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COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Lahore Campus

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering

CPE122 – Linear Circuit Analysis

Lab Manual for Fall 2024

Lab Resource Person

Abubaker Shakoor

Theory Resource Person

Dr. Jehangir Arshad

Supervised By

Name: __________________________ Registration Number: CIIT/ - - /LHR

Program: _ Batch: _______________

Semester ___________________________

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

i
Revision History

Sr
Update Date Performed by
No.

Mr. Mohsin Ali, Ms. Sabeen Amin, Mr.

1 Lab Manual Review Aug-2014
Muhammad Usman
Mr. Hasnain Kashif, Mr. Abdul Moeed Amjad,
Lab Manual Review Ms Amna Arif, Mr. Muhammad
2 Mar-2015
Usman
Lab Manual Modification
3 Sep-2015 Inam Ullah Khan
and Updating
Mr. Abdul Moeed Amjad, Mr. Waheeb
Lab Manual Review (again) Ahmad Butt, Mr. Inam Ullah Khan, Ms.
4 May-2016
Ghazala Mushtaq
Lab Manual Modification
5 July-2016 Arfa Tariq
and Updating
Lab Manual Modification
6 Nov-2017 Arfa Tariq, Sara Sajid
According to OBE
7 Lab Manual Review Nov-2017 Dr. Muhammad Jawad

8 Layout Modifications Sep-2018 Sarmad Hassan

Lab Manual Modification
9 Feb-2020 Sara Sajid
and Updating
10 Lab Manual Review Feb-2020 Dr. Farooq-i-Azam
Lab Manual Modification
11 Mar-2022 Ghazala Mushtaq
and Updating
12 Lab Manual Review Mar-2022 Dr. Khurram Zaidi

13 Lab Manual update Sep-2024 Abubaker Shakoor

14 Lab Manual Review Oct-2024 Dr. Jehangir Arshad

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

ii
Preface
Acquiring knowledge and skills in any discipline is hard work and perhaps more so in the field of circuit
analysis. The material presented in this manual is intended to establish a clear relationship between the
basic principles of linear circuit analysis, problem solving procedures and their implementation on
laboratory trainers for analyzing electric circuits. Clarity, conciseness, completeness and above all
readability are intended as the major characteristics of this of this manual. Electric circuit analysis is one
of the first courses of study required in electrical engineering degree programs. The laboratory manual
of linear circuit analysis provides a comprehensive practical coverage of basic Electrical Engineering
concepts. It provides introduction to the use of the multi-meter along with detailed experiments on
circuit analysis techniques. Do not except every concept to become clear immediately. Most of the
practical are not overtly difficult but some may require several readings, implementation on trainers and
in some cases help from your lab instructor before you can really understand them.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

iii
Books
Text Books
1. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th Edition), C. K. Alexander, M. N. O. Sadiku, McGraw Hill,
2013.
Reference Books
1. W Hayt, J Kemmerly and S Durbin, "Engineering Circuit Analysis", McGraw- Hill, 7th Edition,
2007.
2. S. Franco, "Electric Circuits Fundamentals", Oxford University Press, (Latest Edition).
3. R E Thomas, A J Rosa and G J Toussaint, "The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits" John Wiley,
6th Edition, 2009
4. J D Irwin and R M Nelms, "Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis", Wiley, 9th Edition, 2008

Learning Outcomes
Theory CLOs:
After successfully completing this course, the students will be able to:
1. Comprehend the basic principles of linear circuit analysis to estimate the current, voltage,
resistance, power and energy for various types of electric circuits. (PLO1-C2)
2. Apply the circuit analysis theorems to solve the linear circuits and compute the transient and
steady state responses for RL and RL circuits. (PLO2-C3).
3. Analyze the AC circuits to identify the RMS (effective), average, and maximum values of current
& voltage for different sinusoidal signal waveforms. (PLO2-C4)

Lab CLOs:
After successfully completing this course, the students will be able to:
1. To reproduce the electric circuits and show the electrical measurements to derive the valid
conclusion using hardware and software tools. (PLO5-P3)
2. To demonstrate the output/result of circuit individually and in teamwork affectively through
simulation and hardware during the laboratory sessions. (PLO9-A3) *

*Lab CLO 2 will be evaluated in Mid-Term and Terminal Lab Exam

CLOs – PLOs mapping change according to CDF

PLO Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
PLO9
PLO1

PLO2

PLO5

CLO Domain Domain Domain

CLO1 x C2
CLO2 x C3
CLO3 x C4
Lab CLO1 x P3
Lab CLO2 x A3

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

iv
Lab CLOs – Lab Experiment Mapping
Lab

Lab 11
Lab 10

Lab 12
Lab 1

Lab 2

Lab 3

Lab 4

Lab 5

Lab 6

Lab 7

Lab 8

Lab 9
CLO
Lab CLO1 P1 P2 P2 P2 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3

Grading Policy
The final marks for lab would comprise of Lab Assessment (25%), Lab Midterm (25%), and Lab Terminal
(50%).

Lab Assignments:

i. Lab Assignment 1 Marks (Lab marks from Labs 1-3)

ii. Lab Assignment 2 Marks (Lab marks from Labs 4-6)
iii. Lab Assignment 3 Marks (Lab marks from Labs 7-9)
iv. Lab Assignment 4 Marks (Lab marks from Labs 10-12)
Lab Mid Term = 0.5*(Lab Mid Term exam) + 0.5*(average of lab evaluation of Lab 1-6)
Lab Terminal = 0.5*(Lab Terminal Exam) +0.375*(average of lab evaluation of Lab 7-12) +
0.125*(average of lab evaluation of Lab 1-6)

The minimum pass marks for both lab and theory shall be 50%. Students obtaining less than 50% marks
(in either theory or lab, or both) shall be deemed to have failed in the course. The final marks would be
computed with 75% weight to theory and 25% to lab final marks.

List of Equipment
1. Bread Board Panel
2. Digital Multi Meter (DMM)
3. Power Supply
4. Jumper Wire
5. Resistor
6. Capacitor
7. Inductor
8. Op-amp IC

Software Resources
1. PSpice
2. LTSpice
3. Proteus

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

v
Lab Instructions
 This lab activity comprises of three parts: Pre-lab, Lab Tasks and Viva session.
 The students should perform and demonstrate each lab task separately for step-wise evaluation.
 Only those tasks that are completed during the allocated lab time will be credited to the
students.
 Students are however encouraged to practice on their own in spare time for enhancing their
skills.

Safety Instructions
The following general rules and precautions are to be observed at all times in the laboratory. These rules
are for the benefit of the experimenter as well as those around him/her. Additional rules and
precautions may apply to a particular laboratory.

1. There must be at least two (2) people in the laboratory while working on live circuits.
2. Remove all loose conductive jewellery and trinkets, including rings, which may come in contact
with exposed circuits.
3. When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a time. No part of a live
circuit should be touched by the bare hand.
4. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit. Where interconnecting wires and cables are
involved, they should be arranged so people will not trip over them.
5. Be as neat possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in the
experiment.
6. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet. Also, turn
instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.
7. When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.
8. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.
9. "Cheater" cords and 3-to-2 prong adapters are prohibited unless an adequate separate ground
lead is provided, the equipment or device is double insulated, or the laboratory ground return is
known to be floating.
10. No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the laboratory unless it is
double insulated, or battery operated.
11. Keep fluids, chemicals, and beat away from instruments and circuits.
12. Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the laboratory instructor.
13. If in doubt about electrical safety, see the laboratory instructor. Regarding specific equipment,
consult the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer of the equipment. Information
regarding safe use and possible- hazards should be studied carefully.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

vi
Table of Contents
Revision History ..................................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................. iii
Books .................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................................... iv
CLOs – PLOs mapping change according to CDF .................................................................................................... iv
Lab CLOs – Lab Experiment Mapping ..................................................................................................................... v
Grading Policy ........................................................................................................................................................ v
List of Equipment ................................................................................................................................................... v
Software Resources ............................................................................................................................................... v
Lab Instructions .................................................................................................................................................... vi
Safety Instructions ................................................................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents................................................................................................................................................. vii
1. LAB # 1: To identify value of resistors and explain the concept of equivalent resistance of series and parallel
and combination of series-parallel circuits using hardware and software tool .................................................... 10
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 10
Part 1 - Familiarize yourself with equipment frequently used in Lab .................................................................10
Part 2 – Calculation of Resistance with color codes and verification through measurement with multi-meter 10
Part 3 - Calculation of Equivalent Resistance ......................................................................................................12
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Lab Task 1: Identification of resistors using color code and DMM .....................................................................12
Lab Task 2: Circuit implementation using hardware and software ....................................................................13
Lab Task 3: Series Circuit .....................................................................................................................................14
Lab task 4: Parallel Circuit ...................................................................................................................................15
Lab task 5: Series Parallel Circuit ........................................................................................................................16
Lab task 6: View point .........................................................................................................................................16
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 17
2. LAB # 2: To explain the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and display the values in KCL based resistive circuit
using hardware and software tool ....................................................................................................................... 19
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 19
Familiarize yourself with Kirchhoff’s Current Law ..............................................................................................19
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Lab Task 1: Simple series circuit ..........................................................................................................................20
Lab task 2: Multiple loops circuit ........................................................................................................................21
Lab task 3: Unknown current calculation............................................................................................................21
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 22
3. LAB # 3: To explain the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and display the values in KVL based resistive circuit
using hardware and software tool ....................................................................................................................... 24
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Familiarize yourself with Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) .....................................................................................24
In Lab Section: ................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Lab Task 1: Simple Series Circuit .........................................................................................................................25

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

vii
Lab task 2: Multiple Loops Circuit .......................................................................................................................26
Lab task 3: Unknown Voltage Calculation ...........................................................................................................27
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
LAB # 4: To reproduce the Wye-Delta transformation circuit using hardware and software tool ...................... 29
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Familiarize with Wye-Delta connection ..............................................................................................................29
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Lab Task 1:...........................................................................................................................................................30
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
LAB # 5: To reproduce the circuit based on Nodal Analysis using hardware and software tool .......................... 33
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 33
Familiarize with Nodal Analysis as an Extension of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) .............................................33
Pre Lab Exercise Question:..................................................................................................................................34
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Lab Task 1:...........................................................................................................................................................34
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 34
LAB # 6: To reproduce the circuit based on Mesh Analysis using hardware and software tool .......................... 36
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
Extension of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) as Mesh Analysis ............................................................................36
Pre Lab-Exercise Question: .................................................................................................................................36
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Lab Task 1:...........................................................................................................................................................37
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
LAB # 7: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on superposition theorem and display the circuit parameters
using hardware and software tool ....................................................................................................................... 39
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 39
Familiarize yourself with Superposition Theorem ..............................................................................................39
Pre Lab Exercise Question: ..................................................................................................................................40
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Lab Task 1:...........................................................................................................................................................40
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 40
LAB # 8: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on Thevenin’s and Norton Theorems and display the circuit
parameters using hardware and software tool .................................................................................................... 42
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 42
Familiarize yourself with Thevenin’s Theorem ...................................................................................................42
Familiarize yourself with Norton’s Theorem ......................................................................................................42
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Lab Task 1: Verification of Thevenin Theorem....................................................................................................43
Lab Task 2: Verification of Norton Theorem .......................................................................................................45
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 46

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

viii
LAB # 9: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and Source
Transformation to display the circuit parameters using hardware and software tool .......................................... 48
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ...................................................................................................................48
Source Transformation Theorem ........................................................................................................................48
In Lab Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Maximum Power Transfer ..................................................................................................................................50
Lab Task 1: Verification of maximum power transfer theorem ..........................................................................50
Source Transformation .......................................................................................................................................51
Lab Task 2: Verification of Source Transformation Theorem .............................................................................52
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Lab # 10: To Design and Construct the Basic Linear Op-Amp Circuits using Hardware and Software Tools .......... 54
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Pre-Lab ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Basic Op-Amp configuration .......................................................................................................................................... 55
Inverting Amplifier ..............................................................................................................................................55
Non‐inverting Amplifier ......................................................................................................................................55
Summing Amplifier .............................................................................................................................................56
Differential Amplifier ..........................................................................................................................................56
In-Lab Tasks .................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Lab Task 1: Inverting and Non-inverting Op-Amp ..............................................................................................57
Lab Task 2: Summing (voltage adder) and Differential (Voltage Subtractor) Amplifier using Op-Amp .............58
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 59
LAB # 11: To Reproduce the RC and RL circuit and trace the complete response of circuits using software and
hardware tool ...................................................................................................................................................... 61
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Pre Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................... 61
The Transient and Step Response of RC & RL Circuit: .........................................................................................61
In Lab Section: ................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Lab Task 1: RC Circuit Response ..........................................................................................................................64
Lab Task 2: RL Circuit Response ..........................................................................................................................64
Post Lab Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 64
LAB # 12: To explain the procedure for generation and display of AC signal using hardware tool ........................ 66
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Pre-Lab ........................................................................................................................................................................... 66
In Lab Task ...................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Post Lab Task .................................................................................................................................................................. 73

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

ix
1. LAB # 1: To identify value of resistors and explain the concept of
equivalent resistance of series and parallel and combination of
series-parallel circuits using hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To identify values of resistances using color codes and Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 To describe how to build the electrical circuits using Bread Board, Jumper wire, and DC power
supply and on Pspice/Proteus Software.
 To explain the concept of the equivalent resistances of series, parallel and combination of
series-parallel circuits using hardware tool
 To explain the concept of the equivalent resistances of series, parallel and combination of
series-parallel circuits using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Part 1 - Familiarize yourself with equipment frequently used in Lab

Breadboard
Used to build circuits with components and jumper wires. Components are mounted on the board, and
wires connect them. It has a DC power supply (0-15 VDC) and a constant 5 VDC output, along with a
ground connection.

Jumper wires
Connect circuit components and the power supply or function generator. These can be simple wires or
"Alligator Clip" wires.

Function generator
produces various supply voltages and currents, including DC, sinusoidal, square, and saw-tooth
waveforms.

Multimeter
Measures circuit variables like voltage, current, resistance, and continuity. It can be digital or analog,
with two probes (red and black). The black probe goes into the "COM" socket, and the red probe is
placed based on the variable being measured (voltage, resistance, current).

Resistors
Crucial for any circuit, they have two terminals for connections. They are color-coded for value and
tolerance.

Part 2 – Calculation of Resistance with color codes and verification through

measurement with multi-meter
Introduction
The value of resistances should be calculated using color codes and verified with a digital multimeter
(DMM) before actually using them on the breadboard. The calculation from color codes is done
according to the following rules:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

10
Table ‎1-1
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 100 (1)

Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 0.1 10-1 5
Silver 0.01 10-2 10
None 20

The digit column shows the first 2 digits for 4-band codes and 3 for 5-band. In 5-band, gold or silver can
be the 3rd digit. The multiplier gives the value to multiply the digits by. Gold and silver show tolerance
for 4-band codes. Brown, red, green, blue, and violet show tolerance for 5-band resistors. All 5-band
resistors have a colored tolerance band, while the blank band (20%) is only in 4-band codes.

Figure ‎1.1: 4 Band Resistor

Figure ‎1.2: 5 Band Resistor

Figure ‎1.3: Reading the colour codes of resistors

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

11
Part 3 - Calculation of Equivalent Resistance
Series connection
Resistors are in series if they form a single node. The equivalent resistance (Req) is the sum of the
individual resistances. Current is the same through all elements, and Req can be calculated a (R = V / I).

Parallel connection
Resistors are in parallel if they form a node pair. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of
the reciprocals of each resistor. Voltage is the same across all elements, and (R = V/I). For two resistors,
Req equals the product of their values divided by their sum.

Viewpoint

The viewpoint refers to the points where multimeter probes are connected. Calculations are made
based on these selected points.

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

Question 1: Build the circuits given below find all the current and voltages of the circuit.

Figure ‎1.4
Question 2: Determine i and Vo in the circuit of Figure below.

Figure ‎1.5

In Lab Section
Lab Task 1: Identification of resistors using color code and DMM
1. Take 3 resistors and calculate the resistance of the resistors using color codes.
2. Set the multimeter selector to the resistance measurement mode.
3. Choose the minimum range and connect both probes to the resistor’s ends. Avoid touching the
resistor ends to prevent parallel resistance from your body.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

12
4. If the multimeter displays “1” on the left side, the resistance exceeds the selected range.
5. Switch to the next available range and measure the resistance again.
6. Continue adjusting the range until a readable value appears.
7. Compare the calculated and measured resistance values.
8. Repeat the procedure for each available resistor and complete Table below.

Table ‎1-2
Resistance Value ()
Sr. # Difference ()
Calculated
Measured
(min-max) Range
1.

Lab Task 2: Circuit implementation using hardware and software

Hardware Task:
1. Select the any two resistors from In-lab task 1 and place it on bread board to make the series
circuit.
2. Energies the circuit with a fix +12 DC voltage and ground.
3. Now connect a DMM to measure the voltage across and . Also measure the value of fix
+12 DC power supply.
4. Note the values in the table given below:

Table ‎1-3
Measured Values

Hardware

Software
Software Task:
 PSpice Procedure:
 Open Capture:
 Launch the CAPTURE program.
 Go to File > New > Project.
 Select Analog or Mixed A/D, name your project, and click OK.
 In the Create PSpice Project window, select Create a blank project and click OK.
 Build the Circuit:
 Go to Place > Part.
 Choose ANALOG, find R, and click OK. Place the resistor by clicking in the schematic. To end
placement, right-click and select End Mode.
 To rotate a component, click on it and press Ctrl + R.
 Repeat the above steps to place a V_DC source and an I_DC current source.
 Wire the Circuit:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

13
 Select Place > Wire. Click on component terminals to start and finish wiring. Right-click and
select End Wire when done.
 Add ground: Place > Ground > select GND/CAPSYM, name it 0, and place it. Wire if necessary.
 Set Component Values:
 Double-click on any component parameter to change its value in the pop-up window.
 Prepare for Simulation:
 Select PSpice > New Simulation Profile, name it (same as the project), and click Create.
 In the Simulation Settings window, choose Bias Point, click Apply, and then OK.
 Run the Simulation:
 Select PSpice > Run. Wait for the simulation to finish.
 Check the voltages and currents in Capture. If they don’t display, enable them via PSpice > Bias
Point > Enable Bias Voltage Display and Enable Bias Current Display.
Lab Task 3: Series Circuit
Procedure
1. Take three resistors and note their values after confirmation by color code and Multimeter
measurements.
Table ‎1-4
Value () Value to be used
Resistor
in calculation
symbol Color Code Multimeter
()
R1

R2
R3

2. Construct a series circuit of these resistors as shown below.

A B

R1 R2 R3
Figure 1.6: Resistors connected in series

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula

4. Connect multimeter probes to points A and B to check resistance.
5. Apply voltage between A and B, then connect the multimeter in series (set to mA, with the black
probe in the mA socket) to note the current. Calculate total resistance using R = V / I. The circuit
diagram is depicted below:
A B

R1 R2 R3

Figure ‎1.7:Series circuit

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

14
Table ‎1-5
Total Resistance Value () Applied Resistance
Sr. Current
Calculated using Measured with Voltage value (V/I)
No. (A)
formula multimeter (V) ()

Lab task 4: Parallel Circuit

Procedure
1. Repeat step 1 of Lab Task 3.
2. Construct a parallel circuit of these resistors as shown below:

A B

Figure ‎1.8: Resistors connected in parallel

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula

4. Check the resistance of the parallel combination by connecting multimeter probes at A and B.
5. Apply voltage between A and B, then connect the multimeter in series with the parallel circuit
(set to mA, black probe in mA socket) to note current. Calculate total resistance using R = V / I.
The circuit diagram is depicted below:

A B

Figure ‎1.9: Parallel circuit

6. Fill out the following table.

Table ‎1-6
Total Resistance Value () Applied Resistance
S. Current
Voltage value (V/I)
No. Calculated using Measured with
(A)
formula multimeter (V) ()

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

15
Lab task 5: Series Parallel Circuit
Procedure
1. Repeat step 1 of Lab Task 3.
2. Construct a series parallel circuit of these resistors as shown below:

R1
R2 R3

Figure ‎1.10: Combination of series and parallel resistances

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula.

4. Check the resistance of the series parallel combination by connecting the multimeter probes at
A and B.
5. Connect a measured voltage between points A and B and note the current flowing through the
circuit (For this the multimeter has to be connected in series with this series-parallel circuit, with
selector pointed at mA and black probe plugged into mA socket of the meter).
6. The total resistance is calculated using the relationship R = V / I. The circuit diagram is depicted
below:

A A

R1
R2 R3

Figure ‎1.11: Series and parallel circuit

7. Fill out the following table.

Table ‎1-7
Total Resistance Value () Applied Resistance
S. Current
Calculated using Measured with Voltage value (V/I)
No. (A)
formula multimeter (V) ()

Lab task 6: View point

Procedure
1. Repeat step 1 of Lab Task 3.
2. Construct a circuit of these resistors as shown below.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

16
A

R1 B

Figure ‎1.12: Illustration of view points

3. Calculate the resistance between points AB, BC and AC using theoretical concepts.
4. Check resistance of circuit by connecting multimeter at A & B, then at B & C and then at A & C.
5. Connect a measured voltage between points A and B and note the current flowing through the
circuit (For this the multimeter has to be connected in series with the circuit, with selector
pointed at mA and black probe plugged into mA socket of the meter). The total resistance is
calculated using the relationship R = V / I. The different circuit configurations are depicted
below:
A A A
A A

R2 R2 R2
B R1 B R1 B
R1 A

R3 R3 R3

C C C

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.13: Circuit configurations for measuring the values of (a) AB, (b) BC and (c) AC resistances

6. Fill out the following table

Table ‎1-8
Total Resistance Value () Applied Resistance
Sr. Current
Calculated using Measured with Voltage value (V/I)
No. (A)
formula multimeter (V) ()

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

17
Rubric for Lab Assessment

The student performance for the assigned task during the lab session was:
The student completed assigned tasks without any help from the
Excellent 4
instructor and showed the results appropriately.
The student completed assigned tasks with minimal help from the
Good 3
instructor and showed the results appropriately.
The student could not complete all assigned tasks and showed
Average 2
partial results.
Worst The student did not complete assigned tasks. 1

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

18
2. LAB # 2: To explain the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and display
the values in KCL based resistive circuit using hardware and
software tool
Objectives
 To show series and parallel resistive circuits based on KCL and display the circuit parameters
using hardware tool.
 To show the KCL based resistive circuit and display currents and voltages using software tool.

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize yourself with Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Introduction
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (abbreviated as KCL) states that: “The Algebraic Sum of currents at any node is
zero”. Equations developed using KCL can help find out an unknown current at any node, provided all
other currents associated with that node are known. In applying KCL, the referenced directions of
currents have to be taken into consideration, for correct assignment of algebraic signs to the currents.
This is done giving an arbitrary sign (either positive or negative) to currents coming into a node and
assigning the currents leaving the same node with an opposite sign. The above means that we have to
give reference directions to currents through all elements connected at any node. This is done by noting
the current by connecting the multimeter as an ammeter in series with each element. The direction of
current through each element is understood to be from red probe to black probe. If the reading is
positive, the actual and assumed directions are the same. If the reading is negative, this means that the
actual direction of flow of current is opposite to that assumed by us.

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

Question 1. For the circuit in Figure. 2.1 use KCL to find the branch currents I1 to I4.

Figure 2.1

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In Lab Section
Lab Task 1: Simple series circuit
Procedure
1. Take three resistors and construct a series circuit as shown below.
1 2 3 4

Figure ‎2.2: Single mesh multiple nodes circuit

2. Identify nodes and mark them. These are 1, 2, 3 and 4.

3. The currents are I41, I12, I23 and I34.
4. The first digit in the subscript of each current signifies the terminal from where the current is
flowing towards the terminal (signified by the second digit in subscript) through one specific
circuit element.
5. The current in each element will be measured by connecting the multimeter as an ammeter in
series with that particular element, with red probe nearest to the first point in the subscript and
black probe nearest to the second point.
6. There are a number of KCL equations at each node, these are:
at node 1: -I41 + I12 = 0
at node 2: -I12 + I23 = 0
at node 3: -I23 + I34 = 0
at node 4: -I34 + I41 = 0

Measured Currents:

I41= I12= I23= I34=

Verification of equations:

-I41 + I12 = + =

-I12 + I23 = + =

-I23 + I34 = + =

-I34 + I41 = + =

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Lab task 2: Multiple loops circuit
Procedure
1. Take four resistors and construct a multiple loops circuit as shown below:
1 2 3

4
Figure ‎2.3: Multiple loops multiple nodes circuit

2. Identify nodes. In the given circuit, there are 4 nodes, namely 1, 2, 3 and 4.
3. The current in different branches are I41, I12, I24, I23 and I34.
4. Measure and note these currents. Take the sum and verify KCL for each node.

Measured Currents:

I41= I12= I24= I23= I34=

Verification of equations:

-I41 + I12 = + =

-I12 + I24 + I23 = + + =

-I23 + I34 = + =

-I24 - I34 + I41 = - - + =

Lab task 3: Unknown current calculation

Procedure
1. Take four resistors and construct a circuit as shown below:
1

2 3

Figure ‎2.4: Circuit for calculating the value of I34

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2. The purpose is to calculate the current I34.
3. The currents associated with node 2 (or 3) are I12, I13, I24 and I34.
4. The application of KCL at node 2 (or 3) will give us the equation:
-I12 - I13 + I24 + I34 = 0  I34 = I12 + I13 - I24.
5. Take measurements and verify the results.

I12= I13= I24=

I34 = I12 + I13 - I24 = + - =

Measured I34 =

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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3. LAB # 3: To explain the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and display
the values in KVL based resistive circuit using hardware and
software tool
Objectives
 To show series and parallel resistive circuits based on KVL and display the circuit parameters
using hardware tool
 To show the KVL based resistive circuit and display currents and voltages using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize yourself with Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Introduction
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (commonly abbreviated as KVL) states that: “The Algebraic Sum of voltages in a
closed loop is zero”. Equations developed using KVL can help find out an unknown voltage between any
two points if all other voltages in a loop are known. In applying KVL, the referenced polarities of the
voltages have to be taken into consideration, for correct assignment of algebraic signs to these voltages.
This is done giving an arbitrary direction to the current in the loop and then indicating these voltage
drops. The terminal, through which the current enters a source, is marked negative and the terminal,
through which it leaves, is marked positive. For resistors, the terminal, through which current enters the
resistor, is marked positive and the terminal, through which the current leaves, is marked negative. This
gives a theoretical form of the equation for KVL. In lab, the terminal at which the red probe is connected
is termed positive and the terminal, at which the black probe is connected, is termed negative.

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

Question 1: Given the circuit in Figure below, use KVL to find the branch voltages V1 to V4.

Figure 3.1

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In Lab Section:
Lab Task 1: Simple Series Circuit
Procedure
1. Take three resistors and construct a series circuit as shown below.
1 2 3 4

Figure 3.2: Single loop circuit

2. Identify points between which voltage can be measured.

3. In the given drawing, these are 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 2-3, 2-4 and 3-4.
4. The measured voltages are indicated as V12, V13, V14, V23, V24 and V34.
5. The subscript of each voltage signifies that the first digit represents the point which is assumed
to be positive and the second point represents the point which is assumed negative with respect
to the first point.
6. The voltages between all of these points will be measured with red probe connected to first
point in the subscript and black probe connected to second point.
7. The voltages may also be measured by interchanging the probe position between any two
points.
8. The voltages in this case are V21, V31, V41, V32, V42 and V43. It will be interesting to note that V21 = -
V12, V31 = -V13 and so on.
9. For measurement of above voltages, follow step 6.
10. Measure and note all these voltages.
11. There can be many equations for KVL within this loop, these are:
V41 + V12 + V23 + V34 = 0
V41 + V12 + V24 = 0
V41 + V13 + V34 = 0
V41 + V14 = 0
V42 + V23 + V34 = 0
V42 + V24 = 0
V43 + V34 = 0
V14 + V43 + V32 + V21 = 0
V14 + V43 + V31 = 0
V14 + V42 + V21 = 0
V14 + V41 = 0
V13 + V32 + V21 = 0
V13 + V31 = 0
V12 + V21 = 0
Verify these equations.

Measured Voltages:

V12= V13= V14= V23= V24= V34=

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V21= V31= V41= V32= V42= V43=
Verification of equations:
V41 + V12 + V23 + V34 = + + + =
V41 + V12 + V24 = + + =
V41 + V13 + V34 = + + =
V41 + V14 = + =
V42 + V23 + V34 = + + =
V42 + V24 = + =
V43 + V34 = + =
V14 + V43 + V32 + V21 = + + + =
V14 + V43 + V31 = + + =
V14 + V42 + V21 = + + =
V14 + V41 = + =
V13 + V32 + V21 = + + =
V13 + V31 = + =
V12 + V21 = + =

Lab task 2: Multiple Loops Circuit

Procedure
1. Take four resistors and construct a multiple mesh loops circuit as shown below:
1 2 3

4
Figure ‎3.3: Multiple loops circuit

2. Identify closed loops. In the given circuit, there are three closed loops namely 4-1-2-4, 4-2-3-4
and 4-1-2-3-4.
3. The voltages in the first loop (while traversing the loop from point 4 in the clockwise direction,
containing drops across all elements) are V41, V12, and V24. Measure and note these values. Take
the sum and verify KVL.
4. The voltages in the second loop (while traversing the loop from point 4 in the clockwise
direction, containing drops across all elements) are V42, V23, and V34. Measure and note these
values. Take the sum and verify KVL.

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5. The voltages in the third loop (while traversing the loop from point 4 in the clockwise direction,
containing drops across all elements) are V41, V12, V23 and V34. Measure and note these values.
Take the sum and verify KVL.
Loop 1 (4-1-2-4)
V41= V12= V24=
V41 + V12 + V24= + + =

Loop 2 (4-2-3-4)
V42= V23= V34=
V42 + V23 + V34= + + =

Loop 3 (4-1-2-3-4)
V41= V12= V23= V34=
V41 + V12 + V23 + V34= + + + =

Lab task 3: Unknown Voltage Calculation

Procedure
1. Take four resistors and construct a circuit as shown below:
1

2 3

Figure ‎3.4: Circuit for calculating the value of V23

2. The purpose is to calculate the voltage V23 (= -V32).

3. If we assume that an element of infinite resistance is connected between node 2 and 3, then
two loops will be formed namely, 1-3-2-1 (or 1-2-3-1) and 2-3-4-2 (or 2-4-3-2).
4. The voltages in the first loop shall be V13, V32, V21 and KVL application will give us the equation
V13 + V32 + V21 = 0 from which V32 = -V13 - V21. Measure these voltages and calculate V32 (= - V32).
Measure V32 and verify your calculation.
5. The voltages in the second loop shall be V23, V34, V42 and KVL application will give us the
equation V23 + V34 + V42 = 0 from which V23 = -V34 - V42. Measure these voltages and calculate V23
(= - V32). Measure V23 and verify your calculation.
Loop 1 (1-3-2-1)
V13= V21=
V32 = -V13 -V21 = + =
Measured V32 =

Loop 2 (2-3-4-2)
V34= V42=
V23 = -V34 - V42 = + =
Measured V23 =

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Post Lab Section
 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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4. LAB # 4: To reproduce the Wye-Delta transformation circuit using
hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce the Wye-Delta transformation circuits using hardware tool
 To reproduce the Wye-Delta transformation circuits using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize with Wye-Delta connection
Introduction:
In series or parallel combination of resistors, we define connection by focusing at two resistors at a time,
and then declaring the nature of connection that either it is series or parallel.

However, when we have to analyse three resistances at a time then instead of series and parallel, we
define the connectivity of resistors as “star” connection or “delta” connection. Such type of connections
becomes more important when we study three phase power systems. Also, these connections are
applicable not only for resistor, but they are also defined either for individual R(resistance), XL (inductive
reactance), Xc (capacitive reactance) or Z (impedance) as whole according to the nature of system under
consideration.

Figure ‎4.1

To convert a delta in to star or vice versa we use the following conversion equations:

Delta to Star: Star to Delta:

R1 = RA= R2 + R3 +

R2 = RB=R1+R3+

R3 = RC=R1+R2+
If RA=RB=RC, then
RY=R / 3
If R1= R2= R3, then
R =3xRY

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Pre Lab Exercise Question:
Question 1: Convert the network in Figure below to an equivalent Y network.

Figure 4.2

In Lab Section
Lab Task 1:
Procedure:
1. Construct the network of Figure 4.3.
2. Measure the current ‘I’ and voltage ‘Vab’ and record in the observation table.
3. Calculate the equivalent Y for the formed by three 390 ohm resistors (using RY=R / 3)
4. Insert the values of resistors in the Y as shown in Figure 4.4.
5. Measure the current ‘I’ and voltage ‘Vab’ and record in the observation table.
6. Construct the network of Figure 4.5.
7. Measure the current ‘I’ and voltage ‘Vab’ and record in the observation table.
8. Calculate the power absorbed by using the formula P= I x Vs and record it in Table 4.1

Figure ‎4.3

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Figure ‎4.4

Figure ‎4.5

Table ‎4-1

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.5

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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5. LAB # 5: To reproduce the circuit based on Nodal Analysis using
hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce the series and parallel resistive circuits based on Nodal Analysis and display the
circuit parameters using hardware tool
 To show the Nodal based circuit and display currents and voltages using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize with Nodal Analysis as an Extension of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Introduction
Node Voltage Analysis method is a technique of circuit analysis which helps us calculate current, voltage
and power in any branch of a circuit. Circuits with lesser number of nodes with unknown voltages than
the number of meshes are easier to solve with the Node Voltage Analysis as compared to the Mesh
Current Analysis Technique. The first step is the identification of total nodes. Out of these nodes,
principal or essential nodes are identified. Out of these, the ones with unknown voltages are designated
with names. One of these nodes is designated as a reference node. The voltages of other essential nodes
with unknown voltages are assigned relative to reference node. After this, node voltage equations are
developed using KCL and expressing the currents at each node in terms of voltages and resistances. The
process is elaborated in the figure shown below:
I1

I2 I4
A
B
R2 R4

I4/
Vs R3 R5
I3

Figure ‎5.1: Illustration of nodal analysis

Normally, directions of currents are assumed to be away from the node. The solution of simultaneous
equations developed using KCL gives the value of node voltage and these are then used to calculate the
currents and voltage drops in all other branches.

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Pre Lab Exercise Question:
Question 1: Using nodal analysis, find in the circuit of Figure below

Figure ‎5.2
In Lab Section
Lab Task 1:
1. Measure five resistors and construct a circuit as shown in pre-lab. These are R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5.
2. Note down the values of the resistors and the applied voltage Vs.
R1 = kΩ R2 = kΩ R3 = kΩ
R4 = kΩ R5 = kΩ VS = V
3. The identified essential nodes with unknown voltages are A, B and C.
4. Node C is taken as reference. This means node voltage equation is to be written for only A and
B.
5. Measure voltages at A and B and note them down.
6. Measure currents as indicated in the circuit diagram and note them down.
Node A:I2 + I3 + I4 = 0 
Node B: I1 + I4/ + I5 = 0 
7. Develop node voltage equations and expressing currents in the form of node voltages and
resistance.
8. Solve these for unknown node voltages and compare with your results.
9. Using the node voltages, calculate the currents in each resistor and compare with current
measurements.
10.Fill out the following table.
Table ‎5-1
Node Measured Calculated

(V) (mA) (mA) (mA) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)

A VA I2 I3 I4 VA I2 I3 I4

B. VB I1 I5 I4/ VB I1 I5 I4/

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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6. LAB # 6: To reproduce the circuit based on Mesh Analysis using
hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce mesh analysis based circuit and display currents and voltages using hardware tool
 To show the mesh analysis based circuit and display currents and voltages using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Extension of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) as Mesh Analysis
Introduction
Mesh current method is a technique of circuit analysis which helps us calculate current, voltage and
power in any branch of a circuit. The first step is the identification of meshes and assigning circulating
currents to these meshes. After this, mesh equations are developed using KVL and expressing voltage
drops in terms of Mesh currents. The process is elaborated in the figure shown below. Normally,
directions of mesh currents are assumed to be clockwise. Notice that the mesh currents are the currents
flowing in those branches of each mesh which are not common to other meshes. The solution of
simultaneous equations developed using mesh current analysis gives the value of mesh currents and
these are then used to calculate the currents and voltage drops in all other branches.

Figure ‎6.1: Illustration of mesh analysis

Pre Lab-Exercise Question:

Question 1: For the bridge network in Figure below, find using mesh analysis.

Figure ‎6.2

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In Lab Section
Lab Task 1:
1. Measure six resistors and construct a circuit as shown in Fig. 6.1.
2. Note down the values of the resistors and the applied voltage Vs.
R1 = kΩ R2 = kΩ

R3 = kΩ R4 = kΩ

R5 = kΩ R6 = kΩ

Vs = V
3. Measure the currents in those branches of each mesh which are not common to any other
mesh. These are the mesh currents I1 (which is the source current as well), I2 and I3.
4. In the given circuit, these elements are R5, R6 and R1 respectively.
5. As per rules of mesh current analysis, the currents in all other branches should be equal to the
difference of mesh currents depending upon commonality of those branches between
respective meshes.
6. Measure all these currents with specific regard to the assumed direction.
7. Calculate the values which should be present within these common branches.
8. Complete the Table 6.1.
The measured and calculated values should tally which will verify the mesh current analysis technique.

Table ‎6-1
Mesh No. Measured Values (mA) Calculations (mA)

1. I1 I1- I2 I1- I3 I1- I2 I1- I3

2. I2 I2- I1 I2- I3 I2- I1 I2- I3

3. I3 I3- I1 I3- I2 I3- I1 I3- I2

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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7. LAB # 7: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on superposition
theorem and display the circuit parameters using hardware and
software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce series and parallel resistive circuits based on superposition theorem and display
the circuit parameters using hardware tool
 To show the superposition-based circuit and display currents and voltages using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize yourself with Superposition Theorem
Introduction
Superposition theorem is related to circuits with multiple sources. It states that:
“The combined effect (voltage or current) in any circuit element in a multiple source circuit is equal to
the algebraic sum of individual effects of each source while others replaced with their internal
impedances”. Considering the circuit shown below:
1 2 3

R1 R3
I1 I3

R2
I2

Figure ‎7.1: Multisource circuit

The circuit has two sources and the total current through R1, R2 & R3 can be considered to be I1, I2 & I3.
Then, superposition theorem, instructs us to take the effect of each source independently and sum
them up algebraically in order to get the overall effect. The two circuits with assumed directions of
current in each case are shown below:
1 2 3 1 2 3

R1 R3 R1 R3
I1' I3' I1'’ I3'’

R2 R2
I2' I2'’

4 4

(a) (b)
Figure 7.2: Application of superposition principle

It is worth noting that internal resistances of both sources have been considered to be zero, which is
practically not the case. However, this is quite an accurate approximation, as electronic circuit within the
breadboard (providing DC voltage) normally has negligible output impedance. As per assumed directions
of currents through each element, the total currents can be calculated using the following relationships:
I1 = I1’ - I1’’ I2 = I2’ + I2’’ I3 = I3’’ - I3’
Similarly, voltage drops can be calculated using the following relationships:
V12 = V12’ + V12’’ V24 = V24’ + V24’’ V32 = V32’ + V32’’

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Pre Lab Exercise Question:
Question 1: Use superposition to find in the circuit of Figure below

Figure ‎7.3
In Lab Section
Lab Task 1:
1. Construct a circuit as shown in Figure 7.1 above. Take one source voltage from variable supply
and the other voltage from fixed supply of breadboard. Note these two, so that in case of these
being disturbed; the same can be readjusted to the original value.
2. Measure and note the values of currents and voltages in each branch by connecting the
multimeter in an appropriate manner across each element, with specific reference to assumed
polarity and direction of flow of current.
3. Turn by turn; take the effect of each source by replacing the other with a short circuit and
disconnecting it as shown in Figure 7.2. Repeat step 2 for each source until individual effects of
all the sources have been taken into account.
4. Take algebraic sum of voltages and currents at each branch and verify superposition theorem.

Observations:
Measured values
I1’= I2’= I3’=
V12’= V24’= V32’=
I1’’= I2’’= I3’’=
V12’’= V24’’= V32’’=
Verification of equations
I1 = I1’ - I1’’ = - =
I2 = I2’ + I2’’ = + =
I3 = I3’’ - I3’ = - =
V12 = V12’ + V12’’= + =
V24 = V24’ + V24’’= + =
V32 = V32’ + V32’’= + =

Measured values
I1 = I2 = I3 =
V12 = V24 = V32

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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8. LAB # 8: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on Thevenin’s
and Norton Theorems and display the circuit parameters using
hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce the Thevenin, Norton equivalent circuits to display the output voltage and current
with change in load using hardware tool
 To show the Thevenin, Norton equivalent circuits to display the output voltage and current with
change in load using software tool

Pre Lab Section

Familiarize yourself with Thevenin’s Theorem
Introduction
According to Thevenin theorem, any circuit while viewed from a specific pair of points can be reduced to
a simple series circuit with a voltage source VTh and a series resistance RTh connected across that specific
pair of points. Both the original circuit and Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit are equivalent in terms of
voltage and current at the specific pair of points. The voltage source value is the open circuit voltage
across the pair of points and the series resistance value is the resistance seen looking from the open
circuited set of points and all voltage and current sources in the original circuit replaced with their
internal resistances. The internal resistance of a voltage source is connected in series with it and that of
a current source is connected in parallel with it. This scheme is adopted to indicate the loss of voltage
and current with change in loading. Ideally, the internal resistance of a voltage source is 0, i.e. it can
maintain the same voltage across its terminals regardless of the load being fed by it and that of a current
source is, i.e. it can maintain a constant current through its terminals regardless of the load being fed
by Lab equipment’s have these source values approaching ideal, therefore, we shall be using the ideal
approach while replacing sources with their internal impedances.

Familiarize yourself with Norton’s Theorem

Introduction
According to Norton theorem, any circuit while viewed from a specific pair of points can be reduced to a
simple circuit with a current source with current In and a parallel resistance Rn connected across that
specific pair of points. Both the original circuit and Norton Equivalent Circuit are equivalent in terms of
terminal voltage and current at the specific pair of points. The In value is the short circuit current
through the pair of points and Rn value is the resistance seen looking from the open circuited set of
points and all voltage and current sources in the original circuit replaced with their internal resistances.
The internal resistance of a voltage source is connected in series with it and that of a current source is
connected in parallel with it. This scheme is adopted to indicate the loss of voltage and current with
change in loading. Ideally, the internal resistance of a voltage source is 0, i.e. it can maintain the same
voltage across its terminals regardless of the load being fed by it and that of a current source is, i.e. it
can maintain a constant current through its terminals regardless of the load being fed by it. Lab
equipment’s have these source values approaching ideal, therefore, we shall be using the ideal approach
while replacing sources with their internal impedances.

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Pre Lab Exercise Questions:
Question 1: Determine at terminals 1-2 of each of the circuits in Figure below.

Figure ‎8.1

Question 2: Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit in Figure below.

Figure ‎8.2

In Lab Section
Lab Task 1: Verification of Thevenin Theorem
1. Measure four resistors and construct a series circuit as shown below. A precaution for
minimizing the source resistance effect is to use a high value resistor which is connected to
positive battery terminal.
1

Figure ‎8.3: Circuit for the application of Thevenin’s theorem

2. The specific set of points is 1 & 2, with respect to which, the circuit has to be Thevenized.
3. Measure and note V12 and I12 for different values of source voltage.
4. Remove resistance RL from the circuit and measure V12 for different values of source voltage
(used in point 3 above) as shown below. This voltage is the Thevenin voltage VTh.

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1

V12

Figure ‎8.4: Circuit for finding the value of VTh

5. Turn of source supply and place a short circuit across voltage source as shown below. Measure
resistance R12 which is the Thevenin resistance RTh.
1

R12

Figure ‎8.5: Circuit for finding the value of RTh

6. Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit and connect RL between points 1 & 2 as shown below
with source voltage adjusted to values of VTh (obtained in point 4 above). RTh value will be
obtained using a variable resistance.
1

RTh

2
VTh

Figure ‎8.6: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

7. Measure V12 and I12 and compare with the results obtained in 3 above.
8. Fill out the following Table.

Table ‎8-1
Measurements in
Measurements in Thevenin Thevenin
Source Thevenin
Sr. Original Circuit Voltage Resistance
voltage Equivalent Circuit
No. VTh RTh
(Volt) V12 I12 V12 I12
(Volt) (Ω)
(Volt) (Amp.) (Volt) (Amp.)
1.

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Lab Task 2: Verification of Norton Theorem
1. Measure four resistors and construct a circuit as shown below.
2. The specific set of points is 1 & 2, with respect to which, the Norton equivalent circuit has to be
drawn.
1

Figure ‎8.7: Circuit for the application of Norton’s theorem

3. Measure and note source voltage, V12 and I12 for different source voltages.
4. Remove resistance RL and replace it with a short circuit and measure current through terminals
1 and 2 for different values of source voltage (used in point 2 above) as shown below. This
current is the Norton current In.
1

Figure 8.8: Circuit for finding the value of ISC

5. Turn off supply and place a short circuit across voltage source as shown below. Measure the
resistance which is Norton equivalent resistance Rn.
1

Figure ‎8.9: Circuit for finding the value of Rn

6. The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below:

In Rn RL

Figure ‎8.10: Norton’s equivalent circuit

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7. As a current source with a parallel resistance can be converted to an equivalent voltage source
in series with a source resistance, the same circuit can be redrawn as shown below:
1

2
Vn = In x Rn
Figure ‎8.11: Norton’s equivalent circuit (obtained through Source transformation theorem)

8. Measure V12 and I12 in the circuit drawn in point 6 above and compare with the results obtained
in 2 above.
9. Fill out the following Table.

Table ‎8-2
Measurements in
Measurements in
Source Norton Equivalent Values Norton Equivalent
Sr. Original Circuit
voltage Circuit
No.
(Volt) V12 I12 In Rn Vn = I n x Rn V12 I12
(V) (mA) (mA) (kΩ) (V) (V) (mA)
1.

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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9. LAB # 9: To reproduce the resistive circuit based on Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem and Source Transformation to display
the circuit parameters using hardware and software tool
Objectives
 To reproduce the resistive circuit which will provide maximum power to the given load
resistance using hardware tool
 To show the resistive circuit which will provide the maximum power of the given load using
software tool
 To reproduce the source transformation equivalent circuit to display the circuit parameters
using hardware tool
 To show the source transformation equivalent circuit to display the circuit parameters using
software tool

Pre Lab Section

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Introduction
It has been found out that any network can be reduced to a Thevenin or a Norton Equivalent Circuit with
respect to any two points of interest. The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit consists of a voltage source in
series with the Thevenin resistance. The Norton Equivalent Circuit consists of a current source in parallel
with a Norton resistance. According to Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, any circuit will be able to
provide maximum power to a load resistance provided the value of the load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin or Norton resistance. For all other values of load resistance, the power dissipation will be less
than the maximum power dissipated.

Source Transformation Theorem

Introduction
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic to these tools is the concept of
equivalence. It is expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a voltage source in series with a
resistor for a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa, as shown in Figure 10 1. Either
substitution is known as a source transformation.

Figure 9.1

The two circuits in above Figure are equivalent—provided they have the same voltage-current relation
at terminals a-b. It is easy to show that they are indeed equivalent. If the sources are turned off, the
equivalent resistance at terminals a-b in both circuits is R. Also, when terminals a-b are short-circuited,
the short circuit current flowing from a to b is in the circuit on the left-hand side and

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for the circuit on the right hand side. Thus , in order for the two circuits to be equivalent. Hence,
source transformation requires that
Or
Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided we carefully handle the dependent
variable. As shown in Figure below, a dependent voltage source in series with a resistor can be
transformed to a dependent current source in parallel with the resistor or vice versa where we make
sure that Eq. 1 is satisfied.

Figure ‎9.2

Like the wye-delta transformation, a source transformation does not affect the remaining part of the
circuit. When applicable, source transformation is a powerful tool that allows circuit manipulations to
ease circuit analysis.

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

Question 1: Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the resistor R in the circuit of Figure
below.

Figure ‎9.3

Question 2: Use Source transformation to find in the circuit of Figure below.

Figure 9.4

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In Lab Section
Maximum Power Transfer
Lab Task 1: Verification of maximum power transfer theorem
1. Measure the resistors and construct a circuit as shown below.
1

R1 R3

Figure ‎9.5: Circuit for Maximum power transfer theorem

R1 = kΩ R2 = kΩ R3 = kΩ
2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells us that if we connect a resistance RL between points 1
& 2, maximum power will be transferred from the network to the load resistance if RL. =
Thevenin or Norton resistance.
3. We shall use Thevenin equivalent circuit during this practical.
4. Set the source voltage at the breadboard to a maximum value (i.e. 15 volts)
5. Measure voltage between points 1 & 2 and note it down. This is the Thevenin voltage VTh.
Vsource = V VTh = V
6. Measure the Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh and note it down.
RTh = kΩ
7. Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit by setting the supply voltage to VTh and the variable
resistance at the breadboard equal to the Thevenin resistance RTh and connect a variable
resistance between points 1 & 2. The circuit configuration is shown below:
1

RTh

2
VTh

Figure ‎9.6: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

8. Measure V12 in the Thevenin equivalent circuit for different values of RL (i.e. 0.8 RTh, 0.9 RTh, RTh,
1.1 RTh, and 1.2 RTh).
9. Calculate the power delivered using formula PL = V122 / RL.
10. Fill out the following table.
Table ‎9-1
Sr. Load Resistance (RL)
V12 (V) PL = V122 / RL (mW)
No. x RTh Value (kΩ)
1. 0.8
2. 0.9
3. 1.0
4. 1.1
5. 1.2

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Source Transformation
1. Source transformation is a tool for simplifying circuits with multiple sources.
2. It makes use of the fact that a voltage source can be converted to a current source and vice
versa.
3. Consider the circuit shown below.

R1 R2

VS1 R3 VS2

Figure ‎9.7: Circuit diagram for Source transformation theorem

4. If we are asked to calculate the voltage and current through R3, we can do it in many ways, but
the application of Source Transformation will make the circuit very simple to solve.
5. If we convert, the voltage sources to equivalent current sources, then through conversion, the
circuit configuration will become as shown below.

R1 R3 R2

Figure ‎9.8: Source transformed circuit

6. Now, the two current sources can be combined to make one current source in parallel with a
single element. The resulting circuit is shown below:

VS1/R1 VS2/R2

VS1/R1+VS2/R2 1/(1/R1+1/R2) R3

Figure ‎9.9: Equivalent circuit with current source

7. This single current source, when converted to a voltage source will have the configuration as
shown below:

1/(1/R1+1/R2)

(VS1/R1+VS2/R2)(1/(1/R1+1/R2)) R3

Figure ‎9.10: Equivalent circuit with voltage source

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8. Now the circuit is a simple series circuit and current through and voltage across R3 can be
calculated easily.

Lab Task 2: Verification of Source Transformation Theorem

Procedure:
1. Measure three resistors and construct a circuit as shown in Figure 9.7. These are , and .
2. Note down the values of the resistors and the applied voltages and .
3. Measure the current though and voltage across and note them down.
4. Now construct a circuit as shown in Figure 10.6, with the values of the source voltage and
resistance adjusted to the calculated values of the single source and resistance.
5. Measure and note down the values of the current through and voltage across in this circuit.
6. The results should verify the legitimacy of the Millman’s Theorem.
7. Repeat the procedure for different values of .

R1 = kΩ R2 = kΩ

VS1 = V VS2 = V

Table ‎9-2
Original Circuit Equivalent Circuit
Measurements
Sr. R3 Measurements across R3 Equivalent Source
across R3
No.
Voltage Current Voltage Resistance Voltage Current

(k) (V) (mA) (V) (k) (V) (mA)

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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10. Lab # 10: To Design and Construct the Basic Linear Op-Amp
Circuits using Hardware and Software Tools
Objectives
 To design and select standard passive components of an op-amp for desired gain
 To design and select standard passive components of an op-amp for voltage summation and
subtraction

Pre-Lab
Linear Op-Amp

Introduction
Operational amplifier is one fundamental building block of analog circuits having very high gain. When
used properly in negative feedback configurations, the overall closed‐loop transfer characteristic can be
precisely set by stable passive components such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes, regardless of the
potential variation of open‐loop parameters. Since there is a linear relation between input and output, we
usually refer to these application circuits as linear applications. Negative feedback produces bounded
input-bounded output stability.

A finite input voltage cannot produce an infinite output voltage. In our lab, we commonly use LM741 op
amp for basic configurations. When used in a circuit with resistors and a necessary dependent source, the
op amp can be used to sum, scale, subtract, and perform other useful functions. When used with inductors
and capacitors, it is used in integrating and differentiating circuits.

Figure ‎10.1: Circuit Symbol and pin configuration for an Op Amp

Above figure shows the schematic symbol and pin configuration of an op amp. A is the voltage gain. The
inverting input is 𝑣 , and the non-inverting input is 𝑣𝑝. The differential input is

𝑣 = 𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑝)

Where , 𝑣𝑝 and 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 are node voltages. This means they are always measured with respect to ground.
The differential input 𝑣 is the difference of two node voltages, 𝑣 and 𝑣𝑝.

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Basic Op-Amp configuration
Inverting Amplifier
R2

R1
Vi -
A Vo

Figure 10.2: Inverting amplifier configuration

An inverting amplifier is shown in above figure. The principal features of this configuration are
 The amplifier is inverting with the feedback loop closed.
 The closed‐loop gain is solely determined by the feedback resistors Rf and Ri assuming that the
loop gain – defined as the product of the open‐loop gain of the op amp and the feedback factor
– of the circuit is very large.
 The positive input terminal is always grounded in this configuration. As a result, the negative
input must follow the potential of the positive one with feedback loop closed due to the large
loop gain developed by the op amp. This is often referred to as the “virtual ground” property of
feedback op amps.
 The closed‐loop gain of this amplifier is
𝑣
𝑣

Non‐inverting Amplifier

Figure ‎10.3: Non‐inverting amplifier configuration

A non‐inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. 10.3. The principal features of this configuration are
 The amplifier is non‐inverting with the feedback loop closed.
 The closed‐loop gain is solely determined by the feedback resistors Rf and Ri assuming that the
loop gain of the circuit is very large.
 The positive input terminal now is connected to the input voltage source. The feedback path,
however, is still connected around the output terminal and the negative input terminal.
 The closed‐loop gain of this amplifier is
𝑣
( )
𝑣

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Summing Amplifier

Figure ‎10.4: Summing amplifier configuration

A summing amplifier is shown in Fig. 10.4. The principal features of this configuration are

 The amplifier is inverting for all inputs with the feedback loop closed.
 The summing is performed at the negative input terminal in current domain due to the virtual
ground property (note that the positive input is grounded). The negative input terminal thus is
often referred to as the “summing node” in such context. The weight for each parallel input is
solely determined by the resistor connecting this input to the summing node. The output
voltage is a linear combination of all the input voltages.

𝑣 ( 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 )

Differential Amplifier

Figure ‎10.5: Differential amplifier configuration

A differential amplifier is shown in Fig. 10.5. The principal features of this configuration are
 The amplifier can combine two inputs and obtain the difference with the feedback loop closed.
 The closed‐loop gain is solely determined by the feedback resistors Rf, Ri, R1 and R2. In this
circuit, we set Rf = R1 and Ri = R2. Thus, the output is

 The gains for the positive and negative inputs can be set differently by choosing different R1 and
R2 values from above.

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In-Lab Tasks
Lab Task 1: Inverting and Non-inverting Op-Amp

R1
Vi -
A Vo

Figure ‎10.6:Non- Inverting Op-amp configuration Figure ‎10.7: Inverting Op-amp configuration

i. Design an inverting op-amp with closed loop gain of 10 when

ii. Now take approximate values of calculated values of components obtained from step 1 and
implement the inverting configuration by applying an input signal of 1Volt at . Note
down the values in table.
iii. Repeat the steps (i) and (ii) for non-inverting configuration for a gain of 15.

Measurement and Calculation

Table ‎10-1: Design Values

Components Calculated Standard Values

(Ω)

Table ‎10-2: Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifier

Inverting Non-inverting
Values Calculated Measured Calculated Measured

𝑣
𝑣
Gain

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Lab Task 2: Summing (voltage adder) and Differential (Voltage Subtractor)
Amplifier using Op-Amp
a) Voltage Adder:

Figure ‎10.8: Voltage Adder

i. Design an op-amp that will produce an output equal to

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
When 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑣
Select
ii. Now take approximate values of calculated values of components obtained from step (i) and
implement the configuration by applying input signals as indicated in design requirement
at .

Measurement and Calculation

Table 10-3: Design values for Voltage Adder
Components Calculated Standard Values
(Ω)
(Ω)
(Ω)
(Ω)

Table ‎10-4: Voltage Adder

Parameters Calculated Measured
𝑣
𝑣
𝑣
𝑣

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b) Voltage Subtractor:

Figure ‎10.9: Voltage Subtractor

i. Design an op-amp that will produce an output equal to 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

When 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣
Select and
ii. Now take approximate calculated values of components obtained from step (i) and implement the
configuration by applying input signals as indicated in design requirement at

Measurement and Calculation

Table ‎10-5: Design Values for Voltage Subtractor

Components Calculated Standard Values
(Ω)
(Ω)
(Ω)
(Ω)

Table ‎10-6: Voltage Subtractor

Parameters Calculated Measured
𝑣
𝑣
𝑣

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the Pre-lab and In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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11. LAB # 11: To Reproduce the RC and RL circuit and trace the
complete response of circuits using software and hardware tool

Objectives
 To reproduce the RC circuit to trace the natural and step response using hardware tool
 To reproduce the RL circuit to trace the natural and step response using hardware tool

Pre Lab Section

Introduction
The Transient and Step Response of RC & RL Circuit:
The Transient Response of circuit also known as the Natural Response is the way the circuit responds to
energies stored in storage elements, such as capacitors and inductors. If a capacitor and inductor has
energy stored within it, then that energy can be dissipated or absorbed by a resistor. How that energy is
dissipated is the Transient Response. The RC & RL circuit leads to 1st order differential equation to solve
the circuit if the circuit contains only one storage element.

RC Circuit:
When switch is closed at position 1 (step input is applied to circuit), Capacitor voltage begins at zero
and exponentially increases to E volts and capacitor current instantaneously jumps to E /R and
exponentially decays to zero. (Charging Phase)

Figure ‎11.1: RC Circuit Charging State

When switch is closed at position 2, Capacitor voltage has E volts across it when it begins to discharge
and capacitor current will instantly jump to –E /R. Both voltage and current will decay exponentially to
zero. (Discharging Phase)

Figure ‎11.2: RC Circuit Discharging State

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Capacitor Charging Equations Capacitor Discharging Equations

Where  is defined as: Rate at which a capacitor charges depends on product of R and C and known as
time constant,  = RC has units of seconds. Length of time that a transient last depends on exponential
function 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇, for all practical purposes, transients can be considered to last for only five-time constants.

RL Circuit:
Current i(t) in an RL circuit is an exponentially increasing function of time. When switch is closed at
position 1 (step input is applied to circuit), current begins at zero and rises to a maximum value, voltage
across resistor VR is an exponentially increasing function of time and voltage across inductor VL is an
exponentially decreasing function of time. (Charging Phase)

Figure ‎11.3: RL Circuit Charging State

When switch is now again in open condition inductor discharges by changing polarity across terminals
the R2 serves as discharge path switch, inductor voltage has –(Vo) volts across it when it begins to
discharge and inductor current will instantly jump to Vo/R. Both voltage and current will decay
exponentially to zero. (Discharging Phase)

Figure ‎11.4: RL Circuit Discharging State

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Inductor Charging Equations Inductor Discharging Equations

Where  is defined as: Rate at which an inductor charges depends on ratio of R and L and known as time
constant,  = L/R has units of seconds. Length of time that a transient last depends on exponential
function 𝑒−𝑡/𝑇.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
For RC Circuit:

a R
t=0
b

vs C

Figure ‎11.5: RC Circuit

For RL Circuit:

Figure ‎11.6: RL Circuit

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In Lab Section:
Lab Task 1: RC Circuit Response
Procedure
• Assemble circuit as shown in figure 11.5 on breadboard.
• Apply input signal to circuit from function generator.
• The amplitude of Input signal is 5Vp-p, 50% duty cycle. Set frequency to 100Hz (for RC).
• Connect Channel 1 to Input and Channel 2 across output to observe waveforms.
• Use Scope’s CURSOR option to obtain ΔT & ΔV readings for different values of T.
• Note down measured values and compare with calculated data.
• Sketch waveforms on graph paper.

OBSERVATIONS
Case ΔVc (v) Δt (sec) 5t (sec) T (sec)
Charging
Discharging

Lab Task 2: RL Circuit Response

Procedure
• Assemble circuit as shown in figure 11.6 on breadboard.
• Apply input signal to circuit from function generator.
• The amplitude of Input signal is 5Vp-p, 50% duty cycle. Set frequency to 100kHz (for RL).
• Connect Channel 1 to Input and Channel 2 across output to observe waveforms.
• Use Scope’s CURSOR option to obtain ΔT & ΔV readings for different values of T.
• Note down measured values and compare with calculated data.
• Sketch waveforms on graph paper.

OBSERVATIONS
Case ΔVL (v) Δt (sec) 5t (sec) T (sec)
Charging
Discharging

Post Lab Section

 Perform all the In-lab tasks on software and compare your results.

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Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

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LAB # 12: To explain the procedure for generation and display of AC
signal using hardware tool
Objectives
 To explain the procedure for generating the arbitrary AC waveforms using function generator
 To explain the basic understanding of viewing a time varying voltage waveform and various
control knobs using digital oscilloscope.

Pre-Lab
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a graph displaying device. It is used to visualize time-varying electronic signals on a
screen. The signals are graphed using an analogue circuitry or a digital apparatus.

Analog Oscilloscope
It works on the functionality of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A beam of electrons is made to fall on a screen
where it becomes visible as a bright blue dot. The beam is then moved along a horizontal line using a
saw tooth voltage applied along the horizontal axis. The fast moving dot gives the appearance of a blue
line. Then the signal to be graphed on the screen is applied vertically so that the beam of electrons
moves in a vertical access accordingly. The result is a plot of the time varying applied signal on the
oscilloscope screen.

Digital Oscilloscope
It works on the functionality of Analog to-Digital (A/D) converter. The applied input analog signal is
sampled at a high rate; the received samples are then plotted on the screen.

Digital Oscilloscopes have some obvious benefits over analog counterparts. The advent in digital
circuitry has made the oscilloscopes cheaper. Moreover the sampled signal in a digital oscilloscope can
be stored in memory, can be easily modified or transferred to a computer for further analysis. In this lab
we shall conduct all experiments using digital oscilloscopes.

However it is advised that engineering students should get hands-on experience on both types of
+oscilloscopes.

In our lab we shall work with Agilent 3000 Series oscilloscopes.

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. Figure12- 1:Agilent 3000 Series Oscilloscope (Panel Controls).

Figure12- 2: Oscilloscope Display.

Using the Oscilloscope

Auto –Scale Feature:
The oscilloscope has a very useful auto-scale feature that sets the various display scales automatically
according to the input waveform. It is a handy tool to start with until the students get a better grasp at
the control knobs. The students are advised not to rely on this feature completely but try to learn to set
the scale parameters themselves.

Figure12- 3: Auto Scale Button.

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This feature requires an input frequency at least 50Hz and a duty cycle at least 1%.

Input a Signal:
Use one of the supplied passive probes to input the signal into one of the channels of the oscilloscope.

Using the Run Control Buttons:

There are two buttons for starting and stopping the oscilloscope’s acquisition system: Run/Stop and
Single.

Figure12- 4:Run Control Buttons.

 When the Run/Stop button is green, the oscilloscope is acquiring data.
 To stop acquiring data, press Run/Stop. When stopped, the last acquired waveform is
displayed.
 When the Run/Stop button is red, data acquisition is stopped. To start acquiring data, press
Run/Stop.
 To capture and display a single acquisition (whether the oscilloscope is running or stopped),
press Single. After capturing and displaying a single acquisition, the Run/Stop button is red

Horizontal Scale:
The horizontal controls consist of:

 The horizontal scale knob — changes the oscilloscope’s time per division setting using the
center of the screen as a reference.
 The horizontal position knob — changes the position of the trigger point (trigger is explained in
the subsequent section) relative to the centre of the screen.
 The Main/Delayed button ( We shall not use this button in this lab: For details of this feature
refer to the user manual of the device)

Figure12- 5:Horizontal Controls.

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 Turn the horizontal scale knob to change the horizontal time per division (time/div) setting. The
time/div setting changes in a 1- 2- 5 step sequence. The time/div setting is also known as the
sweep speed.
 Push the horizontal scale knob to toggle between Vernier (fine scale) adjustment and normal
adjustment. With Vernier ak2djustment, the time/div setting changes in small steps between
the normal (coarse scale) settings.
 The time/div setting is displayed in the status bar at the bottom of the screen.

Triggering:
The trigger determines when captured data should be stored and displayed. When a trigger is set up
properly, it can convert unstable displays or blank screens into meaningful waveforms. When the
oscilloscope starts to acquire a waveform, it collects enough data so that it can draw the waveform
to the left of the trigger point. The oscilloscope continues to acquire data while waiting for the trigger
condition to occur. After it detects a trigger, the oscilloscope continues to acquire enough data so that it
can draw the waveform to the right of the trigger point.
The oscilloscope provides these trigger modes:
 Edge — can be used with analog and digital circuits. An edge trigger occurs when the trigger
input passes through a specified voltage level with the specified slope.
 Pulse — is used to find pulses with certain widths.
 Video — is used to trigger on fields or lines for standard video waveforms.

Figure12- 6:Trigger Controls.

 To adjust the trigger level, turn the trigger Level knob. Two things happen: The trigger level
value is displayed at the lower left- hand corner of the screen and a line is displayed
showing the location of the trigger level with respect to the waveform (except when using AC
coupling or LF reject coupling modes).
 Push 50% to set the level at 50% of the signal’s vertical amplitude.
 To make an acquisition even if no valid trigger has been found: Press Force.

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 Forcing a trigger is useful, for example, when you want to display the DC voltage of a level
signal.

Vertical Controls
The vertical controls consist of:

 The channel (1, 2) Math, and Ref buttons —turn waveforms on or off (display or hide their
menus).
 The vertical scale knobs — change the amplitude per division setting for a waveform using
ground as a reference.
 The vertical position knobs — change the vertical position of the waveform on the screen.

Figure12- 7:Vertical Controls.

 Pressing the channel (1, 2), Math, or Ref buttons have the following effect: If the waveform is
off, the waveform is turned on and its menu is displayed. If the waveform is on and its
menu is not displayed, its menu will be displayed. If the waveform is on and its menu is
displayed, the waveform is turned off and its menu goes away.
 Turn its vertical scale knob to change the amplitude per division setting. The amplitude/div
setting changes in a 1- 2- 5 step sequence from 2 mV/div to 10 V/div (with “1X” probe
attenuation). Ground is used as a reference.
 Push its vertical scale knob to toggle between Vernier (fine scale) adjustment and normal
adjustment. With Vernier adjustment, the amplitude/div setting changes in small steps between
the normal (coarse scale) settings.
 The amplitude/div setting is displayed in the status bar at the bottom of the screen.
 Adjusting their vertical position lets you compare waveforms by aligning them above one
another or on top of each other. When an input channel waveform is on: Turn the vertical
position knob to change the vertical position of the waveform on the screen. Notice that the
ground reference symbol on the left side of the display moves with the waveform.
 Notice that, as you adjust the vertical position, a message showing the position of the
ground reference relative to the centre of the screen is temporarily displayed in the lower
left- hand corner of the screen.

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 To specify channel coupling, if the channel’s menu is not currently displayed, press the channel
button (1, 2). In the Channel menu, press Coupling to select between:
 DC — passes both DC and AC components of the input waveform to the oscilloscope.
 AC — blocks the DC component of the input waveform and passes the AC component.
 GND — the waveform is disconnected from the oscilloscope input.

Function Generator

A function generator is a device to generate arbitrary time varying waveforms. It is used for testing and
designing circuits in a lab environment. The function generator used in this lab is Agilent 3320A. Using
the Function Generator

Figure12- 8:Agilent 3320A Function Generator.

Generating a Signal
 Turn the power on and press the output key.
 Press the sine key, if not already active.
 Enter a value of 2 using numeric keypad and then choose units to be kHz. We can also specify
time period instead of frequency if we press the “Freq” soft key and then specify the time
period.
 Similarly press the Amplitude soft key to enter amplitude and offset soft key to enter DC offset.
 The units can be changed by pressing first the +/- key and then entering new units.
 Similarly by pressing the square, ramp, pulse etc keys we can generate arbitrary waveforms of
different characteristics.

In Lab Task
Task 1
 Turn on oscilloscope and function generator.

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 Note down the values of Channel 1 voltage axis and Time axis on the oscilloscope screen. Write
them in the table 12-1.
 Generate a sinusoidal wave of 2 KHZ and 5Vp-p. Connect the function generator using probes to
the oscilloscope. Press Auto Scale.
 Press channel (1) button, make sure from the menu that coupling is DC, bandwidth limit is off
and probe is set at (1X).
 Play with the horizontal and vertical position and scale knobs and try to understand their effect.
Finally press auto-scale again.
 Note down the new values of Channel 1 voltage axis and Time base axis. Interpret the graph
displayed using these values.
 Change the offset from -1V to 2V with difference of 0.5V. Observe the change in waveform.
Change the vertical scale i.e. the whole waveform is again at the centre of screen. Note down
the new values of voltage and Time of Channel 1.
 Press “measure” button, press “Voltage” and then press soft keys to determine following values
, , , . Similarly press “Time” and determine the values of frequency, time period etc. Fill the
table 12-2.
 Change the coupling to AC. What do you observe?

Task 2
 Generate a square wave pulse between 0-5V. Let the frequency be 4KHZ. Observe the time
period of a wave.
 Change the duty cycle to 25%.
 Observe the on time +5V and off time 0V. Find the ratio of On-time and the time period of the
square wave.
 To measure the time (off or on) note down the time base status. It represents how much time
one division (box) on the horizontal axis represents. Using this information calculate the time
i.e. divisions for which the wave is +5V and for which it is 0volts.
 Change the duty cycle to 70% and repeat the experiment.

Task 3
 Generate a Sine wave of 1 KHz (note down its value in radians/sec using w = 2πf), 10Vp-p.
 Press “Ref” and press “save” to save this waveform as reference.
 Now change the horizontal position knob, the reference wave remains static but the live voltage
waveform will change position. On lower left corner of the screen the time delay will be
displayed.
 Delay the wave using horizontal position knob until the live waveform is at 180 degrees out of
phase with the reference (π radians). 180 degrees means the wave becomes exactly the
inverted version of the reference waveform. Note the numerical value of the time delay.
 Change the frequency to 3 KHz and 3.5 KHz and repeat the experiment. Fill the table 12-3.

Observation Tables
Task 1
Table 12-1 (a)

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

72
CH-1 Time Base CH-1 Time Base
Voltage status Status status(after Status(after
offset) offset)

Table 12-1 (b)

Voltage
Measurements
Time
Measurements

Task 2
Table 12-2
Time Period Duty Cycle Time Base Status On-Time Off-Time Ratio

Task 3
Table 12-3
Frequency ( ) Frequency ( / ) Time delay ( ) ×

Post Lab Task

1. Generate the voltage waveform shown below on oscilloscope by using function generator. The on
time of the wave is 50% of the off time and only five complete cycles should be visible on the
screen. The voltage should vary from 0 to 1V. (Choose frequency of your own choice, show the
output to the instructor)
2. Observe the relationship of frequency and time.
3. Observe the relationship between in phase and out of phase waveforms.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

73
Rubric for Lab Assessment

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

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CPE122-Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual - FALL-24

Uploaded by

CPE122-Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual - FALL-24

Uploaded by

COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Lahore Campus

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering

CPE122 – Linear Circuit Analysis

Lab Resource Person

Theory Resource Person

Name: __________________________ Registration Number: CIIT/ - - /LHR

Program: _______________________ Batch: _____________________________________

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Mr. Mohsin Ali, Ms. Sabeen Amin, Mr.

8 Layout Modifications Sep-2018 Sarmad Hassan

13 Lab Manual update Sep-2024 Abubaker Shakoor

14 Lab Manual Review Oct-2024 Dr. Jehangir Arshad

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

*Lab CLO 2 will be evaluated in Mid-Term and Terminal Lab Exam

CLOs – PLOs mapping change according to CDF

CLO Domain Domain Domain

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

i. Lab Assignment 1 Marks (Lab marks from Labs 1-3)

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Pre Lab Section

Part 2 – Calculation of Resistance with color codes and verification through

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Black 0 100 (1)

Figure ‎1.1: 4 Band Resistor

Figure ‎1.2: 5 Band Resistor

Figure ‎1.3: Reading the colour codes of resistors

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Lab Task 2: Circuit implementation using hardware and software

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

2. Construct a series circuit of these resistors as shown below.

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula

Figure ‎1.7:Series circuit

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Lab task 4: Parallel Circuit

Figure ‎1.8: Resistors connected in parallel

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula

Figure ‎1.9: Parallel circuit

6. Fill out the following table.

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Figure ‎1.10: Combination of series and parallel resistances

3. Calculate the equivalent resistance using formula.

Figure ‎1.11: Series and parallel circuit

7. Fill out the following table.

Lab task 6: View point

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Figure ‎1.12: Illustration of view points

(a) (b) (c)

6. Fill out the following table

Post Lab Section

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Instructor Signature: ______________________________ Date: ____________________

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Pre Lab Section

Pre Lab Exercise Question:

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Figure ‎2.2: Single mesh multiple nodes circuit

2. Identify nodes and mark them. These are 1, 2, 3 and 4.

I41= I12= I23= I34=

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

I41= I12= I24= I23= I34=

-I12 + I24 + I23 = + + =

-I24 - I34 + I41 = - - + =

Lab task 3: Unknown current calculation

Figure ‎2.4: Circuit for calculating the value of I34

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

I12= I13= I24=

I34 = I12 + I13 - I24 = + - =

Post Lab Section

|CPE122 | Linear Circuit Analysis Lab Manual

Program: _ Batch: _______________

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date:

Instructor Signature: __________ Date: