in your performance.
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Python: Python is a popular programming language used in data science for
analysing data and building data models. It comes with powerful libraries like
Pandas, for data manipulation and Matplotlib for creating graphs. For instance,
you might use Pandas to analyse data from a survey and then use Matplotlib to
create a chart that shows the results.
R: R is another programming language designed for statistical analysis and data
visualization. It is particularly good at handling complex data and presenting it in
a clear way. For example, you might use R to analyse a dataset from a scientific
experiment and create detailed plots that make the results easier to understand.
SQL: SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to manage and query databases.
For instance, if you need to find all students who scored above 90 on a test from a
large database, SQL allows you to extract this specific information quickly. It's like
asking a librarian to find all books by a particular author from a huge collection.
These tools are important for data scientists as they help in make sense of large
amounts of data, provide valuable insights, and support informed decisions.
9.10.3.2 Data Science Techniques
Data science uses a variety of techniques to solve problems and gain insights
from data. These techniques help in making predictions and understanding
complex relationships within data.
Predictive Modelling: Predictive modelling is a technique used to forecast
future events based on historical data. For example, a school wants to identify
students who might need extra help with their studies. By using predictive
modelling, the school can analyse past performance data to predict which
students may struggle in the future. This allows them to provide additional
support to those students before problems arise.
Graph Analytics: Graph analytics is a method for analysing relationships
between different data points. It helps to visualize and understand connections
Class activity
Data Cleaning and Validation
Activity Type: Individual
Activity Task Details:
· Evaluate Data:
1. Review a data table with intentional errors (e.g., incorrect values, missing
entries).
2. Identify errors, missing values, and outliers.
· Clean Data:
1. Apply techniques to correct errors (e.g., correcting incorrect values).
2. Fill in missing values using reasonable methods.
3. Address outliers by investigating and deciding on appropriate actions.
· Explain Changes:
1. Write a brief explanation of the changes made.
2. Justify why each correction was necessary for accurate analysis.
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and interactions. For instance, in social media, graph analytics can show how
users are connected through their friendships or interactions. This helps
companies understand social networks better and identify influential people
within those networks, for marketing and information dissemination.
9.10.3.3 Applications of Data Science Techniques
Data science techniques are widely used across various industries to solve
problems and make better decisions. Here are some real-world applications:
Retail Industry:
In retail, data science tools help stores understand shopping patterns and
improve sales. For example, a store might analyze data on customer purchases
and discover that people who buy winter coats often buy gloves as well. This
information allows the store to place gloves near the coats, making it easier for
customers to find them and increasing the chances of additional sales. By using
data to organise their stores better, retailers can enhance the shopping
experience and boost revenue.
Healthcare:
Hospitals use data science techniques to monitor patient health and predict
trends. For instance, doctors may use predictive modelling to analyse patients'
medical histories and identify those at risk of developing certain diseases, such as
diabetes or heart disease. This helps doctors take preventative measures or offer
early treatment, improving patient care and potentially saving lives.
Finance:
Banks and financial institutions use data science to detect and prevent fraud. For
example, if a bank notices unusual spending patterns, such as a sudden large
withdrawal from an account, it can use predictive modelling to flag these
transactions as potentially fraudulent. This helps the bank act quickly to prevent
theft and protect customers' money.
Sports:
In sports, data science techniques are used to enhance player performance and
team strategies. For example, coaches analyse player statistics and game data to
identify strengths and weaknesses. By understanding these patterns, they can
develop strategies to improve team performance and make more informed
decisions during games.
These applications show how data science techniques help solve problems and
improve outcomes across different fields, making them invaluable tools for
informed decision making and achieving better results.
9.10.3.4 Predictions for the Future of Digital Tools in Data Management and
Analysis:
As technology continues to advance, several exciting changes are expected in
the field of data management and analysis some of these are described as
follows.
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 Class activity
Exploring Online Data Sources
Activity Type: Individual or Pair
Activity Task Details:
· Data Gathering:
1. Choose a topic (e.g., impact of social media on
teenagers).
2. Use online databases and resources to find relevant and
reliable information.
· Data Extraction:
1. Extract key pieces of information from sources.
2. Save the data in a document or spreadsheet.
· Data Integration:
1. Organise the collected data into a coherent report or
summary.
2. Include any charts or graphs that represent the data.
· Presentation:
1. Present findings to the class.
2. Explain the sources of information and how the data
supports the conclusions.
Enhanced Automation: In the future, data tools will be able to handle more
tasks automatically, making data analysis faster and more accurate. For example,
imagine a program that automatically cleans up data by fixing errors and
organizing information without human intervention. This means you won't have
to spend time on these repetitive tasks and can focus on more complex analysis,
like finding trends or making predictions based on the data.
Improved Data Privacy: As we collect and use more personal data, keeping it
safe will become even more important. Future tools will have better security
features to protect our information from unauthorized access. For instance, new
technologies might use advanced encryption methods to ensure that only
authorized people can see sensitive data, such as your personal health records or
financial information. This will help keep data safe from hackers and other
security threats.
Integration of AI and Data Science: Artificial Intelligence (AI) will be
increasingly integrated with data science tools to make analysing large amounts
of data easier and faster. For example, AI-powered tools could automatically
generate reports and create charts using the latest data. This will help businesses
and researchers quickly understand important trends and make decisions
without manually processing the data.
Advances in Visualization: Future data tools will offer innovative ways to
visualize data, helping us understand complex information more easily.
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For instance, interactive dashboards may ebnable users to explore data from
different angles, such as clicking on different chart sections for more detailed
information. This makes it easier to detect patterns and insights in the data, such
as discovering which products are most popular in different regions.
These advancements in digital data handling will change how we analyse and use
data, making it an exciting field with many possibilities for the future.

AI in Everyday Life: AI helps everyday gadgets like virtual

assistants (Siri and Alexa) understand your questions and
perform tasks, making technology feel more intuitive.

Class activity
Design Your Own Survey
Objective: Learn how to design and analyse a survey for data collection.
Required Material: Paper and pencils, Access to survey creation tools
(optional: Google Forms or similar tools)

Activity Task Details:

· Survey Design:
1. Students design a survey on a topic of interest (e.g., favourite books,
study habits).
2. Include a variety of question types (e.g., multiple-choice, short
answer).
· Collect Responses:
1. If possible, use an online tool to distribute the survey to classmates or
friends. Alternatively, gather responses on paper.
· Analyse Data:
1. Compile the survey results into a data table.
2. Create visual representations (e.g., bar charts, pie charts) to display
the survey results.
· Report:
1. Write a brief report summarizing the survey results.
2. Include insights or trends observed from the data.
For more activities visit, https://mentorsacademia.com

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 Summary
· Data refers to raw facts we gather about things around us, which can then
process to extract useful information.
· Qualitative data refers to categories or labels that describe qualities or
characteristics rather than quantities.
· Nominal data is used to label or categorize items without implying any
order.
· Ordinal data represents categories with a meaningful order, though the
differences between categories are not uniform.
· Quantitative data are numbers used to measure the quantity or amount of
something.
· Continuous data consists of values that can take any number within a
given range, including fractions or decimals.
· Structured Data is organized and formatted for easy searching and
analysis: examples include data in spread-sheets and traditional
databases.
· Unstructured Data is more free-form and doesn't fit into a specific format.
· Spreadsheets organise data in rows and columns, much like a simpler
version of a database.
· Databases are like digital filing cabinets where information is stored in an
organised way.
· Data Warehouses are specialized databases designed for storing and
analysing large amounts of data collected from various sources.
· NoSQL stands for "Not Only SQL" and refers to a variety of database
technologies designed to handle different types of data that may not fit
well into traditional databases.
· Data visualization turns numbers and information into visual
representations, making data easier to understand.
· Data pre-processing is the initial and important step in working with data.
It involves cleaning and organizing it for analysis.
· Data Cleaning involves error removing, handling missing data and
dealing with outliers.
· Data analysis involves examining data to discover useful information,
draw conclusions, and support decision-making.
· Qualitative analysis deals with non-numeric data such as text, images, and
sounds. It helps us understand meanings, concepts, and experiences.
· Remote access refers to the ability to connect to and use a computer or
network from a distant location.
· A backup is a copy of important data or files stored separately from the
original, used to protect against data loss.
207
 · Collaborative authoring is the process where multiple people work
together to create, edit, and improve a document or project.
· Data science is like being a detective, solving problems using data instead
of solving crimes.
· Data science involves gathering, analysing, and interpreting large
amounts of data to find patterns and useful information.
· Data Analytics is a branch of data science focussed on analysing data to
understand it better and support decisions making.
· Big Data is a term used to describe extremely large data sets that are so
complex they can't be managed with traditional tools.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What is data?
a) Processed information b) Raw facts gathered about things
c) A collection of numbers only d) A list of observed events
2. Which of the following is an example of qualitative data?
a) Temperature readings in degrees Celsius
b) Number of students in a class
c) Favourite ice cream flavours
d) Test scores out of 100
3. What type of data involves distinct, separate values that are countable?
a) Nominal Data b) Ordinal Data
c) Discrete Data d) Continuous Data
4. What is an example of continuous data?
a) Number of cars in a parking lot
b) Height of students in centimetres
c) Types of fruits
d) Shirt sizes (small, medium, large)
5. What type of data is used to categorize items without implying any order?
a) Ordinal Data b) Discrete Data
c) Nominal Data d) Continuous Data
6. How can you organise data to make it easier to analyse?
a) By writing it in long paragraphs b) By creating tables, charts, and graphs
c) By storing it in random files d) By keeping it in a messy notebook
208
 7. Which tool can be used to create surveys online?
a) Microsoft Word b) Google Forms
c) Excel Spreadsheets d) Adobe Photoshop
8. What is the main purpose of data collection?
a) To create random numbers
b) To gather information to answer questions or make decisions
c) To delete old data
d) To format text documents
9. What is the primary purpose of data visualization?
a) To generate random numbers b) To convert text into data
c) To make data easier to understand by turning it into pictures
d) To hide complex data
10. Which tool is specifically designed for creating detailed and interactive
visualizations?
a) Microsoft Excel b) Google Sheets
c) Tableau d) PowerPoint
11. What is the first step in the data science process?
a) Data Cleaning b) Data Analysis
c) Data Collection d) Understanding the problem
12. What does the 'Volume' characteristic of Big Data refer to?
a) The speed at which data is generated
b) The different forms data can take
c) The sheer amount of data being collected
d) The way data is processed
13. What is an outlier in a dataset?
a) The most frequent value
b) The average of all values
c) An unusual or extreme value that doesn't fit the pattern
d) The middle value when all values are arranged in order
14. What does data encryption do?
a) It converts data into a code to prevent unauthorized access.
b) It makes data available to everyone online.
c) It automatically deletes old data.
d) It speeds up internet connection.
Short Questions
1. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
2. Give an example of continuous data and explain why it is considered
continuous.
3. Which method would you use to collect opinions from a large group of
people about a new school policy?
4. What type of data is the number of students in your class?
5. Why is it important to organise data into tables or charts before
analyzing it?
209
 6. What is one advantage of using online tools like Google Forms for
collecting survey data?
7. Why might you need to integrate data from different sources when
working on a project?
8. Describe a scenario where discrete data might be more useful than
continuous data.
9. Explain why data visualization is important. How does it help in
understanding complex information?
10. Describe what a line graph is used for and provide an example of data
that could be displayed using a line graph.
11. Explain the use of scatter plots in visualizing continuous data. Provide
an example of a situation where a scatter plot would be useful.
Long Questions
1. Explain the differences between qualitative and quantitative data. Provide
examples of each type.
2. Describe the process of conducting a survey to gather data about
students' favourite extracurricular activities.
3. Compare and contrast continuous and discrete data. Use examples to
show how each type of data might be used in a school setting, such as in
measuring student performance or tracking attendance.
4. Analyse the benefits and challenges of using digital tools like Google
Forms for data collection.
5. Imagine you are tasked with organizing a school event and need to collect
data on students' preferences for activities and refreshments.
6. Explain the role of tables and charts in data analysis. Provide an example
of how you could use a table or chart to present data about students'
grades in different subjects.
7. Describe a situation where non-numeric data is essential. How would you
collect, store, and analyse this type of data? Discuss the tools and
techniques you would use to ensure the data is accurately interpreted.
8. Explain the concept of data visualization. How does it help in
understanding complex data? Provide examples of different types of
visualizations and their applications in real-life scenarios.
9. Discuss the importance and benefits of data visualization. Why is it
essential for businesses and decision-makers to use charts, graphs, and
dashboards?
10. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, discrete, and continuous data. For
each type, describe a suitable visualization technique and provide a
specific example of how this technique can be used to represent that type
of data effectively.

210
 UNIT Emerging Technologies
10 in Computer Science
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define Artificial Intelligence (AI) and understand its historical context and
evolution.
• Identify various applications of AI in different domains such as
healthcare, education, and gaming.
• Explain the subfields of AI, including machine learning, natural language
processing, computer vision, and robotics.
• Distinguish between different types of AI algorithms, including
explainable (whitebox) and unexplainable (blackbox) models.
• Understand the role of AI techniques in advancing machine learning
models and other capabilities.
• Define the Internet of Things (loT) and understand its significance in
connecting devices and systems.
• Describe the components of loT systems, including sensors, devices,
networks, and data analysis.
• Explore various applications of loT in domains such as smart homes,
healthcare, and transportation.
• Discuss security and privacy considerations in loT deployments.
• Analyze the potential risks and challenges associated with AI and loT,
including data privacy and algorithmic bias.
• Examine policy and regulatory frameworks addressing the challenges of
AI and loT Evaluate the societal impact of AI and loT on daily life, work
environments, and society at large.
• Develop strategies for addressing ethical concerns and maximizing the
societal benefits of AI and loT.

211
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly growing field that is changing various
aspects of our lives. These technologies are not only reshaping industries but
also redefining the way we live, work, and interact with our environment. This
chapter provides an introduction to AI and loT, explores their applications,
discusses the algorithms and techniques that power them, and examines the
broader implications and future prospects of these transformative technologies.
10.1 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (Al)
Artificial Intelligence is a rapidly growing field that is transforming various
aspects of our lives. From healthcare to gaming, AI technologies are being
applied to solve complex problems and improve our daily experiences. For
example, Al-driven systems monitor crop health and predict yields by getting
data from sensors and drones to optimize farming practices.
10.1.1 Understanding Al
Artificial Intelligence denotes the simulation of human thinking ability in
computer systems to think and learn in a manner like humans. To fully realize the
effect of AI, it is essential to understand its definition and historical context, as
well as the evolution of AI technologies over time.
10.1.2 Historical Context of Artificial Intelligence:
The term AI was first invented by John McCarthy in 1956 during the Dartmouth
Conference, regarded as the origin of artificial intelligence as a discipline of
research. The journey of AI has seen several key milestones:
• 1950s-1960s: Early AI research focused on problem-solving and symbolic
methods.
• 1970s-1980s: The development of expert systems that mimicked human
decision-making.
• 1990s: The rise of machine learning, where computers began to learn from
data.
• 2000s-: Advances in deep learning, natural language processing, and
robotics have significantly expanded Al's capabilities.
• 2011s: Voice assistant was used for voice command and voice recognition
• 2023s-Present: ChatGPT was introduced that is an AI-based model which is
designed to understand human-like text-based input.

212
 Figure 10.1: Key Milestones in the History of AI

The first AI program called the Logic Theorist, was created in

1955 by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon. It was designed to
mimic the problem-solving skills of a human being.
10.1.3 Applications and Subfields
Applications of AI in Various Domains:
AI has numerous applications across different fields:
• Healthcare: AI is used for diagnosing diseases, personalizing treatment
plans, and predicting patient outcomes.
• Education: Al-powered tools provide personalized learning experiences,
automate administrative tasks, and offer insights into student performance.
• Gaming: AI enhances game design, creates realistic characters, and
improves player experiences.
• Transportation: Self-driving cars and traffic management systems rely on AI
to improve safety and efficiency.
• Automobile: AI is transforming the automotive industry by enabling
autonomous driving, advanced driver assistance, and optimization of vehicle
performance and maintenance. The integration of AI-powered systems is
improving safety, efficiency, and user experience in modern vehicles.
• Finance: AI is transforming the finance industry by enabling personalized
investment recommendations, fraud detection, algorithmic trading, process
213
 automation, and risk assessment to enhance decision-making, improve
efficiency, and provide customized financial services.
• Social media: AI is extensively used in social media to power personalized
content recommendations, automated content generation, sentiment
analysis, user behavior prediction, and targeted advertising to enhance user
engagement and optimize marketing strategies.
• Agriculture: AI is transforming agriculture by enabling precision farming
techniques, such as predictive analytics for crop yields, automated irrigation
systems, and computer vision for disease and pest detection.
• E-Commerce: AI is highly integrated into e-commerce platforms, powering
personalized product recommendations, intelligent chatbots for customer
support, fraud detection systems, and others.

Figure 10.2: Applications of AI in Different Domains

• Subfields of AI:
AI encompasses several subfields, each focusing on different aspects of
intelligence and technology:
• Machine Learning: Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence
where computers learn from experience and improve over time without
being explicitly programmed. It's like teaching a computer by showing it lots
of examples, and it figures out how to do things on its own.
• Deep Learning: Deep learning is a special kind of machine learning. It uses
complex structures called neural networks, which are inspired by how our
brains work. These networks help computers learn from lots of data and
make decisions or recognize patterns even better.
214
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Natural Language Processing, or NLP,
is a technology that helps computers understand and talk to us in our
language. It's like teaching a computer to read, write, and even chat with us.
Example: When you ask Siri or Alexa a question, they use NLP to understand
what you're saying and give you a helpful answer. Another example is when you
type a message and your phone suggests words to complete your sentence.
That's NLP at work!
• Computer Vision: Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence that
enables computers to see and understand the visual world. It helps
computers interpret images and videos.
• Robotics: Robotics is the science of building and programming robots.
Robots are machines that can do tasks for us, like cleaning the floor or
building cars. Some robots can even think and make decisions.

Class activity
Research and present a real-world application of AI in one of the domains
already mentioned. Explain how AI is used and what benefits it brings.

10.2 Al Algorithms and Techniques

Artificial Intelligence (AI) involves using algorithms and techniques to enable
machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. In this
section, we will explore different types of AI algorithms and understand their
roles in advancing the capabilities of AI, particularly through machine learning
models.

In Pakistan, robots and machines are being used to perform

medical operations?

10.2.1 Types of Al Algorithms:

Explainable (Whitebox) vs. Unexplainable (Blackbox)
AI algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types based on their
interpretability: explainable (whitebox) and unexplainable (blackbox)
algorithms.
10.2.1.1 Explainable (Whitebox) Algorithms
Explainable or whitebox algorithms are those where the decision-making
process is transparent and understandable. These algorithms allow users to see
and understand how decisions are made. Examples include:
• Decision Trees: A decision tree is a tool that helps computers make decisions
215
 by following a series of questions. Each question leads to another question or
a final answer, much like a flowchart.
Example: Let's look at the example decision tree shown in Figure 10.3. This
decision tree helps us identify an animal based on its characteristics.

Figure 10.3: Example of a Decision Tree

Linear Regression: Linear regression is a way to find the relationship between
two features. Imagine you want to know how much time you should study to get
good grades. Linear regression helps you find a straight line that best fits the
data points showing study time and grades.
Example: If you have data showing how many hours you studied and the grades
you got, linear regression can help you find a line that predicts your grade based
on the number of hours you study. If the line shows that more study time
generally leads to better grades, you can use this information to plan your study
schedule.
• Rule-Based Systems: Rule-based systems are like a set of "if-then" rules that
computers follow to make decisions. These rules are written by humans to help
the computer understand what to do in different situations.
Example: Think of a simple game where you control a character that needs to
avoid obstacles. The game might use rules like "if the character is about to hit an
obstacle, then jump." These rules help the character move safely through the
game.
Explainable AI algorithms are important in fields like healthcare
and finance, where understanding the decision-making process
is essential for trust and accountability.
216
10.2.1.2 Unexplainable (Blackbox) Algorithms
Unexplainable or blackbox algorithms are those where the decision-making
process is not easily interpretable. These algorithms often involve complex
computations and interactions that make it difficult to understand how a
particular decision was reached. Examples include neural networks and deep
learning models, which we have already discussed in previous Section.

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer N

Figure 10.4: Example of a Neural Network

Google's AlphaGo, a reinforcement learning model, made
headlines by defeating a world champion in the game of Go, a feat
considered nearly impossible due to the game's complexity.

10.3 Introduction to Internet of Things (loT)

10.3.1 Understanding loT
loT is a revolutionary concept that is transforming the way we live and work. It
involves connecting everyday devices and systems to the internet, allowing them
to communicate and interact with each other.
10.3.1.1 Definition and Components
Definition:
loT is a network of physical objects, or "things," that are equipped with sensors,
software, and other technologies to facilitate the exchange of data with other
devices and systems over the internet. This facilitates the development of new,
innovative services and the implementation of more intelligent, efficient
operations.
Significance of loT:
loT is significant because it allows for the seamless integration of the physical
and digital worlds. This connection enables devices to collect and share data,
which can be analysed to improve efficiency, provide better services, and create
new opportunities in various fields such as healthcare, agriculture, and smart
homes. 217
Components of loT Systems:
An loT system typically consists of the following components:
• Sensors: These are devices that detect and measure physical properties like
temperature, humidity, light, and motion. Sensors collect data from the
environment.
• Actuators: These are devices that convert energy into motion-Im IoT an
actuator can act on data to generate output.
• Devices: These include everyday objects like smartwatches, refrigerators,
and cars that are connected to the internet. Devices use the data collected by
sensors to perform specific tasks.
• Networks: These are the communication pathways that connect sensors and
devices to the internet, allowing them to share data. Networks can be wired
or wireless.
• Data Analysis: This involves processing and analysing the data collected by
sensors to gain insights and make decisions. Data analysis can be done on the
device itself, in the cloud, or on a central server.
Class activity
These are devices that convert energy into motion. In IoT, an actuator can
act on data to generate output.

Did you know? The term "Internet of Things" was coined by

Kevin Ashton in 1999 during his work at Procter & Gamble.

Always ensure that your loT devices are connected to a secure

network to protect your data from unauthorized access.

Example: Smart Home System

One of the practical uses of loT is a smart home system. There are several
internet-connected appliances in a "smart home," including the temperature
control system, lighting, and surveillance cameras.

Class activity
Think about your own home. What everyday devices could be connected
to the internet to make your home smarter? Discuss with your classmates
and draw a simple diagram showing how these devices could be
connected in an loT system.
218
 Did you know? Smart home devices can help save energy by
automatically turning off lights and adjusting heating or
cooling when you're not home.
10.3.2 loT Applications
The Internet of Things (loT) is transforming
many aspects of our lives by connecting
devices and systems in various domains.
Let's explore some of the exciting
applications of loT and understand the
importance of security and privacy in
these deployments.
Healthcare:
loT is revolutionising healthcare by providing
better patient monitoring and care. loT
devices can track vital signs, remind patients
to take medication, and alert healthcare Figure 10.5: Example of
providers in case of emergencies. loT in Healthcare

Always use devices from reputable manufacturers and keep

your health data secure using strong passwords and updating
your devices regularly.
Transportation:
loT is enhancing transportation systems, making them more efficient and safer.
Connected vehicles, smart traffic lights, and real-time tracking systems are some
examples of how loT is used in transportation.

Class activity
Think about how loT can
improve your school. Can you
come up with ideas for smart
classrooms, smart libraries, or
even smart buses? Discuss
with your classmates and
draw a diagram showing your
Figure 10.6: Example of
loT-enabled school.
loT in Transportation
219
10.3.3 Security and Privacy Considerations in loT Deployments:
While loT offers many benefits, it also raises security and privacy concerns. As
more devices are connected to the internet, the risk of cyber-attacks increases.
It's important to ensure that loT systems are secure to protect personal data and
privacy.
Examples of Security Measures:
• Strong Passwords: Use strong, unique passwords for all loT devices to
prevent unauthorized access.
• Regular Updates: Keep the software and firmware of your loT devices up to
date to protect against known vulnerabilities.
• Encryption: Ensure that data transmitted between devices is encrypted to
protect it from being intercepted by hackers.

In 2020, there were over 20 billion loT devices in use

worldwide, highlighting the rapid growth and importance of
loT technology.

10.4 Implications and Future of Emerging Technologies

Emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence and the Internet of Things
are rapidly transforming various aspects of our lives. While these technologies
offer numerous benefits, they also present several implications that need to be
carefully considered. This section explores the potential risks and challenges
associated with AI and loT, as well as their societal impact and the strategies
required to address these concerns and maximize their benefits.
10.4.1 Implications of Al and loT
10.4.1.1 Risks and Challenges
Potential Risks Associated with AI and loT:
Data Privacy: As AI and loT devices collect vast amounts of data, concerns about
data privacy become paramount. Personal and sensitive information can be at
risk of being misused or accessed by unauthorized parties. Ensuring data privacy
involves implementing robust security measures to protect data from breaches
and unauthorized access.
Algorithmic Bias: Algorithmic Bias: Training of AI systems is conducted on large
datasets, and if these datasets comprise biases, the AI models can inadvertently
perpetuate or even amplify these biases. This can lead to unfair outcomes in
various applications, such as hiring processes, law enforcement, and lending
practices. Addressing algorithmic bias makes analysis of training data and
implementing techniques to relieve biases.
220
Policy and Regulatory Frameworks Addressing AI and loT Challenges:
To mitigate the risks associated with AI and loT, comprehensive policy and
regulatory frameworks are essential. These frameworks should focus on:
Data Protection Laws: Implementing strict data protection regulations to
ensure that personal data is collected, stored, and processed securely. Examples
include the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe.
Ethical Guidelines: Establishing ethical guidelines for the development and
deployment of AI systems to ensure fairness, transparency, and accountability.
Organizations like the IEEE have developed guidelines for ethical AI.
Bias Mitigation Standards: Developing standards and best practices for
identifying and mitigating biases in AI models. This includes guidelines for
diverse and representative data collection and techniques for bias detection and
connection.
Security Standards: Enforcing security standards for loT devices to protect them
from cyber-attacks. This includes regular software updates, encryption, and
secure authentication mechanisms.
10.4.1.2 Societal Impact and Adaptation
Impact of AI and loT on:
Daily Life: AI and loT technologies are enhancing our daily lives by providing
smart solutions for homes, healthcare, and transportation. Smart home devices
like thermostats and security systems offer convenience and energy efficiency. In
healthcare, wearable devices monitor health metrics and provide real-time data
to medical professionals.
Work Environments: AI is revolutionizing workplaces by automating repetitive
tasks, improving efficiency, and enabling data-driven decision-making. loT
devices in industrial settings optimize production processes and monitor
equipment health, reducing downtime and maintenance costs.
Society at Large: AI and loT have the potential to address large-scale societal
challenges such as climate change, healthcare accessibility, and urbanization. For
example, smart cities leverage loT to manage resources efficiently, reduce traffic
congestion, and improve public services.
Summary
· Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in
machines that are programmed to think and learn like humans.
· Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence where computers learn
from experience and improve over time without being explicitly
programmed.
· Deep learning is a special kind of machine learning. It uses complex
structures called neural networks, which are inspired by how our brains
221
 work.
· Natural Language Processing, or NLP, is a technology that helps
computers understand and talk to us in our own language.
· Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence that enables computers
to see and understand the visual world.
· Robotics is the science of building and programming robots. Robots are
machines that can do tasks for us, like cleaning the floor or building cars.
· AI algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types based on their
interpretability: explainable (whitebox) and unexplainable (blackbox)
algorithms.
· Whitebox algorithms are those where the decision-making process is
transparent and understandable.
· Blackbox algorithms are those where the decision-making process is not
easily interpretable.
· The Internet of Things (loT) refers to the network of physical objects-
“things”-that are embedded with sensors, software, and other
technologies to connect and exchange data with other devices and
systems over the internet.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is not a subfield of AI?
a) Machine Learning b) Natural Language Processing
c) Computer Vision d) Robotics
2. Which of these AI algorithms is considered an "explainable" model?
a) Neural Networks b) Decision Trees
c) Random Forests d) Convolutional Neural Networks
3. Which of these is a security concern in IoT deployments?
a) Device vulnerability b) Data privacy
c) Lack of standardization d) All of the above
4. Which of the following is an application of AI in healthcare?
a) Personalized drug development b) Automated diagnosis
c) Remote patient monitoring d) All of the above
5. What is the primary purpose of using AI techniques in machine learning
models?
a) To improve accuracy b) To enhance interpretability
c) To reduce computational complexity
d) All of the above
222
6. What is the key difference between explainable (whitebox) and unexplainable
(blackbox) AI models?
a) The complexity of the model
b) The ability to understand the decision-making process
c) The performance of the model
d) The training data used
7. Which of the following is an application of IoT in the transportation domain?
a) Smart traffic management
b) Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication
c) Predictive maintenance of vehicles
d) All of the above
8. Which of these is a potential impact of AI and IoT on the job market?
a) Job displacement due to automation
b) Increased demand for specialized skills
c) Transformation of job roles and responsibilities
d) All of the above
9. What is the key concern associated with algorithmic bias in AI-powered
decision-making processes?
a) Lack of transparency
b) Perpetuation of existing societal biases
c) Reduced accuracy of the model
d) All of the above
10. Which of the following is an ethical principle that should be considered in the
development and deployment of AI and IoT technologies?
a) Transparency and accountability
b) Respect for privacy and data rights
c) Fairness and non-discrimination
d) All of the above
Short Questions:
1. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI).
2. What is the historical context and evolution of AI?
3. Provide two examples of AI applications in healthcare.
4. Explain the role of AI techniques in advancing machine learning models.
5. Define the Internet of Things (IoT).
6. Describe the significance of IoT in connecting devices and systems.
7. What are the potential risks associated with AI and IoT?
8. Discuss the societal impact of AI and IoT on daily life.
9. Explain the concept of algorithmic bias.
223
 10. Outline the importance of ethical considerations in AI and IoT.
Long Questions:
1. Discuss the various applications of AI in the field of education. Provide
specific examples and explain how AI can enhance the educational
experience.
2. Differentiate between explainable (whitebox) and unexplainable
(blackbox) AI models.
3. Describe the components of an IoT system. Explain how these
components work together to enable IoT applications.
4. Explore the applications of IoT in the transportation domain.
5. Analyze the potential privacy concerns associated with IoT deployments.
6. Evaluate the impact of AI and IoT on the job market and work
environments.
7. Explain the role of policy and regulatory frameworks in addressing the
challenges of AI and IoT. Provide examples of existing frameworks and
discuss their effectiveness.
8. Describe the concept of algorithmic bias and its implications in AI-
powered decision-making processes. Suggest strategies to mitigate the
risks of algorithmic bias.
9. Develop a set of ethical principles and guidelines for the responsible
development and deployment of AI and IoT technologies.

224
 UNIT Ethical, Social, and Legal
11 Concerns in Computer Usage
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the importance of using computers safely and responsibly in daily
activities.
• Explain how to protect personal information while using computers and online
platforms.
• Identify the factors to consider when selecting computer hardware and software
for safety, efficiency, and compatibility.
• Explain how choosing the right hardware and software affects the overall
computer experience.
• Demonstrate how to create strong, unique passwords and explain their
importance.
• Describe the need for regular software updates and the role they play in
maintaining device security.
• Identify potential risks associated with clicking on unknown links and
downloading files from untrusted sources.
• Explain the concept and benefits of Two-Factor Authentication (2FA).
• Describe the risks of using public Wi-Fi for sensitive transactions and the
importance of secure networks.
• Identify and avoid common online scams and phishing attempts.
• Explain the importance of regularly backing up important data and describe
methods for doing so.
• Describe responsible behavior on social media, email, cloud services, and online
applications.
• Explain the significance of privacy settings and data security measures in
protecting personal information online.
• Identify ethical and legal responsibilities related to intellectual property rights,
including copyright, trademarks, and patents.
• Discuss the importance of respecting intellectual property and the implications of
software piracy.
• Describe privacy laws and their purpose in protecting personal information online.
• Explain the legal consequences of unauthorized access to personal data and the
responsibilities of companies to safeguard user information.
• Explain the principles of data ethics, including transparency, respect for privacy,
and accountability.
• Describe ethical guidelines for data collection, storage, and sharing, including the
importance of informed consent and data security.
• Analyze real-life case studies of data breaches to understand the impact of poor
data security and the importance of following legal and ethical guidelines.

225
 • Define and explain the significance of copyrights, trademarks, and patents in
protecting digital content and inventions.
• Discuss the ethical and legal responsibilities related to intellectual property
rights and the consequences of infringing on these rights.
• Demonstrate techniques for safe online research, including using reliable
sources, checking authorship, and cross-checking information.
• Explain strategies for protecting privacy during online research, such as using
private browsing and avoiding suspicious links.
• Recognize signs of internet addiction and suggest strategies for promoting
balanced internet usage and engaging in offline activities.
• ethical concerns and maximizing the societal benefits of AI and loT.

Introduction
Computers and digital devices are now a big part of our daily lives, helping us
with schoolwork, staying in touch with friends, and even playing games. But with
all these great tools comes the need to use them safely and responsibly. In this
chapter, we'll learn how to use computers and digital platforms wisely. We'll
explore how to keep our personal information safe, make smart choices about
the hardware and software we use, and behave respectfully online. By
understanding these important aspects, we can enjoy technology while avoiding
problems and protecting ourselves and others. Let's understand the world of
secure and conscientious computer usage to make sure we get the most out of
our digital experiences!
Secure and Conscientious Computer Usage
Computers have become a crucial part of our everyday lives. Whether we are
using them for schoolwork, chatting with friends, or playing games, it's
important to use computers safely and responsibly. Safe and responsible
computer usage means knowing how to protect our personal information,
making wise choices about the hardware and software we use, and ensuring that
our online behavior is respectful and ethical. In this chapter, we will explore the
key aspects of using computers wisely and securely, so we can enjoy the benefits
of technology while avoiding potential risks.

Online Etiquette: The "Golden Rule" applies online too, treat others as
you want to be treated. This helps maintain respectful and positive
interactions.
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11.1 Responsible Computer Usage
Being responsible with technology means making thoughtful decisions when
using computers. This includes selecting the right hardware and software,
safeguarding our data, and using the internet in a way that respects others. Let's
take a closer look at why it's important to use technology responsibly.
When we talk about computers, hardware refers to the physical parts like the
monitor, keyboard, and CPU, while software includes the programs and
applications we use, such as word processors or games. Choosing the right
hardware and software is important because it can affect the safety, efficiency,
and overall experience of using a computer.
• Safety: Just as you wouldn't use a broken or unsafe tool, using outdated or
insecure hardware or software can put you at risk. For example, using a
computer without updated antivirus software can make it easier for viruses or
hackers to steal your information.
• Efficiency: The right hardware and software help you complete tasks quickly
and easily. Imagine trying to play a new video game on an old computer, the
game might be slow or not work at all, making it frustrating to use.
• Compatibility: This means that the hardware and software should work well
together. You should always check the system requirements on software
packages and match them with your computer's specifications to ensure
compatibility.

Cyber Hygiene: Just like washing your hands to prevent germs, updating
your antivirus software regularly is essential to prevent digital viruses.

Responsible Computer Choices Class activity

Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction (10 minutes): Briefly discuss why selecting the right
hardware and software is important for a safe and effective computer
use.
2. Task (30 minutes): Divide students into small groups. Give each group
a worksheet with different scenarios related to hardware and software
choices (For example, choosing a computer for gaming vs. schoolwork,
selecting antivirus software). Ask each group to discuss the pros and
cons of the choices and recommend the best options for each
scenario.
3. Presentation (10 minutes): Each group presents their findings and
recommendations to the class.
Details: Students will learn how different hardware and software impact
computer safety, efficiency, and compatibility by analyzing practical
examples and making informed decisions.
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11.2 Safe and Secure Operation of Digital Platforms
In today's digital world, we use various online platforms and devices for
communication, learning, entertainment, and work. While these digital tools
offer many benefits, it's essential to operate them safely and securely to protect
our personal information and maintain a positive online environment. This
section will guide you on how to use digital platforms and devices responsibly.
11.2.1 Safe Operation of Digital Platforms and Devices
When we talk about the "safe operation" of digital platforms and devices, we
mean using them in a way that protects you from harm and avoids any unwanted
issues. Here are some key points to consider:
1. Using Strong Passwords: Always create strong, unique passwords for
your accounts. A strong password typically includes a mix of letters,
numbers, and special characters. For example, instead of using
"password123," you could use something like "B3tterP@ssw0rd!".

Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): The concept of 2FA was first used in the
1980s, but it became widespread with the rise of online accounts in the 2000s.

2. Regular Software Updates: Keeping your devices and applications up to

date is crucial for safety. Software updates often include important
security fixes that protect your device from new threats.

Software Updates: Microsoft releases major updates for Windows every six
months, showing how frequently technology needs to be refreshed for
security.

3. Being Cautious with Links and Downloads: Avoid clicking on unknown

links or downloading files from untrusted sources. These could contain
harmful software, known as malware, that can damage your device or
steal your personal information.
4. Understanding Privacy Settings: Most digital platforms allow you to
control who can see your information and interact with you online. It's
important to check and adjust your privacy settings to protect your
personal information.
5. Avoiding Oversharing: While it can be fun to share photos and updates
with friends online, it's essential to be mindful of the information you
share. Avoid posting personal details like your home address, phone
number, or school name.

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11.2.2 Secure Use of Digital Platforms
Using digital platforms securely means taking extra steps to protect your
information and ensuring that your online activities do not put you or others at
risk. Here are some tips:
1. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Two-Factor Authentication adds an
extra layer of security to your accounts. After entering your password, you
will be asked to provide another piece of information, like a code sent to
your phone. This makes it much harder for someone to hack into your
account.
2. Avoiding Public Wi-Fi for Sensitive Transactions: Public Wi-Fi
networks, like those in cafes or libraries, are often less secure. It's best to
avoid accessing sensitive information, such as online banking, while
connected to these networks. Instead, wait until you're on a secure,
private network at home.
3. Being Aware of Scams: Online scams are designed to trick you into
giving away your personal information. These can include phishing emails
that pretend to be from legitimate companies asking for your login
details. Always be skeptical of unsolicited requests for personal
information, and verify the source before responding.
4. Regularly Reviewing Your Account Activity: Periodically check your
online accounts for any unusual activity. This includes looking at your
recent logins, messages, and transactions. If you notice anything
suspicious, such as logins from unfamiliar locations, change your
password immediately and report the activity to the platform.
5. Backing Up Important Data: Regularly backing up your data ensures
that you won't lose important information if something goes wrong with
your device. You can back up your data to an external hard drive or a cloud
storage service like Google Drive or Dropbox.
11.3 Best Practices in Online Behavior
11.3.1 Responsible Use of Social Media, Email, Cloud Services, and Online
Applications
In today's digital world, we use social media, email, cloud services, and online
applications every day. While these tools make our lives easier and more
connected, it's important to use them responsibly.
Using digital platforms like social media, email, cloud services, and online

Data Collection: The ethical principle of "informed consent" means you have
the right to know how your data is being used. This principle was emphasized
in the 2004 Bioethics Commission report.

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applications has become a part of our daily lives. However, it's important to use
these tools responsibly to ensure our safety and the safety of others.
· Social Media: Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and
Twitter allow us to connect with friends and share information. But it's
important to think before you post. Always avoid sharing personal
information, like your home address or phone number, publicly.
· Email: Email is a useful tool for communication, especially for school and
work. However, it's important to be careful when opening emails from
unknown senders. These could contain harmful links or attachments.
· Cloud Services: Cloud services like Google Drive or Dropbox allow you to
store and share files online. While these services are convenient, it's
important to use them wisely. Always use strong passwords to protect
your accounts and avoid sharing sensitive information, like passwords or
financial details, through cloud storage.
· Online Applications: Online applications, such as games, learning apps,
or shopping platforms, are fun and useful but can also pose risks. Make
sure to download apps only from trusted sources like Google Play Store or
Apple App Store to avoid downloading harmful software.
11.3.2Importance of Privacy Settings and Data Security Measures
Privacy settings and data security measures are essential tools that help protect
your personal information while using digital platforms.
· Privacy Settings: Most online platforms, including social media and
email services, allow you to adjust privacy settings to control who can see
your information. For instance, on Facebook, you can choose who can see
your posts—public, friends, or just you. It's important to regularly review
and update your privacy settings to make sure your personal information
is protected.
· Data Security Measures: Data security measures help protect your
information from unauthorized access. Using strong, unique passwords
for each of your online accounts is one of the simplest and most effective
ways to secure your data. For example, instead of using "password123,"
create a password that combines letters, numbers, and symbols, like
"S3cur3!Passw0rd."
11.4 Legal and Ethical Frameworks
In this era, we rely heavily on technology for communication, learning, and
entertainment. While these tools bring many benefits, they also raise important
questions about how our personal information is handled and protected.
11.4.1 Legal Frameworks for Privacy
11.4.1.1 Understanding Privacy Laws and Their Implications

Search Engine Milestones: Google processes over 3.5 billion searches per day,
making it the most popular search engine for finding credible information.
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Privacy laws are rules set by the government to protect our personal information.
These laws ensure that companies and organizations handle our data
responsibly. When we use the internet, we often share personal details like our
names, addresses, or even what we like to buy. Privacy laws help make sure that
this information is kept safe and not misused.
Understanding these laws is important because they give you the power to
control your personal information. If a company misuses your data. Such as by
sharing it without your permission, you have the right to take legal action.
11.4.1.2 Laws Protecting User Privacy and Consequences of Unauthorized
Access
There are specific laws designed to protect your privacy online. These laws make
it illegal for someone to access your personal information without permission.
For instance, if someone hacks your email or social media account, they are
breaking the law.
Unauthorized access to your information can lead to serious problems, such as
identity theft or fraud. To prevent this, privacy laws require companies to
implement strong security measures, like encryption, to protect your data. If a
company fails to protect your information, they could be held responsible and
face legal penalties.
11.4.2 Data Ethics and Responsible Use
11.4.2.1 Introduction to Data Ethics and Principles Governing Data
Handling
Data ethics is about doing the right thing when it comes to collecting, storing,
and using information. Just because we can gather a lot of data doesn't mean we
should use it in any way we want. Data ethics helps guide us to use information
fairly and responsibly.
The principles of data ethics include transparency, respect for privacy, and
accountability. This means being clear about how data is used, protecting
people's personal information, and taking responsibility if something goes
wrong.
11.4.2.2 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection, Storage, and Sharing
When data is collected, stored, or shared, there are important ethical
considerations to keep in mind. Collecting data should always be done with the
person's consent. This means that before gathering information, the person
must agree to it.
• Storing data also requires responsibility. Data must be kept secure so that
unauthorized people can't access it. For example, storing medical records
requires strong security because this information is private and sensitive.
• Sharing data should be done carefully and only when necessary. For
instance, a school might share your grades with your parents, but it shouldn't
share them with other students without your permission. Being ethical means
thinking about how sharing information might affect others and acting in a
way that respects their rights.
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 Class activity
Data Ethics Role-Play
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction (10 minutes): Discuss the principles of data ethics,
including transparency, consent, and accountability.
2. Task (30 minutes): Divide students into small groups and give each group
a role-play card with a scenario involving data collection or usage (e.g., a
company asking for user data, a school collecting survey responses). Each
group acts out their scenario and discusses the ethical considerations
involved.
3. Discussion (10 minutes): Groups present their role-plays and discuss the
ethical issues and solutions.
Details: Through role-playing, students will gain insight into the ethical
implications of data handling and the importance of responsible data
practices.
11.4.2.3 Ethical Guidelines for Data Usage and Management
Ethical guidelines for data usage involve ensuring that data is used for the
purpose it was intended and that it benefits the person who provided it.
Misusing data. Such as selling it to third parties without consent, is unethical and
can lead to a loss of trust. These guidelines include:
· Informed Consent: Always ask for permission before collecting
someone's data. For example, a website should ask if it's okay to track
your activity before doing so.
· Data Minimization: Only collect the data you need. If you're conducting
a survey, don't ask for unnecessary personal details.
· Data Security: Protect the data you collect. Use strong passwords and
encryption to keep information safe.
· Accountability: If something goes wrong, take responsibility. If there's a
data breach, inform the affected individuals and take steps to fix the
problem.

Data Breaches: In 2013, the largest data breach affected Yahoo, exposing the
data of 3 billion accounts, including names, email addresses, and passwords.

Data Breach Case Study Analysis Class activity

Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction (10 minutes): Introduce a few high-profile data breach
cases and their consequences.
2. Task (30 minutes): Divide students into groups and assign each group a
case study. Ask them to analyze the case, identify the key issues, and discuss
the lessons learned.
3. Presentation (10 minutes): Groups present their analysis and discuss how
such breaches could be prevented in the future.
Details: Students will learn about the real-world implications of data
breaches and the importance of robust data security measures.
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11.5 Intellectual Property Rights
Intellectual property rights are important because they protect the creations and
ideas of individuals and organizations. When someone creates something new,
like a piece of music, a book, or an invention, they have the right to control how it
is used.
11.5.1 Concepts of Intellectual Property
11.5.1.1 Copyright, Trademarks, Patents, and Their Significance in Digital
Content
Copyright is a legal right that gives creators control over their original works,
such as music, books, movies, and software. For example, when an author writes
a book, they have the copyright to decide how the book is published, shared, or
adapted. This means no one else can copy or distribute the book without the
author's permission.
Trademarks are symbols, names, or slogans used by companies to distinguish
their products or services from others. For instance, the Nike “swoosh” logo is a
trademark. Trademarks protect brand identity, so no other company can use a
similar symbol to confuse customers.
Patents protect new inventions or processes, giving the inventor exclusive rights
to make, use, or sell the invention for a certain period. For example, if someone
invents a new type of smartphone, they can patent it to prevent others from
making or selling a similar phone without permission.
11.5.1.2 Ethical and Legal Responsibilities Regarding Intellectual Property
Rights
Respecting intellectual property rights means understanding that copying,
sharing, or using someone else's work without permission is not only unethical
but also illegal. For example, downloading movies or software without paying for
them is a violation of copyright law. It's important to always seek permission or
purchase content legally to support creators and respect their rights.
11.5.2 Legal Compliance in Computing
Software piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of software. When you
buy software, you are actually buying a license to use it, not the software itself.
Copying it and sharing it with others without a proper license is against the law.
Piracy is harmful because it cheats software developers out of the money they
need to continue creating and improving their products.
By understanding and respecting intellectual property rights, we can all
contribute to a fair and legal digital environment.

Software Piracy Impact: Software piracy is estimated to cost the global

economy over $46 billion annually, showing the significant impact on
developers and businesses.

11.6 Responsible Internet Use

Using the internet responsibly means being aware of how our online activities
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can affect us and others. This section will help you understand how to use the
internet safely, avoid potential risks, and maintain a healthy balance in your
online life.
11.6.1 Safe Data Searches and Online Research
11.6.1.1 Techniques for Safe Data Searches and Credibility Assessment
When searching for information online, it's important to do so safely and ensure
that the information you find is credible and reliable. Here are some tips:
· Cross-Check Information: Don't rely on a single source. Check multiple
sources to confirm the accuracy of the information. If several trustworthy
websites agree on the same facts, the information is more likely to be
accurate.
· Be Skeptical of Sensational Headlines: Avoid websites that use
sensational or misleading headlines designed to grab your attention.
These sites often spread false information or "fake news." For example, a
headline that claims a miracle cure for a disease is likely, not credible.

Credibility Check: Websites with ".edu" domains are usually educational

institutions and are often more reliable sources for research.
11.6.1.2 Avoiding Privacy Risks During Online Research and Information
Gathering
When conducting research online, it's important to protect your privacy. Here's
how:
· Use Private Browsing: Most web browsers offer a private or incognito
mode that doesn't save your browsing history or personal information.
This is useful when researching sensitive topics.
· Be Careful with Personal Information: Avoid entering personal
information on unfamiliar websites. For example, if a website asks for your
email address or phone number to access information, consider whether
it's worth the risk.
· Avoid Suspicious Links: If you come across links that seem strange or
too good to be true, do not click on them. They could lead to harmful
websites that try to steal your personal information.

Tech Evolution: The first computer mouse, invented in 1964, was a wooden
box with a single button. Today's mice come with multiple buttons and
advanced features!
11.6.2 Preventing Internet Addiction
11.6.2.1 Understanding Internet Addiction and Promoting Balanced Usage
Internet addiction happens when a person spends so much time online that it
starts to interfere with their daily life. It's important to recognize the signs of
internet addiction and take steps to prevent it.
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 · Recognizing the Signs: If you find it hard to stop using the internet, even
when it's time to sleep, study, or spend time with family and friends, you
might be developing an unhealthy habit. For example, if you spend hours
scrolling through social media every day and neglect your homework, it
could be a sign of internet addiction.
· Set Time Limits: One way to prevent internet addiction is by setting time
limits on your internet use. For example, you can decide to spend no more
than one hour on social media each day and stick to it.
· Find Offline Activities: Balance your online time with offline activities like
sports, reading, or spending time with friends in person. This helps you
maintain a healthy lifestyle.
11.6.2.2 Strategies for Digital Well-being and Fostering Healthy Online
Habits
Maintaining digital well-being means using the internet in a way that is healthy
and balanced. Here are some strategies:
· Take Regular Breaks: When using the internet for long periods, take
breaks to rest your eyes and clear your mind. For example, if you're
studying online, take a 5-minute break every hour to stretch and relax.
· Use Technology Wisely: Make use of apps or features that help you
manage your time online. Some apps can track your screen time and send
you reminders to take a break.
· Be Mindful of Your Mental Health: If being online makes you feel
stressed, anxious, or unhappy, it might be time to cut back. For instance, if
you feel overwhelmed by constant notifications, consider turning them
off for a while.
11.6.3 Social Networking Safety and Online Interactions
11.6.3.1 Privacy Settings, Responsible Sharing, and Online Etiquette
Social networking platforms allow us to connect with friends and share our lives,
but it's important to do so safely and respectfully.
· Adjust Your Privacy Settings: Make sure your social media accounts are
set to private, so only people you trust can see your posts. For example, on
Instagram, you can set your account to "private" so only approved
followers can view your content
· Practice Good Online Etiquette: Be respectful in your online
interactions. This means using polite language, avoiding arguments, and
not spreading rumors or false information. For example, if you disagree
with someone's post, express your opinion respectfully without insulting
them.
11.6.3.2 Addressing Cyberbullying, Harassment, and Respectful Online
Interactions
Cyberbullying and online harassment are serious issues that can hurt people
emotionally and mentally. Here's how to deal with them:
· Recognize Cyberbullying: Cyberbullying involves using the Internet to
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 harm or harass others. This can include sending mean messages,
spreading rumors, or posting embarrassing photos of someone without
their permission.
· Report and Block: If you experience or witness cyberbullying, report it to
the platform and block the person responsible. Most social media
platforms have tools to help you do this. For instance, on Facebook, you
can block someone to stop them from contacting you or viewing your
profile.
· Support Others: If you see someone being bullied online, offer your
support. You can stand up for them by reporting the bullying or simply
offering kind words. This can make a big difference in how they feel.
· Practice Respectful Interactions: Always treat others with respect
online, just as you would in person. Avoid making negative comments,
and think about how your words might affect someone else. For example,
if you see a post you don't like, it's better to scroll past it than to leave a
hurtful comment.
Class activity
Understanding Privacy Settings
Activity Task Details:
1. Introduction (10 minutes): Discuss the importance of privacy
settings and how they can protect personal information.
2. Task (30 minutes): Divide students into groups. Assign each group
a different digital platform. Ask them to find and document where
and how to adjust privacy settings on their assigned platform.
3. Presentation (10 minutes): Groups share their findings with the
class, explaining how to set up privacy settings to protect personal
information.
Details: This activity enables students to practice adjusting privacy
settings and understand their role in protecting personal data.

11.7 Impact of Computing on Society

Computing technology has a significant effect on our world. It changes how we
live, work, and interact with each other. This section will explore the different
ways computing impacts our society and what to expect in the future.
11.7.1 Influence on Behaviors and Practices
11.7.1.1 Environmental, Ethical, Legal, Societal, Economic, and Cultural
Impacts
Computing affects many aspects of our lives, from the environment to our
cultural practices. Here's how:
· Ethical Impact: Computing raises ethical questions about how we use
technology. For example, using someone else's work without permission
is unethical. This is why it's important to respect copyright laws and give
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 credit to the original creators.
· Legal Impact: Computing also involves legal issues, such as privacy laws
and regulations about internet usage. For instance, laws protect our
personal information from being misused by companies or individuals.
Understanding these laws helps us protect our rights online.
· Societal Impact: Technology changes how we interact with each other.
Social media allows us to connect with friends and family around the
world, but it can also lead to issues like cyberbullying. Being aware of
these impacts helps us use technology in positive ways.
· Economic Impact: Computing technology has created new industries
and job opportunities. For example, software development and digital
marketing are booming fields. However, it also affects traditional jobs, as
automation can replace some roles. Understanding these changes helps
us adapt to the evolving job market.
11.7.1.2 Role of Computing in Global Trade, Communication, and Cultural
Evolution
Computing has transformed how we trade, communicate, and share culture
globally:
· Global Trade: Computing systems make it easier to buy and sell products
around the world. Online shopping platforms like Amazon, Ali Express
and Daraz allow us to purchase items from different countries. Computers
help businesses manage inventory, process transactions, and track
shipments efficiently.
· Communication: Technology enables instant communication through
email, messaging apps, and social media. For example, video calls allow
people to work or chat with friends across long distances, making global
collaboration and personal connections easier.
· Cultural Evolution: Computing helps share and spread cultures. Online
platforms like YouTube and Instagram let people from different cultures
share their traditions and ideas.
11.7.2 Assessing Computing Advancements
11.7.2.1 Benefits and Risks of Computing Advancements (Social
Networking, Misinformation)
Computing advancements bring many benefits but also some risks:
· Social Networking Benefits: Social networking platforms help us stay
connected and share information quickly. For example, Facebook allows
users to keep in touch with friends and family, share updates, and join
interest groups.
· Misinformation Risks: While social media is useful, it can also spread
false information. Misinformation can mislead people and cause
confusion. For instance, a false news story about a health issue can spread
quickly and lead to harmful behavior. It's important to verify information
from reliable sources before believing or sharing it.
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11.7.2.2 Trade-offs Between Privacy, Security, and Usability in Computing
Systems
When designing and using computing systems, there are trade-offs between
privacy, security, and usability:
· Privacy vs. Usability: Sometimes, protecting privacy can make a system
less convenient to use. For example, requiring strong passwords and two-
factor authentication can make logging in more secure but also more
time-consuming. Privacy vs. Usability: Finding a balance between ease of
use and strong security measures is essential.
· Security vs. Usability: Implementing high-security measures can
sometimes make systems less user-friendly. For example, a complex
security system may be harder for users to navigate. It's important to
design systems that are both secure and easy to use, ensuring users are
protected without sacrificing convenience.

Summary
· Safe and responsible computer usage means knowing how to protect our
personal information, making wise choices about the hardware and
software we use, and ensuring that our online behavior is respectful and
ethical.
· Responsible computer usage means protecting ourselves and others
when using computers.
· Safe operation of digital platforms and devices, mean using them in a way
that protects you from harm and avoids any unwanted issues.
· Using digital platforms securely means taking extra steps to protect your
information and ensuring that your online activities do not put you or
others at risk.
· Privacy settings and data security measures are essential tools that help
protect your personal information while using digital platforms.
· Privacy laws are rules set by the government to protect our personal
information. These laws ensure that companies and organizations handle
our data responsibly.
· Ethical guidelines for data usage involve ensuring that data is used for the
purpose it was intended and that it benefits the person who provided it.
· Intellectual property rights are important because they protect the
creations and ideas of individuals and organizations.
· Copyright is a legal right that gives creators control over their original
works, such as music, books, movies, and software.
· Trademarks are symbols, names, or slogans used by companies to
distinguish their products or services from others.
· Patents protect new inventions or processes, giving the inventor exclusive
rights to make, use, or sell the invention for a certain period.
· Software piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of software.
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Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Why is it important to use computers safely and responsibly?
a) To ensure we can use them more frequently
b) To protect our personal information and make wise choices about
hardware and software
c) To make the computer run faster
d) To avoid paying for software
2. What does "responsible computer usage" include?
a) Choosing the most expensive hardware
b) Sharing your passwords with friends
c) Being cautious about what you share online and protecting yourself
and others
d) Ignoring software updates
3. What should you check to ensure hardware and software compatibility?
a) The color of the hardware
b) The system requirements on software packages and match them
with your computer's specifications
c) The price of the hardware
d) The brand of the hardware
4. Why is it important to use strong, unique passwords?
a) To make your accounts easy to hack
b) To help others guess your password
c) To make it harder for someone to guess your password and access
your accounts
d) To avoid installing software updates
5. What is one reason to avoid clicking on unknown links or downloading files
from untrusted sources?
a) They might contain helpful software
b) They might contain malware that can harm your device or steal your
information
c) They are usually cheaper
d) They help your device run faster
6. What does Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) do?
a) It makes your password easier to guess
b) It adds an extra layer of security by requiring a second form of
verification
c) It removes the need for a password
d) It reduces the need for software updates
7. Why should you be cautious when using public Wi-Fi for sensitive
transactions?
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 a) Public Wi-Fi is usually faster
b) Public Wi-Fi networks are often less secure
c) Public Wi-Fi is free
d) Public Wi-Fi always provides encryption
8. What is an important aspect of responsible use of social media?
a) Sharing personal information like your home address
b) Posting photos without considering privacy settings
c) Being respectful and avoiding sharing sensitive information publicly
d) Ignoring privacy settings
9. What should you do if you receive an email from an unknown sender asking
for personal information?
a) Provide the information requested
b) Forward the email to your friends
c) Ignore or delete the email
d) Open the email and click on any links
10. Why is it important to regularly review your account activity?
a) To update your contact information
b) To look for unusual activity and ensure your accounts are secure
c) To check the number of friends you have
d) To download new applications
11. What is the purpose of privacy settings on digital platforms?
a) To make your posts public
b) To control who can see your information and interact with you online
c) To increase the number of followers
d) To automatically share your information
12. What should you do to ensure data security?
a) Use the same password for all accounts
b) Share your passwords with friends
c) Use strong, unique passwords and enable two-factor authentication
d) Avoid using any security measures
13. What is a key aspect of data ethics?
a) Using data in any way you like
b) Transparency, respect for privacy, and accountability in data usage
c) Collecting as much data as possible
d) Ignoring data security
14. What is software piracy?
a) Sharing software legally with friends
b) The illegal copying, distribution, or use of software
c) Buying software from an official source
d) Updating software regularly
15. How can you verify the credibility of information found online?
a) By checking the number of ads on the website
b) By using multiple reputable sources and checking the author's
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 credentials
c) By looking at the website's design
d) By the website's popularity
Short Questions
1. What is the importance of using computers safely and responsibly?
2. How does choosing the right hardware and software affect your computer
usage?
3. Why is it important to use antivirus software on your computer?
4. What are some examples of good practices when selecting hardware and
software?
5. How can choosing compatible hardware and software enhance your
computer experience?
6. Why should you create strong, unique passwords for your accounts?
7. What is the purpose of regular software updates?
8. How can you protect yourself from harmful links and downloads?
9. What is Two-Factor Authentication (2FA), and why is it useful?
10. Why is it a good idea to avoid using public Wi-Fi for sensitive transactions?
11. How can you verify if an email or message is a scam?
12. Why is it important to be careful about what you share on social media?
13. What should you do if you receive an email from an unknown sender asking
for personal information?
14. What is the purpose of privacy laws regarding your personal information?
15. How do privacy laws protect you from unauthorized access to your data?
16. What is the difference between copyright, trademarks, and patents?
17. Why is it important to respect intellectual property rights?
18. What is software piracy, and why is it harmful?
19. How can you identify reliable sources when researching online?
20. What is one way to protect your privacy during online research?
21. What are some signs that you might be developing an internet addiction?
Long Questions
1. 1. Discuss the importance of responsible computer usage in today's digital
world. Explain how selecting the right hardware and software can affect
safety, efficiency, and compatibility in computer use.
2. Describe the steps you should take to ensure the safe operation of digital
platforms and devices.
3. Explain the concept of data ethics and its importance in handling personal
and sensitive information. Discuss the principles of transparency, respect for
privacy, and accountability.
4. Analyze the impact of privacy laws on protecting personal information in the
digital age. How do laws like the Personal Data Protection Bill in Pakistan help
safeguard user data?
5. Discuss the different types of intellectual property rights, including copyright,
trademarks, and patents.
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6. Describe the ethical and legal responsibilities related to intellectual property
rights. What are the consequences of violating these rights, such as through
software piracy or unauthorized use of copyrighted material?
7. Outline effective techniques for conducting safe and credible online research.
How can users evaluate the reliability of sources and avoid privacy risks
during their research?
8. Discuss the concept of internet addiction and its potential impact on
individuals. How can recognizing the signs of addiction, setting time limits,
and finding offline activities help promote balanced internet usage?

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 UNIT Entrepreneurship
12 in Digital Age
Student Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define entrepreneurship and understand its significance in the digital age.
• Differentiate between various types of entrepreneurs, including startup
founders, social entrepreneurs, and intrapreneurs.
• Identify key characteristics of successful entrepreneurs, such as innovation
and risk-taking.
• Analyze the impact of digital technologies on entrepreneurship, including
digital marketing and e-commerce strategies.
• Utilize digital tools and platforms for market research, online marketing, and
managing e-commerce operations.
• Apply data analysis techniques to make informed business decisions.
• Generate and develop innovative business ideas through problem
identification and creative problem-solving techniques.
• Create comprehensive business plans that include market analysis, revenue
models, and digital marketing strategies.
• Understand the principles of ethical and sustainable entrepreneurship and
their importance in business operations. Poor data security and the
importance of following legal and ethical guidelines.

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Introduction
Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching, and running a new
business, often initially a small business, offering a product, process, or service
for sale or hire. It involves the willingness to take risks and innovate in order to
create value. This chapter explores various aspects of entrepreneurship,
including its definition, significance, types of entrepreneurs, and the impact of
digital technologies. We will also delve into the key characteristics of successful
entrepreneurs, the importance of ethical and sustainable practices, and the tools
and strategies necessary for navigating the digital landscape.
12.1 Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a new business or organization. It
involves identifying a need in the market, coming up with an idea to meet that
need, and taking the risk to bring that idea to life. Entrepreneurs are people who
create and run these businesses. They are innovators, risk-takers, and problem-
solvers.
Pakistan is home to one of the largest freelancing communities
in the world. The country ranks among the top five for freelance
growth, with many entrepreneurs offering their skills in areas
like software development, graphic design, and digital
marketing. This entrepreneurial spirit is helping to drive
economic growth and innovation in Pakistan!
12.1.1 Examples of Entrepreneurship
12.1.1.1 Tech Startups
Tech startups like Facebook, Google, and Apple began as small companies
founded by entrepreneurs who had innovative ideas for new technology. These
companies have grown to become some of the largest and most influential in the
world.

Figure 12.1: Tech startups like Facebook and Apple were

founded by entrepreneurs with innovative ideas.

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12.1.1.1 Local Businesses
Local businesses, such as your neighborhood bakery or a small clothing
boutique, are also examples of entrepreneurship. These businesses provide
products or services to their communities and are often started by individuals
with a passion for what they do.

Figure 12.2: Local businesses like bakeries and boutiques are

examples of entrepreneurship in your community.
12.1.2 Key Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
Key characteristics refer to the essential traits or qualities that define a particular
role or person. In the context of entrepreneurs, key characteristics are those
fundamental attributes that are commonly found in successful entrepreneurs.
These include:

The word "entrepreneur” comes from a French word that

means "to undertake." Entrepreneurs undertake the task of
starting and running new businesses.

12.1.1.1 Innovation
Innovation means creating something new or improving something that already
exists. Entrepreneurs are always looking for new ways to solve problems or make
things better.
12.1.1.2 Risk-Taking
Starting a new business involves risk. Entrepreneurs must be willing to take
chances, knowing that they might fail. However, they also know that taking risks
can lead to great rewards.
Class activity
Think of a problem you face in your daily life. In groups, come up with a
business idea that could solve that problem. Present your idea to the class!

Did you know that Walt Disney, the creator of Mickey Mouse,
started his company in his uncle's garage? Today, Disney is one
of the largest entertainment companies in the world!
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12.1.2 Why is Entrepreneurship Important?
Entrepreneurship is important because it drives economic growth, creates jobs,
and fosters innovation. New businesses bring fresh ideas and competition, which
can lead to better products and services for everyone.
12.1.2.1 Economic Growth
When entrepreneurs start new businesses, they contribute to the economy by
creating new jobs and providing new products and services. Economic growth
means that a country is producing more goods and services, which makes
people's lives better. Entrepreneurship plays a big role in this.
12.1.3.2 Innovation and Progress
Entrepreneurs often come up with groundbreaking ideas that change the way we
live and work. For example, the invention of the smartphone has revolutionized
communication and access to information

Figure 12.3: The invention of the smartphone is an example of

entrepreneurial innovation that has transformed our lives.

12.2 Entrepreneurship in the Digital Landscape

The digital landscape has revolutionized the way entrepreneurs start and grow
their businesses.
12.2.1 Digital Transformation and Entrepreneurship
In the modern world, digital technologies have transformed the way
businesses operate. Digital entrepreneurship involves leveraging the power of
the Internet, digital platforms, and various technologies to create and run
businesses. This section explores the role of digital technologies, digital
marketing, and e-commerce in entrepreneurship.
12.2.2 Role of Digital Technologies
Digital technologies provide entrepreneurs with tools and platforms that can
enhance their business operations, reach a global audience, and improve
efficiency. Examples include social media, mobile apps, cloud computing, and
big data analytics.
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12.2.2.1 Social Media
Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter allow
entrepreneurs to market their products, engage with customers, and build a
brand presence.
Class activity
Create a social media marketing plan for a hypothetical business. Decide
on the target audience, type of content, and platforms you would use.
Present your plan to the class!

Figure 12.4: Digital technologies like social media and cloud

computing are essential tools for modern entrepreneurs.

12.2.2.2 Mobile Apps

Mobile apps enable businesses to offer services directly to customers'
smartphones, providing convenience and enhancing user experience.
12.2.2.3 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing allows businesses to store data and run applications over the
Internet, reducing the need for physical infrastructure and enabling remote
work.
12.2.2.4 Big Data Analytics
Big data analytics helps businesses understand market trends, customer
behavior, and make informed decisions based on data insights.
12.2.2.5 Digital Marketing and E-commerce
Digital marketing and e-commerce have revolutionized the way businesses
reach and sell to customers. Digital marketing involves promoting products and
services using digital channels, while e-commerce refers to buying and selling
goods online.

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 Figure 12.5: Mobile apps offer convenience and enhance user experience,
making them a valuable tool for digital entrepreneurs.

Digital Marketing Strategies

• Search Engine Optimization (SEO): Optimizing website content to rank
higher in search engine results, increasing visibility and traffic.
• Social Media Marketing: Using social media platforms to promote
products, engage with customers, and build brand awareness.
• Content Marketing: Creating valuable content to attract and retain
customers, such as blogs, videos, and infographics.
• Email Marketing: Sending targeted emails to potential and existing
customers to promote products and build relationships.

Figure 12.6: Search Engine Optimization (SEO) helps businesses increase

their online visibility and attract more visitors to their websites.
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 Digital marketing can reach a global audience at a fraction
of the cost of traditional marketing methods. It's also easier
to measure the effectiveness of digital marketing
campaigns using analytics tools.

12.2.3.2 E-commerce Platforms

E-commerce platforms like Amazon, eBay, and Shopify allow entrepreneurs to
set up online stores, manage inventory, process payments, and provide
customer service. These platforms provide a convenient way for businesses to
sell products to a global audience.

Figure 12.7: E-commerce platforms enable businesses to

sell products online and reach a global audience.

Class activity
Create an online store for a hypothetical business using an e-commerce
platform like Shopify. Design the store, add products, and present your
store to the class!

12.2.4 Case Studies

12.2.4.1 Daraz
Daraz is a leading e-commerce platform in South Asia, including Pakistan. It has
transformed the shopping experience by offering a wide range of products,
secure payment options, and efficient delivery services.
12.2.4.2 Bykea
Bykea is a Pakistani startup that uses mobile apps to provide on-demand
transportation and delivery services. It has leveraged digital technology to
address transportation challenges in urban areas.
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 Figure 12.8: Bykea uses mobile apps to offer on-demand
transportation and delivery services in Pakistan.

Bykea has become one of the most popular ride-hailing and

delivery services in Pakistan, demonstrating the potential of
digital entrepreneurship in emerging markets.

12.2.4 Challenges and Opportunities

While digital entrepreneurship offers numerous opportunities, it also comes with
challenges such as cybersecurity threats, competition, and the need for
continuous innovation.
12.2.4.1 Opportunities
• Access to a global market
• Cost-effective marketing
• Enhanced customer engagement
12.2.4.2 Challenges
• Cybersecurity threats
• High competition
• Keeping up with technological advancements
12.3 Digital Tools and Platforms
In today's digital age, understanding various digital tools and platforms is
essential. This section provides an overview of digital tools, market research
tools, online marketing tools, and e-commerce platforms. These tools can help
businesses and individuals thrive in the digital world.
12.3.1 Overview of Digital Tools
Digital tools are software and online services that help us perform various tasks
efficiently. These tools range from simple applications like word processors to
complex systems like Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software.
Example: Google Docs is a popular digital tool for creating and editing
documents online. It allows multiple users to collaborate in real time.
250
 Figure 12.9: Google Docs Interface
12.3.1 Market Research Tools
Market research tools help businesses understand their target audience,
competitors, and market trends. These tools collect and analyze data to make
informed decisions.
Conducting effective market research using digital tools:
• Google Analytics: Tracks website traffic and user behavior.
• SurveyMonkey: Conducts online surveys to gather customer feedback.
• SEMrush: Analyzes competitors' online presence and performance.
GOOGLE ANALYTICS

Figure 12.10: Google Analytics Dashboard

Class activity
Exploring Market Research Tools
1. Divide the class into small groups.
2. Assign each group a market research tool to explore.
3. Ask each group to present how their assigned tool can help a
business understand its customers better.

251
12.3.3 Online Marketing Tools
Online marketing tools assist businesses in promoting their products and
services through digital channels. These tools are essential for social media
marketing, search engine optimization (SEO), and content creation.

Strategies for social media marketing, SEO, and

content creation:
• Hootsuite: Manages social media accounts and
schedules posts.
• Yoast SEO: Optimizes website content for
search engines.
• Canva: Creates visually appealing graphics and
marketing materials.
Figure 12.11: Hootsuite Dashboard

Did you know that effective social media marketing can

significantly boost a business's visibility and customer
engagement? Tools like Hootsuite allow you to manage
multiple social media accounts from a single platform, making
it easier to maintain a consistent online presence. See Figure
12.11. You can also launch a similar or even superior service, as
the social media market is worth billions of dollars.

12.3.3 E-commerce Platforms

E-commerce platforms enable businesses to sell products and services online.
They provide tools for setting up online stores, managing payments, and offering
customer support.
Setting up and managing online
stores, payment gateways, and
customer service:
• Shopify: Creates and manages
online stores with ease.
• PayPal: Integrates payment
gateways for secure transactions.
• Zendesk: Provides customer
service solutions for handling
inquiries and support.
Figure 12.12: Shopify Store Setup
252
 Did you know that Pakistan's e-commerce industry is growing
rapidly? According to the Pakistan Telecommunication Authority
(PTA), the country's e-commerce market size was estimated to
be around $4 billion in 2021, with significant growth expected in
the coming years.

12.4 Business Idea Generation

Generating business ideas is an important
step in the entrepreneurial journey. This
section explores techniques for ideation and
problem-solving, focusing on identifying
market needs and applying creative problem-
solving strategies.
12.4.1 Ideation and Problem Solving
Ideation is the process of generating ideas,
while problem-solving involves finding
effective solutions to challenges. Together,
they form the foundation of business idea
generation.
12.4.2 Problem Identification
Identifying market needs and opportunities Figure 12.13: Brainstorming Session
is the first step in generating a viable
business idea. Understanding what people need or want can help you create
products or services that fulfill those needs.
Techniques for Identifying Market Needs:
• Surveys and Questionnaires: Collecting feedback directly from potential
customers.
• Market Research: Analyzing market trends
and consumer behavior.
• Observation: Watching how people interact
with existing products and services.
Example: In Pakistan, observing the popularity
of online shopping can lead to ideas for new e-
commerce platforms tailored to local
preferences.
Figure 12.14: Conducting Market Research

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 Pakistani startup Careem started as a ride-hailing service
and expanded to offer delivery and payment solutions
based on market needs.

12.4.3 Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem-solving involves using innovative thinking to develop
solutions to identified problems. This can be done through various methods,
including design thinking and brainstorming.
Applying Design Thinking: Design thinking is a solution-focused approach
that involves:
1. Empathizing: Understanding the needs of those you're designing for.
2. Defining: Clearly stating the problem to solve.
3. Ideating: Generating a range of ideas.
4. Prototyping: Creating simple models of solutions.
5. Testing: Trying out prototypes and gathering feedback.
Example: A group of students might use design thinking to develop an app that
helps farmers in rural Pakistan access weather forecasts and market prices.
Class activity
Form groups and use the design thinking process to create a new
product or service. Present your ideas to the class, focusing on how you
identified the problem and your innovative solution.

Many successful companies, like Apple and Google, use

design thinking to develop their products, ensuring they
meet user needs effectively.

12.5 Developing Business Plans

Developing a business plan is essential for any entrepreneur. A well-crafted
business plan provides a roadmap for success, helping to clarify ideas, identify
potential challenges, and outline strategies for growth.

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12.5.1 Creating Comprehensive Business
Plans
A business plan is a detailed document that
outlines your business goals and the
strategies you will use to achieve them. It
serves as a blueprint for your business,
helping you to stay organized and focused.
12.5.2 Components of a Business Plan
A comprehensive business plan typically
includes several key components:
Market Analysis: Market analysis involves
researching your target market to
Figure 12.15: Business Plan Structure
understand the needs and preferences of
your potential customers. This includes studying market trends, analyzing
competitors, and identifying your target audience.

Figure 12.16: Conducting Market Analysis

Market analysis can help businesses predict future trends

and adapt their strategies accordingly.

255
Revenue Models: A revenue model outlines how your business will generate
income. This includes pricing strategies, sales forecasts, and potential revenue
streams.

Figure 12.17: Planning Revenue Models

Digital Marketing Strategies: Digital marketing strategies involve promoting
your business online through various channels such as social media, search
engines, and email marketing.

Figure 12.18: Digital Marketing

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 Class activity
Make a business plan for the business idea given in Section 12.5.1. Include
market analysis, a revenue model, and digital marketing strategies. Present
your business plan to the class.
12.5.3Prototyping and Iteration
Prototyping involves creating a preliminary model of your product or service to
test and refine your business idea. Iteration is the process of making
improvements based on feedback.
Building Prototypes: Prototypes can be simple sketches, digital models, or even
physical samples. The goal is to visualize and test your ideas early on.

Figure 12.19: Creating a Prototype

Refining Business Ideas: Gathering feedback from potential customers and
stakeholders is crucial. Use this feedback to make necessary adjustments and
improve your product or service.

Many successful companies, like Facebook and Airbnb,

started with simple prototypes and iterated based on user
feedback to become the giants they are today.

12.6Ethical and Sustainable Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship isn't just about making profits;
It is also about conducting business in a way that is ethical and sustainable. This
section explores the principles of ethical entrepreneurship and how businesses
can align their goals with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
12.6.1 Ethical Practices and Sustainable Growth
Ethical practices in business ensure that a company operates in a way that is fair,
transparent, and beneficial to all stakeholders, including customers, employees,
and the community. Sustainable growth focuses on developing a business that
meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
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12.6.2 Ethical Entrepreneurship
Ethical entrepreneurship involves incorporating principles of ethics into all
aspects of business operations and decision-making. This includes honesty,
integrity, fairness, and respect for people and the environment.
Principles of Ethics in Business:
• Honesty: Being truthful in all business dealings.
• Integrity: Acting consistently with moral values.
• Fairness: Ensuring equal opportunities and fair treatment.
• Respect: Valuing the rights and dignity of all individuals.
12.6.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals
established by the United Nations to address various social, economic, and
environmental challenges. Businesses can play a crucial role in achieving these
goals by aligning their strategies with sustainability.
Aligning Business Goals with SDGs:
• Social Sustainability: Ensuring fair labor practices, promoting education,
and supporting community development.
• Environmental Sustainability: Reducing carbon footprints, using
renewable resources, and minimizing waste.
• Economic Sustainability: Creating jobs, fostering innovation, and
contributing to economic growth.
Example: A Pakistani startup focusing on solar energy solutions contributes to
SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by providing sustainable energy sources to
communities with limited access to electricity.

Class activity
Research a local business and analyze how it aligns with one or more of
the SDGs. Present your findings, focusing on the business's impact on
social, environmental, and economic sustainability.

Pakistan's first certified green building, the WWF-Pakistan

Head Office in Lahore, showcases sustainable architecture and
energy-efficient practices, contributing to multiple SDGs.

258
 Summary
• Entrepreneurship: The process of starting and running a business.
• Entrepreneur Characteristics: Key qualities for entrepreneurial success.
• Digital Entrepreneurship: Leveraging technology to start and grow a
business.
• Digital Tools: Utilizing online platforms for business operations.
• Data-Driven Entrepreneurship: Making informed decisions based on data.
• Idea Generation: Developing new business concepts.
• Business Planning: Creating a roadmap for a new venture.
• Ethical Entrepreneurship: Balancing profit with social responsibility.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is entrepreneurship?
(a) The process of starting a new business or organization
(b) The process of buying and selling stocks
(c) The process of working for a large company
(d) The process of creating a marketing campaign
2. What is a key characteristic of entrepreneurs?
(a) Avoiding risks (b) Seeking job security
(c) Innovation (d) Following established methods
3. What is an example of a digital technology used by modern entrepreneurs?
(a) Newspaper advertisements (b) Television commercials
(c) Mobile apps (d) Door-to-door sales
4. Which of the following is an example of a digital tool for creating and
editing documents online?
(a) SurveyMonkey (b) Google Docs
(c) SEMrush (d) Zendesk
5. Which tool is commonly used for optimizing website content for search
engines?
(a) Hootsuite (b) Yoast SEO (c) Shopify (d) PayPal
6. Which of the following is NOT a technique for identifying market needs?
(a) Surveys and Questionnaires (b) Market Research
(c) Observation (d) Brainstorming
7. What is the first step in the design thinking process?
(a) Prototyping (b) Testing (c) Empathizing (d) Defining
8. What is the primary purpose of creating a business plan?
(a) To attract investors (b) To outline strategies for growth
(c) To study market trends
(d) To implement digital marketing strategies
259
9. What does market analysis involve?
(a) Calculating revenue forecasts
(b) Researching competitors and understanding customer needs
(c) Developing pricing strategies
(d) Implementing digital marketing campaigns
10. Which Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) focuses on affordable and
clean energy?
(a) SDG5 (b) SDG7 (c) SDG12 (d) SDG17
Short Questions
1. What is the meaning of the word entrepreneur and its origin?
2. How do digital technologies help entrepreneurs reach a global audience?
3. What is an e-commerce platform, and why is it important for businesses?
4. Why is it important to identify market needs when generating a business
idea?
5. What is the main purpose of using design thinking in creative problem-
solving?
6. Explain the importance of market analysis in a business plan. Give an example
relevant to a local business in Pakistan.
7. What are revenue models, and why are they essential components of a
business plan?
8. How can businesses contribute to environmental sustainability according to
the Sustainable Development Goals?
Long Questions
1. Explain why entrepreneurship is important for economic growth and
innovation. Provide examples from the text to support your answer.
2. Explain how market research tools, online marketing tools, and e-commerce
platforms can work together to help a business succeed in the digital world.
3. Explain the design thinking process and how it can be applied to create a new
product or service. Provide an example of how design thinking could be used
to help farmers in rural Pakistan.
4. Imagine you want to start a small online bookstore catering to students in
your area. Develop a comprehensive business plan for your bookstore,
including.
(a) A market analysis focusing on student reading habits and competitors.
(b) A revenue model outlining how you will generate income.
© Digital marketing strategies you will use to promote your bookstore
online.
5. Ensure your answers are detailed and include practical examples relevant to
starting your bookstore in Pakistan.
6. Choose a local business in Pakistan and discuss how it aligns with one or more
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Include its impact on social,
environmental, and economic sustainability.
260