Networks and data communication

1.0. Introducing networks

A network is created when more than one device is connected together. A network
can be a small collection of computers connected within a building (e.g. a school,
business or home) or it can be a wide collection of computers connected around the
world.
1.1. Data packets
The main purpose of networking is to share data between computers. A file has to
be broken up into small chunks of data known as data packets in order to be
transmitted over a network. The data is then re-built once it reaches the destination
computer. Networking hardware is required to connect computers and manage how
data packets are communicated. Protocols are used to control how data is
transmitted across networks.
1.2. Network purpose and limitations
 1.2.1. Purpose - Advantages
• Communication – it is easy (and often free) to communicate using email,
text messages, voice calls and video calls.
• Roaming – if information is stored on a network, it means users are not
fixed to one place. They can use computers anywhere in the world to access
their information.
• Sharing information – it is easy to share files and information over a
network. Music and video files, for instance, can be stored on one device
and shared across many computers, so every computer does not need to fill
the hard drive with files.
• Sharing resources – it is easy to share resources such as printers. Twenty
computers in a room could share one printer over a network.
• Sharing software – it is possible to stream software using web
applications. This avoids needing to download and store the whole software
file.
1.2.2. Limitation – disadvantages
• Dependence – users relying on a network might be stuck without access to
it.
• Hacking - criminal hackers attempt to break into networks in order to steal
personal information and banking details. This wouldn't be possible on a
stand-alone computer without physically getting into the room, but with a
network it is easier to gain access.
• Hardware – routers, network cards and other network hardware is
required to set up a network. At home, it is quite easy to set up a wireless
network without much technical expertise. However, a complicated network
in a school or an office would require professional expertise.
• Viruses - networks make it easier to share viruses and other malware. They
can quickly spread and damage files on many computers via a network.
2.0. Wired and wireless connections
Connections between computers on a network can be wired or wireless.
2.1. Wired connection
Computers can be connected through Ethernet cables which connect to the
Ethernet port. Connecting hardware such as a router has Ethernet ports.
2.2. Wireless connection
Computers can make a wireless connection if they have a wireless NIC. A wireless
router provides a connection with the physical network. A computer device needs
to be within range of the router to get access. A wireless connection uses radio
signals to send data across networks. The wireless adapter converts the data into a
radio signal and the wireless receiver decodes it so that the computer can
understand it.
Wireless transmissions can be intercepted by anyone within range of the router.
Access can also be restricted to specific MAC addresses, and transmissions are
usually encrypted using a key that works with WPA (Wi-Fi protected access).
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks Advantages
• cheap set-up costs
• not tied down to a specific location
• can connect multiple devices without the need for extra hardware
• less disruption to the building due to no wires being installed
Disadvantages
• interference can occur
• the connection is not as stable as wired networks and can 'drop off'
• it will lose quality through walls or obstructions
• more open to hacking
• slower than wired networks
3.0. Networking hardware
Computers need networking hardware in order to connect to each other. Routers,
hubs, switches and bridges are all pieces of networking equipment that can perform
slightly different tasks. A router can often incorporate hubs, switches and wireless
access within the same hardware.

3.1. Routers
A router can form a LAN by connecting devices within a building. It also makes it
possible to connect different networks together. Homes and businesses use a router
to connect to the internet. A router can often incorporate a modem within the
hardware.
3.2. Modems
A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet over a telephone line. A
modem converts digital signals from a computer to analogue signals that are then
sent down the telephone line. A modem on the other end converts the analogue
signal back to a digital signal which another computer can understand.

Hubs, bridges and switches

Hubs, bridges and switches allow multiple devices to connect to the router and
they transfer data to all devices on a network. A router is a more complex device
that usually includes the capability of hubs, bridges and switches.
 3.3. Hubs
A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. This can use a lot of bandwidth
as it results in unnecessary data being sent - not all computers might need to receive
the data. A hub would be useful to link up a few games consoles for a local
multiplayer game using a wired LAN.
3.4. Bridges
A bridge is used to connect two separate LAN networks. A computer can act as a
bridge through the operating system. A bridge looks for the receiving device
before it sends the message. This means that it will not send a message if the
receiving computer is not there. It will check to see if the receiver has already had
the message. This can help save unnecessary data transfers, which improves the
performance of a network.
3.5. Switches
A switch performs a similar role to a hub and a bridge but is more powerful. It
stores the MAC addresses of devices on a network and filters data packets to see
which devices have asked for them. This makes a switch more efficient when
demand is high. If, for example, a game involved lots of data being passed between
machines, then a switch could reduce the amount of latency.
 3.6. Wireless access points
Wireless access points (WAPs) are required to connect to a network wirelessly.
WAPs are usually built into the broadband router.
NIC. No two computers have the same MAC address. A MAC address is made up
of 48 bits of data, usually written as 12 hexadecimal characters.
3.7. Network interface card (NIC)
NICs enable desktop and laptop computers to connect to a network. NICs are small
circuit boards that connect to the motherboard. Smartphones also use a GSM
chip to connect to the telephone network. Games consoles contain a NIC card so
users can access the internet, download games and play online.
 3.8. Coaxial Cables
Invented in the 1880s, "coax" was best known as the kind of cable that connected
television sets to home antennas. Coaxial cable is also a standard for 10 Mbps
Ethernet cables. When 10 Mbps Ethernet was most popular, during the 1980s and
early 1990s, networks typically utilized one of two kinds of coax cable - thinnet
(10BASE2 standard) or thicknet (10BASE5). These cables consist of an inner
copper wire of varying thickness surrounded by insulation and another shielding.
Their stiffness caused network administrators difficulty in installing and
maintaining thinnet and thicknet.
 3.9. Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair eventually emerged during the 1990s as the leading cabling standard
for Ethernet, starting with 10 Mbps (10BASE-T, also known as Category 3 or
Cat3), later followed by improved versions for 100 Mbps (100BASE-TX, Cat5,
and Cat5e) and successively higher speeds up to 10 Gbps (10GBASE-T). Ethernet
twisted pair cables contain up to eight (8) wires wound together in pairs to
minimize electromagnetic interference.
Two primary types of twisted pair cable industry standards have been defined:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). Modern Ethernet
cables use UTP wiring due to its lower cost, while STP cabling can be found in
some other types of networks such as Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

3.10. Fibre Optics

Instead of insulated metal wires transmitting electrical signals, fibre optic network
cables work using strands of glass and pulses of light. These network cables are
bendable despite being made of glass. They have proven especially useful in wide
area network (WAN) installations where long distance underground or outdoor
cable runs are required and also in office buildings where a high volume of
communication traffic is common.
Two primary types of fibre optic cable industry standards are defined – single
mode (100BaseBX standard) and multimode (100BaseSX standard). Long-
distance telecommunications networks more commonly use single-mode for its
relatively higher bandwidth capacity, while local networks typically use multimode
instead due to its lower cost.
 3.11. USB Cables
Most Universal Serial Bus (USB) cables connect a computer with a peripheral
device (keyboard or mouse) rather than to another computer. However, special
network adapters (sometimes called dongles) also allow connecting an Ethernet
cable to a USB port indirectly. USB cables feature twisted pair wiring.
3.12. Serial and Parallel Cables
Because many PCs in the 1980s and early 1990s lacked Ethernet capability, and
USB had not been developed yet, serial and parallel interfaces (now obsolete on
modern computers) were sometimes used for PC-to-PC networking. So-called null
model cables, for example, connected the serial ports of two PCs enabling data
transfers at speeds between 0.115 and 0.45 Mbps.

3.13. Crossover Cables

Null modem cables are one example of the category of crossover cables. A
crossover cable joins two network devices of the same type, such as two PCs or
two network switches.

4.0. Types of network

There are different networking models for how to connect computers over a
network. Computers that request information are called clients and computers that
provide information are servers. But the client and server relationship can be
organised in different ways.
The most widely-used models are client-server or peer-to-peer (P2P).
 4.1. Client-server
The client-server model is the relationship between two computers in which
one, the client, makes a service request from another, the server. The key
point about a client-server model is that the client is dependent on the
server to provide and manage the information.
For example, websites are stored on web servers. A web browser is the
client which makes a request to the server, and the server sends the
website to the browser.
Popular websites need powerful servers to serve thousands or millions of
clients, all making requests at the same time. The client side of a web
application is often referred to as the front end. The server side is referred
to as the back end.

4.2. Peer-to-peer (P2P)

In a P2P network, no single provider is responsible for being the server. Each
computer stores files and acts as a server. Each computer has equal responsibility
for providing data.
In the client-server model, many users trying to access a large file, such as a film,
would put strain on one server. In the peer-to-peer model, many users on the
network could store the same file. Each computer can then send sections of the file,
sharing the workload. Each client can download and share files with other users.
P2P is ideal for sharing files. P2P would be unsuitable for a service such as
booking tickets, as one server needs to keep track of how many tickets are left.
Also, on P2P networks no single computer is responsible for storing a file - anyone
can delete files as they wish.
4.3. Differences between client-server and P2P networks

Client-server P2P

The server controls

Security No central control over security.
Security of the network.

The server manages the network. Needs a No central control

over the network.
Management dedicated team of people anyone can set
up. To manage the server.

Clients are dependent on Clients are not dependent on a

central
Dependency
The server. Server.
Performance The server can be if machines on the network are slow they
upgraded to be made

Client-Server P2P

More powerful to cope Will slow down other machines.

With high demand.

Data is all backed up on Each computer has to be backed up. Data

Backups
The main server. Can easily be deleted by users.

4.4. Servers
A server stores data to be used by other computers on a network. A server could be
a specialized machine or it can be a normal PC running server software. The
server stores data and responds to requests for data or files such as web pages.

4.5. Types of server

There are many different types of server. Some popular examples follow.
 4.5.1. Web servers
Web servers host websites and generally handle requests for static information
such as HTML pages or images. They are used to manage the website on the
server and often include FTP software, which can easily host and share large files.
The Apache web server is a popular type of open source web server software.
4.5.2. Application servers
Many websites are classed as web applications which contain programming and
scripts which are more complex than a static HTML page. For example, many
websites use databases held in MySQL or NoSQL databases which will be
accessed via the application server. The application server is generally used to
organise and run the web application. A client sends requests to the web server
which sends requests to the application server.
4.5.3. Network attached storage (NAS)
This is a server dedicated to storing and sharing files. It is useful for storing large
files, such as music and video, but it is not used for storing websites.

4.5.4. Print servers

These make it easy for various devices to connect to a printer. This removes the
need for devices to install the printer driver software or connect to the printer
using cables.
4.5.5. Mail server
These store email messages. Your browser makes request to mail servers to
retrieve the messages.

5.0. Network coverage size

The size of a network can be expressed by geographical area they occupy and the
number of computers that are part of the network.
5.1. Personal area network (PAN)
This is a computer network organized around an individual person within a single
building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would
include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video games
consoles and other personal entertainment devices.
It is wise to note that of multiple individuals use the same network within a
residence, the network is sometimes referred to as a Home Area Network (HAN).
A WPAN (wireless personal area network) allows an individual to connect devices
(such as a smartphone) to a desktop machine, or to form a Bluetooth connection
with devices in a car. A wired personal network is called a PAN (personal area
network).

--5.2. Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a network of computers within the same building,
such as a school, home or business. A LAN is not necessarily connected to the
internet.

5.3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN consists of computer networks across an entire city, college campus or
small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single
building. A man is used to often connect several LANs together to form a bigger
network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a collage campus,
it is sometimes referred to as a Campus Area Network (CAN).
5.4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN (wide area network) is created when LANs or MANs are connected. This
requires media such as broadband cables, and can connect up organizations based
in different geographical places. The internet is a WAN.

5.5. VPN
A VPN (virtual private network) is usually hosted securely on another network,
such as the internet, to provide connectivity. VPNs are often used when working
on secure information held by a company or school.

6.0. Topologies
There are different ways of setting up a LAN, each with different benefits in terms
of network speed and cost. Three of the main topologies include bus, star and ring.
6.1. Bus network
In a bus network all the workstations, servers and printers are joined to one cable -
'the bus'. At each end of the cable a terminator is fitted to stop signals reflecting
back down the bus.
Advantages
• easy to install
• cheap to install - it does not require much cabling
Disadvantages
• if the main cable fails or gets damaged, the whole network will fail
• as more workstations are connected, the performance of the network will
become slower because of data collisions
• every workstation on the network 'sees' all of the data on the network, which
can be a security risk
6.2. Ring network
In a ring network, each device (egg workstation, server, and printer) is connected in
a ring so each one is connected to two other devices. Each data packet on the
network travels in one direction. Each device receives each packet in turn until the
destination device receives it.
Advantages
• this type of network can transfer data quickly (even if there are a large
number of devices connected) as data only flows in one direction so
there won't be any data collisions
Disadvantages
• if the main cable fails or any device is faulty, then the whole network
will fail - a serious problem in a company where communication is vital
6.3. Star network
In a star network, each device on the network has its own cable that connects to a
switch or hub. This is the most popular way of setting up a LAN. You may find a
star network in a small network of five or six computers where speed is a priority.
Advantages
• very reliable – if one cable or device fails, then all the others will continue to
work
• high performing as no data collisions can occur
Disadvantages
• expensive to install as this type of network uses the most cable, and network
cable is expensive
• extra hardware is required - hubs or switches - which add to the cost
• if a hub or switch fails, all the devices connected to it will have no network
connection
6.4. Point to Point Topology
This is the simplest of all the network topologies. If consists of a direct link
between two computers. This is faster and more reliable than other types of
connections. The disadvantages is that it can only be used for a small area where
computers are in close proximity
 6.5. Mesh Topology
It is a point to point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes
are connected to each other.
6.6. Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy
6.7. Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in a hybrid topology.

7.0. The internet

The internet is a global network of computers that any computer can join. It is a
WAN - which is a series of connected LANs.
Data packets are sent between computers using protocols that manage how data is
sent and received. The internet also uses different models - such as the client-server
model and the P2P model - to connect computers in different ways. The internet is
leading to more and more people using cloud computing to store files and use web
applications online.
Technologies and services available over the internet include:
• web pages – HTML documents that present images, sound and text accessed
through a web browser
• web applications - web software accessed through a browser
• native apps - applications developed for specific devices (such as
smartphones) and accessed without the need for a browser email
 • file sharing
• voice calls
• streaming audio and video

7.1. Web browser

A web browser is a piece of software that enables the user to access web pages and
web apps on the internet. There are a range of browsers available, and they are
usually free to download and install.
 7.2. Connecting to the internet
To connect a computer or a device to the internet, you need:
• an ISP
• a modem or router (wired or wireless)
• a web browser or app
• a connection to the network (through a copper wire or a fibre optic cable)

7.3. Broadband connections

The internet is transmitted both on physical wires and wireless connections.
Broadband internet is transmitted on physical wires that run underground and
under the oceans.
Download speeds tend to be faster than upload speeds. More bandwidth is assigned
for downloading because there is a higher demand for downloads. Network speeds
are measured by how many megabits they can download per second (Mbps).
Broadband can be provided over an ADSL or cable connection.
7.4. ADSL
ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) provides connection speeds of up to 24
Mbps and uses a telephone line to receive and transmit data.
The speed that data can be transferred is dependent on a number of factors:
• Signal quality can vary between phone lines and whilst it doesn't affect voice
signals, it does affect data transmissions.
• The distance between the modem and the telephone exchange has an effect
on the speed at which data is transferred. A distance of 4 km is considered
the limit for ADSL technology, beyond which it may not work.
• An ADSL modem or router is needed for broadband internet access over
ADSL. This is usually provided by the ISP.
7.5. Cable
Cable companies do not use traditional telephone lines to provide broadband
internet access. They have their own network which is a combination of co-axial
copper cable and fibre optic cable. Copper wires connect a house to the nearest
connection point - usually a green cabinet in a nearby road. From there, the cables
to the telephone exchange will be fibre optic.
With their purpose-built infrastructure, cable companies are able to provide speeds
of up to 200 Mbps - considerably faster than the highest available ADSL speed (24
Mbps).
A cable modem or router is needed for broadband internet access over cable. This
is usually provided by the ISP.
The making and receiving of phone calls is not affected because the telephone line
is not used.
7.6. 3G and 4G
The wireless 3G and 4G networks can be accessed through a smartphone without
the need for a Wi-Fi___33 router. The data is transmitted through the cellular
phone network rather than the physical cabled network of broadband. This enables
anyone to connect to the internet as long as there is a 3G or 4G connection
available.
3G allows for up to 6 Mbps to be downloaded and 4G allows for up to 18 Mbps.
Advantages
• it provides an internet connection on the move
• there is the ability to transfer data fairly quickly with 4G
Disadvantages
• it can be expensive to download data

• some areas don't have 3G or 4G connections

7.7. Protocols

The internet is similar to a road network in that it has rules (protocols) that you
need to follow and only a certain number of vehicles (data) can get through at a
time (bandwidth). If too many vehicles try to go down the same road you get
congestion (reduced bandwidth).
When two devices send messages to each other it is called handshaking - the client
requests access, the server grants it, and the protocols are agreed. Once the
handshaking process is complete, the data transfer can begin.
Protocols establish how two computers send and receive a message. Data packets
travel between source and destination from one router to the next. The process of
exchanging data packets is known as packet switching.
Protocols manage key points about a message:
• speed of transmission
• size of the message
• error checking
• deciding if the transmission is synchronous or asynchronous
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol)
TCP/IP (also known as the internet protocol suite) is the set of protocols used over
the internet. It organizes how data packets are communicated and makes sure
packets have the following information:
 • source - which computer the message came from
• destination - where the message should go
• packet sequence - the order the message data should be re-assembled
• data - the data of the message
• error check - the check to see that the message has been sent correctly
Key protocols.
IP address
Every device on the internet has a unique IP address. The IP address is included in a data packet.
IP addresses are either 32-bit or 128-bit numbers. The address is broken down into four 8-bit
numbers (each is called an octet). Each octet can represent a number between 0 and 255 and is
separated by a full stop, e.g. 192.168.0.12.
To find your IP address you can use the ipconfig command line tool.
Home and small business routers often incorporate a basic dynamic host configuration protocol
(DHCP) server which assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.

The 32-bit IP address system is also known as IPv4. It allows for just over 4 billion unique
addresses. IPv6 is now coming into use. IPv6 uses 16 bits for each section of the address,
creating a 128-bit address. This allows almost 80 octillion unique IP addresses.

FTP
FTP is used to transfer large files. It is often used for organising files on a web server for a
website. You can have private access to an area on an FTP server where you can upload your
files. You can then give another user access to download the documents that you have shared.

HTTP
HTTP transfers web pages from web servers to the client. All web page addresses start with http.
An https address is a secure web address which has been encrypted. An https address is used for
sites holding bank details and secure information.

SMTP and POP3

Email uses these protocols to communicate with mail servers. SMTP is used to send the email;
POP is used to receive email. Most email clients allow for transfers of up to 10 MB.

VOIP
VOIP is a set of protocols that enables people to have voice conversations over the internet.
Web addresses
Every website address has a URL with an equivalent IP address. A web address
contains (running from left to right):
In this example from BBC Nature:
1. http is the protocol
2. www.bbc.co.uk is the domain name stored on a DNS
3. /nature/life/ is the folder structure leading to where the web page is located
4. frog is the requested web page
Name servers are used to host and match website addresses to IP addresses. DNS
is the main system over the internet that uses the name server.
When you type in a URL, the ISP looks up the domain name, finds the matching
IP address and sends it back.
The web browser sends a request straight to that IP address for the page or file that
you are looking for.
Every website has a URL with an equivalent IP address.
Device addresses
Data packets include the addresses of the devices they are going to and coming
from. Computers need a network interface card to connect to a network. All
devices on a network have a MAC address.
MAC address
Every piece of hardware on a network has a unique MAC address. This is
embedded in the hardware when the product is made in the factory, and the user
cannot change it. On a computer, the MAC address is a unique code built into a
Streaming
Streaming high-quality images, music and video requires a lot of data.
Compression reduces file sizes whilst keeping the high quality of the original
media. Music and video
Compression is important for reducing music and video file sizes. Music and video
files can both be either downloaded as permanent files or streamed temporarily.
A downloaded file creates a file you can store permanently. Streamed files are not
stored permanently. Streaming allows data to be used immediately but the whole
file is not downloaded. Popular streaming sites include BBC iPlayer, Spotify and
YouTube.
Data is streamed by the service to the client. The client could be a web application,
web browser or native app. A browser needs to use HTML5 or a plug-in to decode
the audio or video. HTML5 is a new version of HTML which makes it possible for
compatible browsers to stream audio and video without the need for plug-ins.
Buffering
A buffer is a temporary storage space where data can be held and processed. The
buffer holds the data that is required to listen to or watch the media. As data for a
file is downloaded it is held in the buffer temporarily. As soon as enough data is in
the buffer the file will start playing.

When you see the warning sign 'buffering' this means that the client is waiting for
more data from the server. The buffer will be smaller if the computer is on a faster
network.

Network security
Computer networks have many benefits but they also create security risks. By
connecting computers it is possible to share personal data easily. However, it
makes computers more vulnerable to interference from other people.
Anyone sharing personal information, e.g. bank details, wants to be sure that they
are safe and secure. Most businesses and organisations employ network managers
or administrators to manage the security of their networks.
There are many potential threats to a network and various ways to protect them.
Anti-virus software
There are a number of malicious software (‘malware’) programs that can cause
damage to computers. These include viruses, worms, zombies, Trojan horses
(Trojans) and Spybot.
Anti-virus software is designed to detect and block attacks from malware. Some
operating systems have their own inbuilt anti-virus software.
In a large organisation, a network manager should make sure that all the computers
under their control are secure and the anti-virus software is up to date.
Firewalls
A firewall is software that will block unexpected connections coming in to the
network. Most operating systems include a firewall.
Secure passwords
When more than one person uses a network it is important to have user IDs and
passwords. Only someone with a login and password can access that network. It
also helps the network manager trace unusual activity to a specific user.
A weak password makes it easy for someone to try to guess your login details. A
good password will have a mix of upper case and lower case letters, numbers and
special characters.
Access levels
In a large company or school, many people will be using computers on the same
network. A network manager will normally control the level of access people have
to the network. General users will not have the ability to download any software
they want or to make changes to any part of the system, as that could affect other
users.
The more people have access to sensitive parts of the network, the more likely it is
that a hacker or a virus might be able to cause damage.
You can set user access levels on your home computer. For example, a parent may
prevent a child from being able to install software.
Encryption
Any message sent over a network can be intercepted. Encryption is a method of
changing the original numbers and characters so that they are hidden or disguised.
This is important if you are sending sensitive information.
One method of encryption is the Caesar Cipher algorithm. In this method, each
letter of the alphabet is simply replaced by another letter in the alphabet that might
be one or more letter positions away.
For example, encrypting using letters which are +5 positions away would change
the original text ‘Bitesize’ into cipher text ‘Gnyjxnej’.
The prefix for some web addresses is https instead of http. The‘s’ indicates that it
is a secure website and any payment or personal details that are inputted into the
site will be encrypted.
Network policies
Network policies provide rules and guidelines on what network users can and
cannot do. Most networks in large organisations will have network policies in
place.
Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)
An AUP states how the network may be used – what is and is not acceptable. If
you are going to let people use your network, then you should have an agreement
in place which states the rules and guidelines for users.
Archiving
Networks often have to store a lot of data. A good archiving strategy takes old,
non-essential data and puts it somewhere safe. An archiving policy will help decide
when to move data, where it should be kept, and how to get it back if needed.

Network security failures

Security measures need to be high on the agenda for any company that uses and
relies on networking technology.

Cyber attacks
Cyber-attacks and cyber terrorism are ways of attacking companies and
organizations online. There are frequent cyber-attacks on the government and
businesses in the UK.
Hacking
Hackers attempt to break into networks to steal private information. In
2011, Sony’s PlayStation Network was hacked and security details for
thousands of users were released.
IT security specialists are employed by companies to hack their own networks and
find security faults or weaknesses. These ‘white hat hackers’ (as they are
sometimes called) must be experts in their field and have knowledge of the latest
techniques being used by illegal hackers. By attempting to hack into a network,
they can spot security flaws and offer advice on how to fix them.