UNIT – 1: Introduction to Mechanical Systems

Introduction to Mechanical systems: Basic elements of mechanical system, Types of mechanical

systems, symbols used in translational mechanical systems, symbols used in rotational mechanical
systems, Newton’s second law in translation mechanical systems, Force calculations in mass, springs
and dashpot, Transfer function of translation mechanical systems, torque calculation in rotational
mechanical systems.
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1. Introduction to mechanical systems

A mechanical system is a set of physical components that convert an input motion and force into a
desired output motion and force.

Mechanical systems have at least three elements: input, process and output.

• The input part of the system is any type of motion and force that drives the mechanical system. The
input motion and force may be from any power source including human effort, energy from the
wind, water, heat etc., from a chemical reaction or from an electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic
device.
• The process part of the system is where mechanisms are used to convert the input motion and force
into an output motion and force.
• The output is the change created in the input motion and force by the mechanism.

2. Types of mechanical systems

(a) Translational mechanical systems

(b) Rotational mechanical systems

2.1 Translational mechanical systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three
basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper. If a force is applied to a translational
mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the
system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of
the forces acting on the system is zero. The governing equations are based on Newton’s laws of motion.

2.1.1 Parameters of translational motion:

• Displacement: Change in position of an object w.r.t time, x (t ) , Unit- m

 dx 
• Velocity: Rate of change of displacement w.r.t time,  v =  , Unit- m/s
 dt 
 dv d 2 x 
• Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity w.r.t time,  a = = 2  , Unit- m/s2
 dt dt 
• Force: Push or pull on any object, F or F (t ) , Unit- N or kg.m/s2
2.1.2 Components (or elements) of translational motion

• Mass: This is the property of the system itself which stores the kinetic energy. Due to the presence
of this component, the system opposes change in its position and constant velocity.

➔ Displacement of mass always occurs in the direction

of force applied.
F∝a
F = m.a

• Spring: It is an elastic object that stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it
is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to
the displacement of the spring.

➔ If the spring is given force to elongate, it will try to

regain its original position due to the presence of
potential energy stored in it. To do so, the spring will
apply force in the direction opposite to F(t).
F∝x
F = K.x
K= Spring constant which defines the stiffness of the
spring, Unit- N/m

• Friction (or dashpot or damper): It is the force which opposes the relative motion. If a force is
applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the dashpot. This
opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body.

➔ The opposing force (force dur to viscous friction) due

to friction is proportional to velocity.
FB ∝ v
FB ∝ dx/dt
FB = B. dx/dt
B = Frictional constant, Unit- N-s/m

2.2 Rotational mechanical systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot. If a torque is applied to a rotational
mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and
friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions, the
algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero.

2.2.1 Parameters of rotational motion:

• Angular displacement: Angle in radians through which rigid body rotates about a fixed axis (θ).
Unit- Radian
 d 

• Angular velocity: Rate of change of angular position   =  . Unit- Radian/s

dt 
 d d 2 
• Angular acceleration: Rate of change of angular velocity   = = 2  . Unit- Radian/s2.
 dt dt 
• Torque (τ): Measure of how much a force acting on a body cause that body to rotate. Unit- kg.m2/s2.

2.2.2 Components (or elements) of rotational motion

• Moment of inertia (J): It is the property of the rigid body by the virtue of which it opposes the
change in the angular position or angular velocity.

➔ The opposing force is directly proportional to the

angular acceleration of the body
τ∝α
τ = J. α
J: Moment of inertia (kg.m2)
d 2
 = J.
dt 2
The Laplace transform of this equation is:
τ(s) = J. s2θ(s)

• Torsional Spring: In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in
rotational mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy. If a torque is applied on
torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of torsional spring.
This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement of the torsional spring. Assume
that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.

➔ The spring will try to regain its original shape and

hence apply an opposing torque which is directly
proportional to the angular displacement.
τ∝θ
τ = K.θ
K = Torsional spring constant, Unit- N.m/rad
The Laplace transform of this equation is:
τ(s) = K.θ(s)

• Friction: If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity
of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

➔ The damper will try to oppose the rotational motion

by applying a opposing torque which is proportional
to the angular velocity.

τ ∝ dθ/dt
d
 = B.
dt
B = Torsional frictional constant, Unit: N.m.s/rad
The Laplace transform of this equation is:
τ(s) = B.sθ(s)
3. Analogy of translational and rotational motion
Sl No. Translational motion Rotational motion
1. Mass (M) Moment of inertia (J)
2 Force (F) Torque (τ)
3. Spring constant (K) Torsional spring constant (K)
4. Frictional constant (B) Torsional frictional constant (B)
5. Displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ)
6.  dx   d 
Velocity  v =  Angular velocity   = 
 dt   dt 
7.  dv d 2 x   d d 2 
Acceleration  a = =  Angular acceleration   = = 2 
 dt dt 2   dt dt 

4. Symbols used in translational and rotational mechanical systems

5. Laplace transform:
A function is said to be a piecewise continuous function if it has a finite number of breaks and it does
not blow up to infinity anywhere. Let us assume that the function f(t) is a piecewise continuous function,
then f(t) is defined using the Laplace transform. The Laplace transform of a function is represented by
L{f(t)} or F(s). Laplace transform helps to solve the differential equations, where it reduces the
differential equation into an algebraic problem.
Laplace transform is the tool to represent the frequency domain at a time domain function.
Laplace transform is an integral transform
b
Integral transform: g ( ) =  f (t ).K ( , t )dt
a

g ( ) = Output
 f (t ) = Input

K ( , t ) = Integral kernel

Laplace transform: f (t ) L{ f (t )} = F ( S )

F (S ) = 
−
f (t ).e− st

Where, s =  + j

Here, σ = damping factor of control system, it controls the stability of the control system.
ω = Angular frequency

Example 1. Find the Laplace transform of unit step function u(t).

Solution: Given,
f(t)=u(t)

1, t  0
u (t ) = 
0, t  0

F (S ) = 
−
f (t ).e− st

 u(t ).e
− st
= F (S ) =
−

 1.e
− st
= F (S ) =
−

1 
= − e − st 
s 0

1
=
s
1
Therefore, L{u (t )} =
s
5.1 Laplace transform of some standard signal
5.2 Properties of laplace transforms:
a) Linearity: It is the combination of homogeneity principle and superimposition principle.

f1 (t ) F1 ( s )
f 2 (t ) F2 ( s )
a. f1 (t ) + bf 2 (t ) a.F1 ( s ) + b.F2 ( s )

Example: Find the L.T of the following function:

f (t ) = u (t ) + 2.e −3t + 3.sin(2t )

1 1 2
F ( s ) = + 2. + 3. 2
s s+3 s + 22
1 2 6
F (s) = + + 2
s s+3 s +4
b) Time scaling property

f (t ) F ( s)
1 s
f (at ) F 
a a

1
Example: If the L.T of f (t ) then, find the L.T of f(2t).
s +1
Solution:

1
= F{ f (t )} =
s +1
1 s
= F 
2 2
1 1
= .
2 s +1
2
1
=
s+2
c) Time reversal

f (t ) F ( s), ROC= R
f (−t ) F (− s), ROC= -R

d) Time scaling

f (t ) F ( s ), ROC= R
1 s
f (at ), a  0 F   , ROC= a R
a a

e) Time shifting

f (t ) F ( s), ROC= R
f (t  t0 ) F ( s).e st , ROC= R

f) Frequency shifting

f (t ) F ( s), ROC= R
e s0t . f (t ) F ( s so ), ROC= R+Re[s o ]

Where, so is the amount by which by shifting takes place.

 g) Convolution in time

f 1 (t ) F1 ( s ), ROC= R1
f 2 (t ) F2 ( s ), ROC= R 2
f 1 (t )  f 2 (t ) F1 ( s ).F2 ( s ), ROC = R1  R 2

h) Multiplication in time

1
f 1 (t ). f 2 (t )  F1 (s).F2 (s) , ROC = R1  R 2
2 j

i) Differentiation in time

f (t ) F ( s ), ROC= R
df (t )
sF ( s ), ROC= R
dt
d n f (t )
s n F ( s ), ROC= R
dt n

6. Transfer function
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or network function) of a system, sub-
system, or component is a mathematical function which theoretically models the system's output for each
possible input.

Output ( s)
G( s) =
Input ( s)
Examples

dc(t )
6.1 Find the transfer function represented by + 2c(t ) = r (t )
dt
Solution:
sC ( s ) + 2C ( s ) = R ( s )
C (s) 1
G (s) = =
R(s) s + 2
 dc(t )
6.2 Find the transfer function represented by + 0.5c(t ) = 0.3r (t )
dt
Solution:
sC ( s ) + 0.5C ( s ) = 0.3R ( s )
C (s) 0.3
G (s) = =
R( s ) s + 0.5

1
6.3 Given the transfer function for a system is G ( s) =
s+2
The input of the system r(t), is a unit step.
r(t)=u(t), assuming zero initial condition.
What is the output c(t) of the system?
Solution:

C (s)
= G ( s)
R( s)
C ( s ) = G ( s ).R ( s )
1 1 
C (s) =
2  s + 2 

6.4 Find the laplace transform of the given functions

(a ) f (t ) = 6e −5t + e3t + 5t 3 − 9
(b) g (t ) = 4 cos(4t ) + −9sin(4t ) + 2 cos(10t )
(c) h(t ) = 3sinh(3t ) + 3sin(2t )
(d ) g (t ) = e3t + cos(6t ) − e3t cos(6t )

Solution: