IDENTIFICATION & TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS LIKE

R, L, C, DIODES, TRANSISTORS

EXP NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To Identify and testing of Electronic components like R, L, C, Diodes, Transistors.

THEORY:
RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals.
This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. A device used in electrical circuits to maintain a constant
relation between current flow and voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different
points in a circuit and to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among other uses.
The electrical behavior of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some resistors are
sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Resistors are one of the most used components in a circuit. Most are color coded, but some have their
value in Ohms and their tolerance printed on them. A multimeter that can check resistance can also be
helpful, providing the resistor is already removed from the board (measuring it while still soldered in can
give inaccurate results, due to connections with the rest of the circuit). They are typically marked with an
“R” on a circuit board.

INDUCTORS
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which
resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually
wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil.
When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a
voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law
opposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color coded, the
resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure inductance will be needed.
They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils
separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices.
Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them, some are marked
with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above for resistors can also help
you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an “C” on a circuit board.

DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance, it has
low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
other. Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with an “D” on a circuit board).

TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)
power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more
are found embedded in integrated circuits. Transistors (typically marked with an “Q” on a circuit board).
MULTIMETER
A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such as
AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter because it combines the
functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have other functions, such as
diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test. The display usually has four
digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters have illuminated displays for better
viewing in low light situations. The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different
things such as milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance.
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common and
is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally black but there
is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is the special port used when
measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is conventionally
plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance
(Ω). The probes have a banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a
banana plug will work with this meter.

RESULT:
Thus the electronic components like R, L, C, Diodes, Transistors are identified and tested.
 STUDY OF DSO, FUNCTION GENERATOR, REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

EXP NO:
DATE:

THEORY:
DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
The digital storage oscilloscope is defined as the oscilloscope which stores and analysis the signal
digitally, i.e. in the form of 1 or 0 preferably storing them as analogue signals. The digital oscilloscope takes
an input signal, store them and then display it on the screen. The digital oscilloscope has advanced features
of storage, triggering and measurement. Also, it displays the signal visually as well as numerically.
The digital oscilloscope digitizes and stores the input signal. This can be done by the use of CRT
(Cathode ray tube) and digital memory. The block diagram of the basic digital oscilloscope is shown in the
figure below. The digitization can be done by taking the sample input signals at periodic waveforms.

The maximum frequency of the signal which is measured by the digital oscilloscope depends on the two
factors. These factors are the
● Sampling rate
● Nature of converter
Sampling Rate – For safe analysis of input signal the sampling theory is used. The sampling theory states
that the sampling rate of the signal must be twice as fast as the highest frequency of the input signal. The
sampling rate means analogue to digital converter has a high fast conversion rate.

Converter – The converter uses the expensive flash whose resolution decreases with the increases of a
sampling rate. Because of the sampling rate, the bandwidth and resolution of the oscilloscope are limited.

The need of the analogue to digital signal converters can also be overcome by using the shift register. The
input signal is sampled and stored in the shift register. From the shift register, the signal is slowly read out
and stored in the digital form. This method reduces the cost of the converter and operates up to 100 mega
sample per second.

The only disadvantage of the digital oscilloscope is that it does not accept the data during digitization, so it
had a blind spot at that time.

FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth shapes.
These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.

Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not suitable
for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those traits are required, other
signal generators would be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may be a
frequency reference) or another function generator. Function generators are used in the development, test
and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or
to introduce an error signal into a control loop.

POWER SUPPLY
A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit. It converts unregulated ac into a constant dc, with
the help of a rectifier. Its function is to supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device
that must be operated within certain power supply limits. The output from the regulated power supply may
be alternating or unidirectional, but is nearly always DC.
The type of stabilization used may be restricted to ensuring that the output remains within certain
limits under various load conditions, or it may also include compensation for variations in its own supply
source.
 The block diagram of an ordinary power supply is depicted in the figure. Usually, a small dc
voltage, in the range of 2—24 volts is required for the operation of different electronic circuits, while in
India, single-phase ac supply is available at 230 V. So a small step-down transformer is used at the
beginning which reduces the voltage level according to the needs.
Next block is a rectifier which converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into pulsating dc. In the last there
is. A filter block which reduces the ripples (ac components) from the rectifier output voltage. The filter is
a device which passes dc component to the load and blocks ac components of the rectifier output.
APPLICATIONS OF POWER SUPPLY
● Mobile Phone power adaptors
● Regulated power supplies in appliances
● Various amplifiers and oscillators

RESULT:
Thus the study of DSO, Function Generator, Regulated Power Supply are successfully
completed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:
 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
EXP NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To determine and plot the V&I characteristics of the PN junction diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.N
ITEM RANGE QUANTITY
O
1. Resistor 1KΩ 1
(0-30) V 1
2. DC Voltmeter
(0-10) V 1
3. DC Ammeter (0-100) mA 1
4. PN diode IN4007/1A 1
Regulated Power
5. (0-30) V 1
Supply
6. Bread board - 1
THEORY:
● In a piece of semiconductor material one half is doped by the P type impurity and the other half is
doped by N type impurity, a PN junction is formed.
● The N type material has high concentration of free electrons while the p type material has a high
concentration of holes.
● Size and doping concentration of both p type material and n type materials should be same.
● Due to the Diffusion Process P-N junction is formed. A non-conducting barrier exhibits internal
potential.
● Under forward bias condition when applied voltage is greater than the barrier voltage then the
junction disappears.
● Cut in voltage for silicon diode is 0.7 volts and germanium for 0.3 volts.
● Forward resistance of a diode is calculated from ∆Vf/∆If = ∆R.
● Under reverse bias condition depletion thickness is increased and there is no majority current flow.
Minority current flow takes
place.
● Further increase in reverse bias
voltage, temperature increases at
the junction and avalanche
multiplication process starts.
● At particular voltage, junction
breaks down due to avalanche
break down process.
TABULATION:

PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram in the bread board.
 2. Vary the power supply voltage, and tabulate the output voltage and current readings.
3. Repeat the same Procedure for reverse bias connection of PN junction diode.
4. Plot the Forward and reverse Bias readings in the graph.
5. Calculate the resistance of the diode at forward bias connection.
6. Calculate the Cut-in voltage.
7. Calculate the resistance of the diode at reverse bias connection.
8. Calculate the reverse Breakdown voltage of P-N Junction diode.

RESULT:
Thus the VI characteristics of PN junction diode were determined and the graphs were plotted for
its forward and reverse bias.
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:
 ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
EXP NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To determine
S.N COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY and plot the
O characteristics of
1. Resistor 1K Ω 1 given Zener diode.
2. DC Voltmeter (0-30) V 1 APPARATUS
(0-10) V 1 REQIURED:
3. DC Ammeter (0-100) mA, 1
4. Zener diode 1
5. Regulated Power (0-30) V 1
Supply
6. Bread board - 1

THEORY:
● Zener diode is heavily doped then that of ordinary PN junction diode.
● If the diode is heavily doped depletion layer will be thin and consequently break down occurs at
lower reverse voltage and the break down voltage is sharp.
● Break down voltage can be selected with the amount of doping.
● The VI characteristics are found to the same as PN junction diode of ordinary forward bias
condition.
● At reverse bias connection, thin depletion layer will get breakdown due to direct rupture by reverse
bias voltage.
● When the reverse bias voltage increases an electric field will be setup (capacitor effect) and that
electric field is enough to rupture the barrier.
● Here there is no avalanche process. The above process is called Zener break down.
● Due this sharp reverse breakdown Zener diode can be used as a Regulator circuit at reverse bias
connection.
TABULATION:
PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram in the bread board.
2. Vary the power supply voltage, and tabulate the output voltage and current readings
3. Repeat the same Procedure for reverse bias connection of Zener diode.
4. Plot the Forward and reverse Bias readings in the graph.
5. Calculate the resistance of the diode at forward bias connection.
6. Calculate the Cut-in voltage.
7. Calculate the resistance of the diode at reverse bias connection.
8. Calculate the reverse Breakdown voltage of Zener diode.

RESULT:
 Thus the characteristics of given Zener diode was determined and the graph was plotted for its forward
and reverse bias.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH OUT FILTER

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
 HALFWAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER
EXP NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To design a Half Wave Rectifier with and without filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1 Transformer 9-0-9 v 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
Capacitor 1µF, 10µF, 100µF, 1 each
3
1000µF
4 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1

THEORY:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER
In Half wave rectifier, rectifying element conducts only during positive half cycle of input a.c
supply. The negative half cycles of a.c supply are eliminated from the output. The rectifier circuit are
operated from ac mains supply. To obtain the desired d.c voltage across the load, the a.c output is applied to
rectifier circuit using suitable step up or step down transformer, with necessary turns ratio.
During the positive half cycle of secondary a.c voltage, terminal A becomes positive with respect
to terminal B. The diode is forward biased and the current flows in the circuit in the clock wise direction.
The current will flow for almost full positive half cycle. This current is also flowing through load resistance
RL hence denoted as iL, the load current.
During negative half cycle when terminal A is negative with respect to terminal B, diode becomes
reverse biased. Hence no current flows in the circuit. Thus the circuit current, which is also the load current,
is in the form of half sinusoidal pulses.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

Output from the rectifier is pulsating DC but our aim is to get constant DC voltage. To get constant DC
rectifier with filter circuit is used. In this half wave rectifier with filter a capacitor is added parallel with the
load resistor. This form a RC circuit and it sets a time constant. Choosing the resistor and capacitor values,
the capacitor discharging time is altered. Choosing High R & C values the time constant is more so that the
capacitor discharges very slowly. Finally, the capacitor cannot discharge fully because next pulse comes
quicker than the discharging time of capacitor. Therefore, always there is a voltage is across the capacitor.
That we can uses as constant DC voltage.
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

WITHOUT FILTER WITH FILTER

Amplitude Time period Capacitor Amplitude Time period
(v) (ms) (µf) (v) (ms)
Vac Vdc Ton Toff
INPUT

OUTPUT
PROCEDURE:
● Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
● Note down the Amplitude and time period for the half wave rectifier circuit across the CRO.
● Connect the Capacitor in parallel with the resistor of half wave rectifier circuit and note down the
corresponding amplitude and time period for different values of capacitance.
● Graphs are plotted by considering amplitude versus time.
RESULT:
Thus the half wave rectifier circuit is designed and the graphs are plotted.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH OUT FILTER

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER
EXP. NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To design a full Wave Rectifier with and without filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1 Center tapped transformer 9-0-9 v 1
2 Diode 1N4007 2
Capacitor 1µF, 10µF, 100µF, 1 each
3
1000µF
4 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1

THEORY:
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half cycles of input a.c supply.
In order to rectify both the half cycles of input a.c input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed
a common load Rl with the help of a center tap transformer. The a.c voltage is applied through a suitable
power transformer with proper turns ratio.
Consider the positive half cycle of ac input voltage in which terminal A is positive and terminal B
is negative. The diode D1 will be forward biased and hence will conduct; while diode D2 will be reverse
biased and will act as an open circuit and will not conduct.
The diode D1 supplies the load current. This current is flowing through the upper half of
secondary winding while the lower half of the transformer carries no current since diode D2 is reverse
biased and act as an open circuit.
In the next half cycle of a.c voltage, polarity reverses and terminal A becomes negative and b is
positive. The diode D2 conducts, being forward biased, while D1 does not, being reverse biased.
The diode D2 supplies the load current. Now the lower half of the secondary winding carries the
current but the upper half does not.
Load current flows in both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load
resistance. Hence, rectified output is obtained at the output. The load current is sum of individual diode
currents flowing in corresponding half cycles.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER
Output from the rectifier is pulsating DC but our aim is to get constant DC voltage. To get
constant DC rectifier with filter circuit is used. In this full wave rectifier with filter a capacitor is added
parallel with the load resistor. This form a RC circuit and it sets a time constant. Choosing the resistor and
capacitor values, the capacitor discharging time is altered. Choosing High R & C values the time constant is
more so that the capacitor discharges very slowly. Finally, the capacitor cannot discharge fully because next
pulse comes quicker than the discharging time of capacitor. Therefore, always there is a voltage is across
the capacitor. That we can uses as constant DC voltage.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
TABULATION:

WITHOUT FILTER WITH FILTER

Amplitude Time period Capacitor Amplitude Time period
(v) (ms) (µf) (v) (ms)
Vac Vdc Ton Toff
INPUT

OUTPUT

PROCEDURE:
● Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
● Note down the Amplitude and time period for the full wave rectifier circuit across the CRO.
● Connect the Capacitor in parallel with the resistor of full wave rectifier circuit and note down the
corresponding amplitude and time period for different values of capacitance.
● Graphs are plotted by considering amplitude versus time.
RESULT:
Thus the full wave rectifier circuit is designed and the graphs are plotted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER CB CONFIGURATION

SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER CB CONFIGURATION
EX.NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To plot the input and output characteristics of a Transistor in CB configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1. Transistor BC107 1
2. Resistor 1k Ώ 2
3. (0-15) mA 1
DC Ammeter
(0-100) mA 1
(0-1) V
4. Voltmeter 1
(0-30)V
2
5. RPS (0-30) V

THEORY:
The BJT consists of a silicon crystal in which the thin layer of N type silicon in which sandwiched
between two layers of P type silicon this transistor is PNP. In NPN transistor is a layer of P type silicon in
which sandwiched between two layers of N type silicon this transistor is NPN.
The three regions of the transistor are emitter base and collector. Emitter is highly doped. In CB
configuration input is applied between emitter and base terminals. Output is taken between collector and
base terminals. Here base terminal is common to input and output circuit.
The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current is known as base current.
∆IC
The amplification factor is ά = ---------- = hfb (Forward current gain)
 ∆ IE
Where ά is current gain of CB configuration and it is always less than unity. Therefore, CB
configuration will amplify voltage but not current.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
It is curve between base current I B and base emitter voltage VBE at constant collector emitter voltage
VCB. When VCB= 0 voltage the emitter – base junction is forward biased and the junction behaves like a
forward biased diode hence the input characteristic for V CB = 0 voltage is similar to that of a forward biased
diode. When VCB increased the width of the depletion layer at the reverse biased collector junction will
increase. Hence the effective width of the base will decrease. This effect causes a decrease in the base
current IE. Hence to get the same value of IE as that of VCB = o voltage VEB should be increased. Therefore,
the curve shifts to right as VCB increases.
∆ VEB
RI = ---------- = hIB
∆ IE
Input resistance is of the order of few hundred and comparatively lower than CE configuration.

TABULATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCB = V VCB = V
VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
IE = (mA) IE = (mA)
VCB(V) Ic(mA) VCB(V) Ic(mA)
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
To determine the output characteristics, the emitter current I E is kept constant at a suitable value by
adjusting base emitter voltage. The magnitude of collector emitter voltage V CB is increased in suitable equal
steps from zero and the collector current Ic is noted for each setting V CE i.e for each IE value. Now the
curves of Ic verses VCB are plotted for different constant values of IB.
Output Admittance is defined as the ratio of change in the output collector current to the
corresponding change in the output collector voltage with the emitter current IE kept constant.
∆IC
hob = --------
∆VCB
Reverse voltage gain is defined as the ratio of change in the input base voltage and the
corresponding change in output collector voltage with constant input base current.
∆VEB
hrb = ----------
∆VCB

PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. To measure the input characteristics, keep the output voltage (Vcb) is constant, vary the input
voltage (Veb) and note the input current (Ie).
3. Repeat the above procedure for various output constant voltages.
4. To measure the output characteristics, keep the input current (Ie) is constant, vary the output voltage
(Vcb) and note the output current (Ic).
5. Repeat the above procedure for various input constant currents.
6. Plot the input and output characteristics.
7. Calculate the input impedance (hie) from input curve & output admittance (hoe) and reverse voltage
gain (hre) from output characteristics.
 8. Verify the final results with the data sheet given to that particular transistor.

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of common base configuration were determined and the graph was plotted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR IN CE CONFIGURATION

INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER CE CONFIGURATION

EX.NO:
DATE:

AIM:
To plot the input and output characteristics of a Transistor in CE configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.N COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
O
1 Transistor BC107 1
 2. Resistor 1k Ώ 2
(0-1) mA 1
3. DC Ammeter (0-100) mA 1
(0-10) mA 1
(0-30) V 1
4. Voltmeter
(0-1) V 1
5. RPS (0-30) V 1

THEORY:
The BJT consists of a silicon crystal in which the thin layer of N type silicon in which sandwiched
between two layers of P type silicon this transistor is PNP. In NPN transistor is a layer of P type silicon in
which sandwiched between two layers of N type silicon this transistor is NPN.
The three regions of the transistor are emitter base and collector. Emitter is highly doped.
In CE configuration input is applied between base and emitter. Output is taken from the collector
and emitter. Here emitter terminal is common to both input and output circuit.
The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current is known as base current.
∆IC
The amplification factor is β = ---------- = hfe (Forward current gain)
∆ IB
Where β is the current gain for CE configuration of a transistor.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
It is curve between base current I B and base emitter voltage VBE at constant collector emitter voltage
VCE. When VCE = 0 voltage the emitter – base junction is forward biased and the junction behaves like a
forward biased diode hence the input characteristic for VCE = 0 voltage is similar to that of a forward biased
diode. When Vce increased the width of the depletion layer at the reverse biased collector junction will
increase. Hence the effective width of the base will decrease. This effect causes a decrease in the base
current IB. Hence to get the same value of I B as that of VCE = o voltage Vbe should be increased. Therefore,
the curve shifts to right as Vce increases.
Input resistance of CE is higher than of CB circuit.
∆ VBE
RI = ---------- = hie
∆ IB
(Input resistance is of the order of few hundred)

TABULATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCE = V VCE = V
VBE(V) IB(mA) VBE(V) IB(mA)
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
IB = (mA) IB = (mA)
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
To determine the output characteristics, the base current Ib is kept constant at a suitable value by
adjusting base emitter voltage. The magnitude of collector emitter voltage V CE is increased in suitable equal
steps from zero and the collector current I C is noted for each setting V CE. Now the curves of IC verses Vce
are plotted for different constant values of Ib.
Output Admittance is defined as the ratio of change in the output collector current to the
corresponding change in the output collector voltage with the base current Ib kept constant.
 ∆IC
hoe = --------
∆VCE
Reverse voltage gain is defined as the ratio of change in the input base voltage and the
corresponding change in output collector voltage with constant input base current.
∆VBE
hre = ----------
∆VCE

PROCEDURE:
● Give the connections as per the circuit diagram in the bread board.
● To measure the input characteristics, keep the output voltage (V CE) is constant, vary the input
voltage (VBE) and note the input current (IB).
● Repeat the above procedure for various output constant voltages.
● To measure the output characteristics, keep the input current (I B) is constant, vary the output voltage
(VCE) and note the output current (IC).
● Repeat the above procedure for various input constant currents.
● Plot the input and output characteristics.
● Calculate the input impedance (hie) from input curve & output admittance (hoe) and reverse voltage
gain (hre) from output characteristics.
● Verify the final results with the data sheet given to that particular transistor.

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of common emitter configuration were determined and the graph was
plotted.

SYMBOL:
OP-AMP LM741 PIN CONFIGURATION:

SPECIFICATIONS:
● Supply voltage : ± 18V
● Internal power dissipation : 310mw
● Input voltage : ± 15V
● Operating temperature range : 0ºC to 70ºC
FEATURES:
● No external frequency compensation is required
● Short circuit protection
● Offset null capability
● IC741 is available in three packages: 8-pin metal can 10-pin flat pack and 8or14-pin DIP

INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIERS

EX.NO:
DATE:

AIM:
 To design and test inverting & non-inverting amplifiers using IC µA 741.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1. Dual RPS (0-30) V 1
2. Function Generator (0-3) MHz 1
3. CRO (0-30) MHz 1
4. Operational Amplifier IC 741 1
5. Resistor
6. Bread Board - 1
7. Connecting wires and probes - As required

THEORY:
Op-amp in open-loop configuration has a very few applications because of its enormous open-loop
gain. Controlled gain can be can be achieved by taking a part of output signal to the input with the help of
feedback. This is called as Closed-Loop Configuration. The three basic types of closed-loop amplifier
configuration are:
● Inverting amplifier.
● Non-inverting amplifier.
● Differential amplifier.

The entire configuration can be operated with either AC or DC input.

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
If the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal through an input resistance, a part of output is
feedback to the inverting terminal through feedback resistance Rf and the non-inverting terminal grounded,
0
then the configuration is said to be Inverting Amplifier. It provides 180 phase shift or polarity reversal for
the given input. The circuit closed-loop voltage gain is
A=-Rf/Ri
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
If the input signal is given to non-inverting terminal & the feedback from output is connected to
inverting terminal of an op-amp through a potential divider network, then it is called as Non-Inverting
Amplifier Configuration. It operates in a same way as a voltage follower (unity gain buffer), except that the
output voltage is potentially divided before it is feedback to the inverting input terminal. No phase shift or
change in the circuit closed loop polarity occurs voltage gain is

A=1+Rf/Ri.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR INVERTING AMPLIFIER

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL VOLTAGE

S.NO GAIN
AMPLITUDE(V) TIME (ms) AMPLITUDE(V) TIME (ms) Av=Vo/
Vi
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL VOLTAGE

S.NO GAIN
TIME TIME
AMPLITUDE(V) AMPLITUDE(V)
(ms) (ms) Av=Vo/Vi
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. + Vcc and - Vcc supply is given to the power supply terminal of the Op - Amp IC.
3. By adjusting the amplitude and frequency knobs of the function generator, appropriate input
voltage is applied to the inverting / non - inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp.
4. The output voltage is obtained in the CRO and the input and output voltage waveforms are plotted
in a graph sheet.
RESULT
The design and testing of the inverting and non-inverting amplifier was done and the input and output
waveforms were drawn.

OP-AMP APPLICATIONS – ADDER, SUBTRACTOR, COMPARATOR CIRCUITS

EX.NO:
DATE:
AIM:
To study the applications of Op Amp as adder, subtractor, comparator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1. Dual RPS (0-30) V 1
2. Function Generator (0-3) MHz 1
3. CRO (0-30) MHz 1
4. Operational Amplifier IC 741 1
5. Resistor
6. Bread Board - 1
7. Connecting wires and probes As required

THEORY:
ADDER
Op-Amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals such as
circuit is called a summing amplifier or summer. We can obtain either inverting or non-inverting summer.
The circuit diagrams show at input inverting summing amplifier. It has two input voltages V1andV2, two
input resistors R1, R2 and a feedback resistor Rf.
Assuming that op – amp is in ideal conditions and input bias current is assumed to be zero, there is no
voltage drop across the resistor R comp and hence the non-inverting input terminal is at ground potential.
By taking nodal equations.
V1/R1+V2/R2+V0/Rf=0
V0 = -[(Rf/R1) V1+(Rf/R2) V2]
And hereR1=R2=Rf=1KΩ
V0 = - (V1+V2)
Thus output is inverted and sum of input.

SUBTRACTOR
A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor. It has two input signals V1and V2 and two
input resistances R1andR2 and a feedback resistor Rf. The input signals scaled to the desired values by
selecting appropriate values for the external resistors.
From the figure, the output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of ‘1’ is
V0=-R/Rf(V2-V1)
V0=V1-V2.
Also R1=R2=Rf=1KΩ.
Thus, the output voltage V0 is equal to the voltage V1 applied to the non-inverting terminal minus voltage
V2 applied to inverting terminal. Hence the circuit is sub tractor.
COMPARATOR
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp with a
known reference voltage at the other input. It is basically an open loop op-amp with output ±Vsat as in the
ideal transfer characteristics.
It is clear that the change in the output state takes place with an increment in input Vi of only 2mv.This is
the uncertainty region where output cannot be directly defined There are basically 2 types of comparators.
● Non inverting comparator
● Inverting comparator.
The applications of comparator are zero crossing detector, window detector, time marker generator and
phase meter
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
ADDER

SUBTRACTOR

COMPARATOR
TABULATIONS:
ADDER:
V1 V2 Theoretical Practical
V0= - (V1+V2) V0 = - (V1+V2)

SUBTRACTOR:
V1 V2 Theoretical Practical
V0= - (V1+V2) V0 = - (V1+V2)

COMPARATOR:
Voltage input Vref Observed square wave
amplitude

MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
ADDER
1. 1.connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. 2.Apply input voltage
1) V1=5v, V2=2v
2) V1=5v, V2=5v
3) V1=5v, V2=7v.
3. 3.Using Millimeter measure the dc output voltage at the output terminal.
4. 4.For different values ofV1and V2 measure the output voltage.

SUBTRACTOR
1. 1.Connectionsaremade as per the circuit diagram.
2. 2.Apply input voltage
1) V1=5v, V2=2v
2) V1=5v, V2=5v
3) V1=5v, V2=7v.
3. 3.Using multi meter measure the dc output voltage at the output terminal.
4. 4.For different values ofV1and V2measure the output voltage.

COMPARATOR
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Select the sine wave of10V peak to peak ,1K Hz frequency.
3. Apply the reference voltage 2V and trace the input and output wave forms.
4. Superimpose input and output waveforms and measure sine wave amplitude with reference to Vref.
5. Repeatsteps3and 4with referencevoltagesas2V,4V, -2V, -4Vandobserve the Wave forms.
6. Replace sine wave input with 5V dc voltage and Vref=0V.
 7. Observe dc voltage at output using CRO.
8. Slowly increase Vref voltage and observe the change in saturation voltage.

RESULT:
Thus the applications of Op Amp as adder, subtractor, comparator are studied and graphs are
plotted.