UNIT – 3: Analysis of Mechanical Systems.

Study of forces, motion and deformation, Application of laws relating the forces to the rotation
and deformation, static failure mechanisms in the context of machine design, Finite Element
Analysis of Mechanical Components using MAT Lab and ANSYS software, Steady state and
transient thermal analysis.
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1. Study of forces, motion and deformation

1.1 Forces
Push or pull of an object is considered a force. Push and pull come from the objects interacting
with one another. Terms like stretch and squeeze can also be used to denote force.

In Physics, force is defined as:

The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its velocity.
Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s state of rest or motion. It has a
magnitude and a direction. The direction towards which the force is applied is known as the
direction of the force, and the application of force is the point where force is applied.
Common symbols : F→, F
SI Unit : Newton
SI base unit : Kg.m/s2
Other units : dyne, poundal, pound-force, kip, kilo pond
Derivation from other : F= m.a
quantities
Dimension : LMT-2

(a) Effect of forces:

In physics, motion is defined as the change in position with respect to time. In simpler words,
motion refers to the movement of a body. Typically, motion can either be described as:

1. Change in speed
2. Change in direction

The Force has different effects, and here are some of them.

• Force can make a body that is at rest to move.

• It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
• It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
• It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and size.
(b) Formula of force:
The quantity of force is expressed by the vector product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). The
equation or the formula for force can mathematically be expressed in the form of:
Where,

F= m.a

• m = mass
• a = acceleration
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kgm/s2.
Acceleration a is given by
a = v/t
Where

• v = velocity
• t = time taken
So Force can be articulated as:
F = mv/t
Inertia formula is termed as p = mv which can also be articulated as Momentum.
Therefore, Force can be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.
F = p/t = dp/dt
Force formulas are beneficial in finding out the force, mass, acceleration, momentum,
velocity in any given problem.
(c) Types of forces
Force is a physical cause that can change an object’s state of motion or dimensions. There are
two types of forces based on their applications:

1. Contact Force
2. Non-Contact Force

Forces that act on a body either directly or through a medium are called contact forces.

Examples of contact forces are:

• Muscular Force
• Mechanical Force
• Frictional Force
We can use the muscular force of animals like bullocks, horses, and camels to get the activities
done. The frictional force is another type of contact force, which acts between a pair of a
surface in contact and tends to oppose the motion of one surface over the other.
Forces that act through spaces without making direct contact with the body are called non-
contact forces.
Examples of non-contact forces are:

• Gravitational Force
• Electrostatic Force
• Magnetic Force
The force exerted by a magnet on other magnets is called magnetic force. Magnetic force and
electrostatic force act on an object from a distance. That’s the reason they are non-contact
forces. The strength of gravity is an attractive force that is exerted by the Earth on objects,
which makes them fall to the land. The weight of a body is the force that is pulled by the
earth towards the centre.
Q.1) How much net force is required to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 4.00 m/s2?
Solution:
Given,

• a = 4.00 m/s2
• m = 1000 kg
Therefore,
F = ma
= 1000 × 4
= 4000 N
Q.2) Aimee has a toy car mass of 2 kg. How much force should she apply to the car so
that it should travel with the acceleration of 8 m/s2?
Solution:
Known,

• m (Mass of toy car) = 2 Kg,

• a (Acceleration) = 8 m/s2
F is Force to be applied by Aimmee = m × a
= 2 Kg × 8 m/s2 = 16 Kgm/s2 = 16 N.
Q.3) A hammer having a mass of 1 kg going with a speed of 6 m/s hits a wall and comes
to rest in 0.1 sec. Compute the obstacle force that makes the hammer stop.
Solution:
Given,

• Mass of Hammer, m = 1 kg
• Initial Velocity, u = 6 m/s
• Final Velocity, v = 0 m/s
• Time Taken, t = 0.1 s
The acceleration is: a = (v – u)/t
Therefore, a = -60
m/s2
[-ve sign indicates retardation]

Thus, the retarding Force, F = ma = 1 × 60 = 60 N

(d) Line of action of force
The line along which a force acts on an object is called the force’s line of action. The point
where the force is acting on an object is called the point of application of the force. The force
which opposes the relative motion between the surfaces of two objects in contact and acts along
the surfaces is called the force of friction.
Galileo experimentally proved that objects that are in motion move with constant speed when
there is no force acting on it. He could note that when a sphere rolls down an inclined plane,
its speed increases because of the gravitational pull acting on it.
When all the forces acting on an object are balanced, the net force acting is zero. But, if all the
forces acting on a body result in an unbalanced force, then the unbalanced force can accelerate
the body, which means that a net force acting on a body can either change the magnitude of its
velocity or change the direction of its velocity. For example, when many forces act on a body,
and the body is found to be at rest, we can conclude that the net force acting on the body is
zero.
Example of forces
For all masses near the earth’s surface, the earth exerts a downward gravitational force which
is known as the weight of the mass and has a magnitude given by
W =mg
A taught string (a string “under tension”) exerts forces on the objects which are attached to
either end. The forces are directed inward along the length of the string.) Say the string has no
mass, and when it passes over any pulley, the pulley’s mass can also be ignored. In that case,
the magnitude of the string’s force on either end is the same and will usually be called T, the
string’s tension. A solid surface will exert forces on a mass which is in contact with it. In
general, the force from the surface will have a perpendicular (normal) component which is
called as normal force of the surface.
 1.2 Motion

(a) Laws of motion:

(i) Newton's First Law of Motion

According to Newton's first law of motion (inertia), an object at rest will remain at rest, or an
object in motion will continue in motion at the same speed and in the same direction, until an
outside force acts on it. For an aircraft to taxi or fly, a force must be applied to it. It would
remain at rest without an outside force. Once the aircraft is moving, another force must act on
it to bring it to a stop. It would continue in motion without an outside force. This willingness
of an object to remain at rest or to continue in motion is referred to as inertia.
(ii) Newton's Second Law of Motion
The second law of motion (force) states that if a object moving with uniform speed is acted
upon by an external force, the change of motion (acceleration) will be directly proportional to
the amount of force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object being moved. The
motion will take place in the direction in which the force acts. Simply stated, this means that
an object being pushed by 10 kg of force will travel faster than it would if it were pushed by 5
kg of force. A heavier object will accelerate more slowly than a lighter object when an equal
force is applied.
F= m.a
In words, Newton’s Second Law tells us to add up the forces acting on a mass m; this sum,
 F (or, Fnet) is equal to the mass m times its acceleration a.
This is a vector relation; if we are working in two dimensions, this equation implies both of the
following:

F x = m.ax and  Fy = m.a y

The units of force must be kg · m s2 , which is abbreviated 1 newton (N).

Thus: 1newton = 1N = 1kg·m s2
(iii) Newton's Third Law of Motion
The third law of motion (action and reaction) states that for every action (force) there is an
equal and opposite reaction (force). This law can be demonstrated with a balloon. If you inflate
a balloon with air and release it without securing the neck, as the air is expelled the balloon
moves in the opposite direction of the air rushing out of it.
Questions:
1.3 Deformation

Youngs modulus:
The mechanical property of a material to withstand the compression or the elongation with
respect to its length.
Proof stress:
The proof stress of a material is defined as the amount of stress it can endure until it undergoes
a relatively small amount of plastic deformation. Specifically, proof stress is the point at which
the material exhibits 0.2% of plastic deformation.

2. Application of laws relating the forces to the rotation and deformation

2.1 Laws related to rotation

(a) Newton’s first law of rotational motion

Every object will move with a constant angular velocity unless a torque acts on it.

Torque is the measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
(b) Newton’s second law of rotational motion
Angular Acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net torque acting on it and
inversely proportional to its rotational inertia.
The Second Law for Rotation Στ = Iα
2.2 Laws of deformation (Hooke’s law)
Stress and strain take different forms in different situations. Generally, for small deformations,
the stress and strain are proportional to each other, and this is known as Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of that material.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform until stress is applied,
and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.
3. Static failure mechanisms in the context of machine design
Static load: Which doesn’t changes its magnitude and direction

3.1 Need of static failure theories

• Multi-axial stress element One strength, multiple stresses How to compare stress state to
single strength
• Failure theories propose appropriate means of comparing multi-axial stress states to single
strength.
• Usually based on some hypothesis of what aspect of the stress state is critical.

3.2 Theories of failure

(a) Rankine’s theory or Maximum principal stress theory

According to this theory, the failure of a machine component subjected to combined loading
occurs whenever the maximum principal stress within the component becomes equal to the
limiting strength (yield for ductile and ultimate for brittle materials) of the material in the
Simple Tension Test.

σ1 = maximum working stress

σa = allowable stress

For the machine member not to fail (safety against failure): σ1 ≤ σa

σa = (σy or σu)/FOS
or
σ₁ ≤ (σy or σu)/FOS

Say there are three principal stresses in a system: σ1, σ2 and σ3

Here, σ1= Maximum tensile stress (σut) ; σ3= Maximum compressive stress (σuc)

Then,

Failure condition for tension: σ₁ > σut Safety condition for tension: σ₁ > σut
Failure condition for compression: σ3 > σuc Safety condition for compression: σ₁ > σuc
Hold good for brittle material

Failure condition for tension: σ₁ > σyt Safety condition for tension: σ₁ > σ yt
Failure condition for compression: σ3 > σyc Safety condition for compression: σ₁ > σyc
Hold good for ductile material

Assumptions:

For brittle material, σut= σuc

For ductile material, σyt= σyc

This theory is mainly applicable for brittle material.
(b) Maximum shear stress theory or Guest-Coloumb theory or Tresca theory
When maximum shear stress is greater than the shear stress obtained from simple tensile test.
𝜏max > Sys (Shear strength), [Failure]
𝜏max= Syt/2= Sys

For ductile material, σ= Syt

This theory is mainly applicable for ductile material.
Sys= Yield shear strength in shear
Syt= Yield shear strength in tension

For safety,
(𝜏max)abs ≤ Sys
(𝜏max)abs ≤ 𝜏permissible

(c) Maximum Distortion energy theory (Von mises and Hencky theory)
If the strain energy per unit volume in a component exceed the strain energy per unit volume
in simple tension test.
Distortion energy per unit volume in a triaxial stress condition:

1 
u= (1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 ) 
2 2 2

12 

Distortion energy per unit volume in simple tensile test:

S yt2
=
6G

Therefore, as per Maximum Distortion energy theory

1  S yt2
u= ( 1 2 ) ( 2 3) ( 3 1) 
 −  +  −  +  −   
2 2 2

12  6G

= ( 1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 )  2S yt2
2 2 2
With FOS,
S yt2
=  permissible
FOS

= ( 1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 )  2 permissible
2 2 2 2

For pure shear condition,

 = 0.577 S yt

Or
S ys = 0.577 S yt

This theory is mainly applicable for ductile material.

(d) Maximum Principal strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)

In triaxial stress condition, (σ1, σ2, σ3)

Maximum principal strain
1 2 3
1 = − −
E E E
If maximum principal strain exceeds the maximum principal strain in simple tensile stress
However, in uniaxial stress condition the getting the deformation in Syt.
Therefore,

σ1= Syt
Thus,

1 S yt
1 = =
E E

1 2 3 S yt
− − 
E E E E
With FOS,

S yt
=  permissible
FOS

1 2 3 S permissible
− − 
E E E E
This theory is mainly applicable for ductile material. It overestimates the strength of the
material. Von-mises theory is better.
(e) Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s Theory)

In a triaxial stress state condition, σ1, σ2, σ3, E and µ

Maximum total strain energy per unit volume (u):

u=
1
2E
12 +  22 +  32 − 2 (1 2 +  2 3 +  3 1 )
For a component to be remain safe the maximum strain energy per unit volume developed
during operation should be less than the maximum strain energy per unit volume developed
during simple tension test.

In simple tension test, σ=σ1=Syt

S yt2
Therefore, maximum strain energy per unit volume developed during simple tension test=
2E
For safety,

S yt2  permissible
2
1
2E
1 +  2 +  3 − 2 (1 2 +  2 3 +  31 )  2E or 2E
2 2 2

=  12 +  22 +  32 − 2 ( 1 2 +  2 3 +  3 1 )   permissible
2

In pure shear condition,

2 2 (1 +  )  S yt2

4. Finite Element Analysis of Mechanical Components using MAT Lab and ANSYS software

A sketch of the computer-aided product development process.

4.1 General procedure of FEA using ANSYS

4.2 General procedure of programming using MATLAB

The Matlab programming language is useful in illustrating how to program the finite element
method due to the fact it allows one to very quickly code numerical methods and has a vast
predefined mathematical library. This is also due to the fact that matrix (sparse and dense),
vector and many linear algebra tools are already defined and the developer can focus entirely
on the implementation of the algorithm not defining these data structures. The extensive
mathematics and graphics functions further free the developer from the drudgery of
developing these functions themselves or finding equivalent pre-existing libraries. A simple
two dimensional finite element program in Matlab need only be a few hundred lines of code
whereas in Fortran or C++ one might need a few thousand. Although the Matlab programming
language is very complete with respect to it’s mathematical functions there are a few finite
element specific tasks that are helpful to develop as separate functions. These have been
programed and are available at the previously mentioned web site. As usual there is a trade off
to this ease of development. Since Matlab is an interpretive language; each line of code is
interpreted by the Matlab command line interpreter and executed sequentially at run time, the
run times can be much greater than that of compiled programming languages like Fortran or
C++. It should be noted that the built-in Matlab functions are already compiled and are
extremely efficient and should be used as much as possible. Keeping this slow down due to
the interpretive nature of Matlab in mind, one programming construct that should be avoided
at all costs is the for loop, especially nested for loops since these can make a Matlab programs
run time orders of magnitude longer than may be needed. Often for loops can be eliminated
using Matlab’s vectorized addressing. For example, the following Matlab code which sets the
row and column of a matrix A to zero and puts one on the diagonal.

does that same in three interpreted lines as opposed to nr+nc+1 interpreted lines, where A is
a nr×nc dimensional matrix. One can easily see that this can quickly add significant overhead
when dealing with large systems (as is often the case with finite element codes). Sometimes
for loops are unavoidable, but it is surprising how few times this is the case. It is suggested
that after developing a Matlab program, one go back and see how/if they can eliminate any of
the for loops. With practice this will become second nature.
5. Steady state and transient thermal analysis
The key difference between steady state and transient thermal analysis is that steady state
analysis is done at a constant temperature while transient thermal analysis is done at varying
temperatures.
Steady state and transient thermal analysis are two processes that involve the study of changes
of substances as a function of time.
(a) Steady state thermal analysis
Steady state thermal analysis is the analysis of changes in the properties of a substance at a
constant temperature. First, we should understand what is a steady state as defined in
chemistry. Steady state is the stage of a chemical reaction and it has a constant concentration
of an intermediate product. If a certain chemical reaction occurs through several steps
(elementary steps), we can determine the rate of the reaction using the rate-determining step.
And, this step is the slowest step among others. But, when the reaction steps are not
recognizable, we cannot recognize the slowest step as well. At such situations, we can consider
the intermediate product that has a constant concentration for a short time.

Steady State of a Water Tank; the Water in the Intermediate Tank is Constant

Furthermore, elementary steps of the reaction form intermediate molecules. Intermediates are
molecules that are not either reactants or final products but are molecules that form during the
progression of a chemical reaction. The short-lived intermediate is formed in the steady-state
of the reaction. Moreover, in contrast to an equilibrium state, at steady state, the concentrations
of reactants and products change over time (because at the equilibrium, neither the
concentration of reactants nor products changes, they keep constant).
Now, let’s go back to steady state thermal analysis. The steady state thermal analysis is the
final step of transient thermal analysis. The steady state thermal analysis is important in
determining the temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, heat fluxes, etc. in objects
upon the supply of constant heat. The sources of heat we can use for steady state thermal
analysis include convection, radiation, and constant temperature boundaries. Furthermore, this
type of analysis gives a linear graph when drawn as a function of time.

(b) Transient thermal analysis

Transient thermal analysis is the determination of the changes of a substance that occur due to
the changes in temperature calculated over a particular time period. That means; this type of
analysis deals with the temperatures and other thermal qualities and their variation with time.
In this analysis technique, we can determine heat treatment problems, problems associated
with nozzles, engine blocks, piping systems, pressure vessels, etc. Usually, if we draw a graph
as a function of time, the graph is nonlinear.
Use steady-state thermal analysis when:
• Time behaviour is irrelevant
• You’re only interested in the equilibrium results

Use transient thermal analysis when:

• The effects of time are important
• You’re interested in the temperature at a specific time
• There are severe nonlinearities in the model