Electric Vehicle

Course
Module 0.1

Basics
of Electronics
 1. Voltage, Current and Ohm’s Law

2. DC vs. AC Current

3. Series Circuit vs. Parallel Circuit

4. Resistor

Agenda 5.

6.
Capacitor

Inductor

7. Voltage Divider

8. Magnetic Field

9. Right Hand Rule

10. Conductor and Insulator

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 11. Semiconductors

12. P-N Junction

13. Diodes

14. Bipolar Junction Transistor

Agenda 15. MOSFET

16. IGBTs

17. Various Laws of Electromagnetism

18. Energy Loss

19. Lenz's Law

20. Terminology for Motor

21. Inductance

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Voltage, Current
and Ohm’s Law

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Voltage, Current and Ohm’s Law

● Water = Charge
● Pressure = Voltage
● Flow = Current (Charge per unit time)

Voltage

Resistanc
e Power
Supply

Current

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DC vs. AC Current

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DC vs. AC Current

Voltage Voltage

Direct Current
Alternate Current

Time
Time

The direction of the current

The direction of the current is
and voltage is always same.
always switched periodically.

Alternate Current Direct Current

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 Series Circuit
vs. Parallel Circuit

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Series Circuit vs. Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

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Resistor

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Resistance

Resistance refers to the opposition that a material

offers to the flow of electric current. It is a fundamental
property of materials and is measured in ohms (Ω).
When a voltage is applied across a material, a current
flows through it.

However, due to the presence of resistance, the flow of

current encounters obstacles, leading to the conversion
of electrical energy into heat.

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Resistor

A resistor is an electronic component specifically

designed to introduce a certain amount of resistance
into an electric circuit. It is used to control the flow of
current in a circuit and to create specific voltage drops.

Resistors are passive components, meaning they do

not introduce any energy gain or storage into the
circuit; their purpose is solely to provide resistance.

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Capacitor

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Capacitor

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores

electric energy. It consists of two plates separated by
an insulating material. When voltage is applied, one
plate accumulates positive charge and the other
accumulates negative charge, creating an electric field.

Capacitors are used for energy storage, noise filtering,

and signal coupling in electronic circuits. They're
measured in farads (F), with common units like
microfarads (μF) and nano-farads (nF).

Where,
E= Energy
C= capacitance
Q= charge
V= Voltage or potential
difference

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Inductor

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Inductor

An inductor is an electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when current flows
through it. It typically consists of a coil of wire wound around a core material. When current passes through the
coil, a magnetic field is generated around it. When the current changes, the magnetic field induces a voltage
across the coil, opposing the change in current.

Inductors are used in electronic circuits for various purposes, such as filtering out high-frequency noise, energy
storage, and creating time delays. They resist changes in current flow and are measured in units called henrys
(H).

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Voltage Divider

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Voltage Divider

A voltage divider is a simple electronic circuit

arrangement consisting of two or more resistors
connected in series. Its primary purpose is to divide a
given input voltage into smaller output voltages. This
can be useful in various applications, such as setting
reference voltages, biasing transistors, or scaling down
signal levels.

The voltage divider circuit works based on the

principle that the voltage across each resistor in a
series circuit is proportional to its resistance value.
Voltage dividers are commonly used in various
electronic applications, including sensor interfacing,
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), level shifting, and
more.

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Magnetic Field

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Magnetic Field

1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field

in the area around it.

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage

in a coil of wire if it passes through that coil. (This is
the basis of transformer action)

C
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a
magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This is the
basis of motor action)

4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field

has a voltage induced in it. (This is the basis of
Magnetic Field
generator action).

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Right Hand Rule

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Right Hand Rule

C C

Fleming Right
Curl Right Hand Rule
Hand Rule

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Conductor and
Insulator

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Conductor and Insulator

C C

e.g. Wood, Plastic, Neon

e.g. Copper, Silver, Aluminum
8 electrons in outermost orbit.
1 electron in outer most orbit.
Conductor Insulator

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Semiconductors

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Semiconductors

P Type
SemiConductor
C

e.g. Silicon
4 electron in outer most orbit.

Semiconductor
N Type
SemiConductor
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P-N Junction

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P-N Junction

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Diodes

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Diodes

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Bipolar Junction
Transistor

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Bipolar Junction Transistor

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device that operates as an amplifier or a
switch. It's one of the most fundamental components in modern electronics. BJTs are commonly used in a
wide range of applications, including signal amplification, voltage regulation, oscillators, and digital logic
circuits.
There are two main types of BJTs:
● NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) and PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive).
● These terms refer to the arrangement of the layers of semiconductor material within the transistor.

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Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Characteristics Description

BJTs can amplify current or voltage signals, making them essential for signal amplification in
Amplification
electronic circuits.

They have three terminals: Base (B), Emitter (E), and Collector (C), each serving a distinct role in
Three Terminals
controlling current flow.

BJTs come in two types: NPN (Emitter more negative than Base) and PNP (Emitter more positive
NPN and PNP Types
than Base).

A small current at the Base controls a larger current between the Collector and Emitter, enabling
Current Control
signal amplification.

Transistor Modes BJTs operate in three modes: Active (amplification), Cut-off (off), and Saturation (fully on).

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Characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Description
Characteristics

Biasing Emitter voltage biasing is crucial for correct transistor operation.

Applications Used in amplifiers, switches, voltage regulators, and logic circuits.

Current Flow Collector to Emitter, PNP: Emitter to Collector.

Amplification Small input signals control larger output signals.

Limitations Sensitive to temperature and power dissipation.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Amplification: BJTs provide high current gain and voltage Power Dissipation: BJTs can dissipate a significant
amplification, making them suitable for signal amount of power as heat, which can be a concern in
amplification in various electronic devices. high-power applications.

High Frequency Performance: BJTs can operate at high Low Input Impedance: BJTs have a relatively low input
frequencies, making them suitable for RF (radio frequency) impedance compared to some other transistor types,
applications. which can affect circuits' sensitivity to input signals.

Low Voltage Drop: In the ON state, BJTs typically have a

lower voltage drop across the Collector-Emitter junction Biasing Variability: BJTs' performance can be affected by
compared to some other transistor types, which can be temperature changes, leading to biasing stability issues.
advantageous in certain circuits.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple Biasing: Biasing BJTs for the desired operating Size and Cost: In some cases, BJTs can be larger and
point is relatively straightforward, making them easy to more expensive compared to other semiconductor
use in various circuits. devices like MOSFETs.

Low Noise: BJTs have relatively low noise characteristics, Limited Voltage Tolerance: BJTs may have limitations in
making them suitable for applications where noise high-voltage applications due to their breakdown voltage
performance is critical, such as audio amplifiers. characteristics.

Robustness: BJTs can handle high power levels and Switching Speed: While BJTs can operate at high
transient conditions. frequencies, they might not switch as fast as some other
transistor types, like MOSFETs.

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MOSFET

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MOSFET

A Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) is a type of transistor widely
used in electronics for switching and
amplification. It's a three-terminal device that
controls the flow of current between the Source
and Drain terminals using an electric field
generated by the voltage applied to the Gate
terminal.

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MOSFET

Characteristics Details

Three-Terminal Device MOSFETs have Source, Drain, and Gate terminals.

Gate Control Current flow between Source and Drain is controlled by the voltage applied to the Gate terminal.

N-Channel and P-Channel Two main types: N-channel (Source-Drain conducts when Gate is positive) and P-channel
Types (Source-Drain conducts when Gate is negative).

Voltage-Controlled Small Gate voltage changes lead to significant changes in Drain-Source current.

High Input Impedance MOSFETs have high input impedance, making them suitable for circuits requiring isolation.

Low Power Consumption Generally low power consumption, especially in standby

Fast Switching Capable of fast switching, suitable for high-frequency applications.

Gate Voltage Threshold Require a certain Gate voltage to turn on, affecting low-voltage operation.

Temperature Sensitivity Sensitivity to temperature changes, like other semiconductor devices.

Applications Used in power amplifiers, voltage regulators, digital logic circuits, and switching applications.

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MOSFET

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Fast Switching Speed: MOSFETs can switch on and off Voltage-Dependent Operation: MOSFETs are
rapidly, making them suitable for high-frequency voltage-controlled devices, which can make them
applications. sensitive to variations in voltage levels.

Low Power Consumption: Generally, MOSFETs have low Gate Threshold Voltage: MOSFETs require a specific
power dissipation, especially when in their off state. voltage (threshold voltage) to start conducting, which
might be a limitation in low-voltage applications.

High Input Impedance: MOSFETs have a high input Current Handling: MOSFETs can have limitations in
impedance, making them suitable for circuits where the handling high currents compared to some other devices
input signal needs to be isolated from the driving circuit. like IGBTs.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Compact Size: MOSFETs can be fabricated on small On-Resistance: MOSFETs have an inherent resistance
semiconductor chips, allowing for miniaturization in (on-resistance) when fully conducting, which can lead to
integrated circuits. voltage drops and power losses.

Noise Performance: MOSFETs have relatively low noise Temperature Sensitivity: Like other semiconductors,
characteristics, making them useful in sensitive analog MOSFETs can be sensitive to temperature changes.
circuits like audio amplifiers.

No Gate Current: MOSFETs have virtually no gate current Static Sensitivity: MOSFETs are susceptible to
flow, which simplifies driving circuits and reduces power electrostatic discharge (ESD) and can be damaged if
consumption. proper handling precautions aren't taken.

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IGBTs

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IGBTs

An Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a high-power semiconductor device that combines the
characteristics of a MOSFET and a bipolar transistor. It's used for switching and amplification in applications
that require both high voltage capability and high current-handling capability. IGBTs are often used in power
electronics and motor control systems.

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IGBTs

Characteristics Details

High Power Can handle both high voltage and high current, suitable for high-power applications.

Switching Speed Faster than traditional bipolar transistors, suitable for medium- to high-frequency operations.

Voltage-Controlled Controlled by voltage at the Gate terminal, like MOSFETs.

Low Saturation Voltage Lower voltage drop across Collector-Emitter terminals, reducing power losses.

Current Gain High current gain, enabling effective current handling.

Heat Considerations Require proper heat sinking due to heat generation during operation.

Applications Require proper heat sinking due to heat generation during operation.

Voltage Spike Inherent characteristics help suppress voltage spikes during switching.
Suppression

Efficiency Balances MOSFET fast switching with bipolar transistor current handling, enhancing efficiency.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

High Power Handling: Suitable for high voltage and current Switching Speed: Slower than some MOSFETs, not ideal for
applications. very high frequencies.

Fast Switching: Moderate switching speed, good for medium- Heat Generation: Generate heat, need proper cooling.
to high-frequency operations.

Low Saturation Voltage: Reduced voltage drop, leading to Gate Drive Complexity: Complex for high-voltage IGBTs.
lower power losses.

Current Amplification: High current gain, effective current Cost: Can be expensive due to high-power capabilities.
handling.

Efficiency: Efficient with MOSFET-like speed and bipolar Gate Drive Power: Require more Gate drive power than
transistor-like current handling. MOSFETs.

Applications: Used in motor drives, power inverters, Turn-Off Time: Longer turn-off time, affecting certain
high-power circuits. applications.

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 Various Laws
of Electromagnetism

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Gauss’ Law of Electromagnetism

Gauss' law for electricity describes the relationship between charge and an electric field. In equation form,

where E is the electric field strength vector, q is the electric charge, is the permittivity, and A is a vector
representing the area.

Gauss’ law for magnetism describes a key characteristic of magnetic fields. In equation form:

where B is the magnetic flux density vector, and A is a vector representing the area.

in simple terms, this law states that a magnetic field must have North and South poles. This is not the case for
electric fields, as positive and negative charge can exist independently.

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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction relates the production of an electric field to a changing magnetic
field:

where is the magnetic flux, t is time, and l is a vector representing length.

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Ampere—Maxwell Law of Electromagnetism

The Ampere—Maxwell law relates the production of a magnetic field to a changing electric field or current:

where H is the magnetic field strength, / is the electric current, E is the electric flux, and € is the permittivity.

This law states that a magnetic field can be created by electric current or by changing electric flux in the case of
a capacitor.

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Energy Loss

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Hysteresis Loss

Net dissipation of energy within the material, causing power loss within the magnetic material, known as
hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss per unit volume can be shown to be equal to the area of the hysteresis loop.

where h is a material parameter usually in the range 1.5 to 2.5.

The power dissipated within the core additionally increases with

(1) the frequency of magnetization f and

(2) the actual volume of the magnetic material Vc.

The hysteresis power loss Ph is described by the equation

where is a constant for a given specimen of material and a given range of flux density and frequency.

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Eddy Current Loss

According to Faraday’s law, a changing current in the winding results in a changing flux in the core. However, the
changing flux induces circulating voltages within the magnetic core, which result in circulating or eddy currents
within the core to oppose the flux changes. All electrical materials have a finite electrical resistivity (ideally, it
would be infinite for magnetic materials). The core resistance, together with eddy currents within the material,
result in eddy current loss.
For a core of volume Vc, the eddy current power loss Pe is given by:

Pe=keVcf 2B(acpk) 2

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Copper Loss
The coils of wire which form the winding of an inductor, or the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer, have an associated resistance. This resistance is modeled as an equivalent series resistance
(ESR or Rs or Rcu). When an rms current IL(rms) flows through the wire, the power loss is Rcu IL(rms)2. Copper is
typically used as the conductor, and so this conduction power loss is often termed the copper loss.
The resistance of the wire is given by
Rcu =ρ lcu / Acu

where lcu is the total length of the wire, Acu is the cross-sectional area of the wire, and ρ is the resistivity of
copper. The length lcu can be approximated by multiplying the turns N by the mean length per turn (MLT) of
wire wound around the core.
Thus, the resistance can be calculated from
Rcu =ρ (N ×MLT) / Acu

When conducting rms current IL(rms), the copper loss Pcu is given by

Pcu =RcuI2

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Lenz's Law

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Lenz’s Law
As per Lenz’s law, the induced emf is always in such a direction that it tends to set up a current which will oppose
the change of flux linkage or current responsible for inducing the emf. This is a similar statement to Newton’s
third law of motion — for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

In the elementary machine:

On generalizing for pole and conductors,

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Terminology for Motor

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Terminology for Motor: Four-Quadrant Operation
An electrical machine can operate across all four quadrants of operation, with positive and negative torque and
positive and negative speed.

The first quadrant of operation is for motoring in a forward direction with a positive torque and a positive speed. If
the machine is spinning in a forward direction with a positive speed and a negative torque, then the machine is
in the fourth quadrant and is for- ward generating/braking. If the machine is spinning in a reverse direction and
motoring in the third quadrant, then the torque and speed are both negative. Finally, if the machine is reversing
and generating/braking, then the speed is negative and the torque is positive and is in the second quadrant.

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Terminology for Motor

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Terminology for Motor: Rated Parameters

The rated parameters for the machine are the parameters for which the machine has been designed. These are
typically the rotor torque, rotor power, rotor speed, supply voltage, supply current, cooling conditions, ambient
temperature, and time duration. Under specified conditions, the machine outputs rated power at the rated
speed when supplied by rated voltage, current, and frequency.

The machine may be specified to operate at the rated power continuously, or for a rated period of time.

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Terminology for Motor

Rated Torque

The rated torque of the machine Tr(rated) is the rotor torque level at which the machine outputs the rated power
at the rated speed. This parameter is also known as the full-load torque.

Rated and Base Speeds

The rated speed, also known as the nominal or base speed, of the machine ωr(rated) is the speed at which the
machine has been designed to deliver the rated power.
The rated speed is often quoted as Nr(rated) with the units of revolutions per minute, or rpm, and is related to the
angular speed by

Nr rated =60×ωr rated / 2π

The base speed is the minimum speed at which the machine can deliver full power.

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Terminology for Motor

Rated Power

The rated power of the machine Pr(rated) is the power that the machine can output when operating
at rated torque and speed:

Pr rated = Tr rated ωr rated

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Terminology for Motor

RMF - Reluctance Magnetic Field: Reluctance is the opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the flow of
magnetic flux. The concept is similar to electrical resistance in an electric circuit. RMF refers to the magnetic
field generated by the flow of magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit with varying reluctance values. It's often
used in the analysis of magnetic circuits, which involve magnetic materials and their geometric arrangements.

EMF - Electromotive Force: EMF refers to the voltage or potential difference generated in a circuit due to a
change in magnetic flux. It's associated with Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that a
changing magnetic field induces an EMF in a conductor. EMF can lead to the flow of electric current in a closed
circuit and is a fundamental concept in understanding generators and transformers.

MMF - Magnetomotive Force: MMF is the force that drives the magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. It's
analogous to electromotive force (EMF) in electrical circuits. MMF is measured in ampere-turns and is used to
quantify the "push" that causes magnetic flux to flow through a magnetic circuit, overcoming the reluctance. In
essence, MMF is the cause, while magnetic flux is the effect.

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Inductance

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Inductance

Inductance is a fundamental property of an electrical circuit or component that describes its ability to store
energy in the form of a magnetic field when an electric current flows through it. It's a key concept in
electromagnetism and is measured in henrys (H). Inductance is symbolized by the letter "L.”

When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated around it. Inductance quantifies how
much magnetic flux (lines of magnetic field) is generated per unit of current. It's important to note that
inductance only comes into play when the current through the circuit changes, as this changing current
induces a change in the magnetic field and consequently an induced voltage (also known as back EMF or
counter EMF) across the inductor.

Major Types of Inductances:

Self Inductance Mutual Inductance

Leakage Inductance Distributed Inductance

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Inductance

Self-Inductance: This is the inductance exhibited by a single coil or inductor. When the current
flowing
through the coil changes, it induces a voltage across the coil itself, opposing the change in current.
Self-
inductance is measured in henrys (H).

Mutual Inductance: This occurs when the changing current in one coil induces a voltage in an
adjacent coil.
Mutual inductance is utilized in transformers and other devices where energy is transferred between
coils without
direct electrical contact.

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Inductance

Consider two coils: P — coil (Primary coil) and S — coil (Secondary coil). A battery and a key are
connected to the P-coil, whereas a galvanometer is connected across the S-coil. When there is a
change in the current or magnetic flux linked with the two coils, an opposing electromotive force is
produced across each coil, and this phenomenon is termed Mutual Inductance.

This phenomenon is given by the relation:

@=MI

Where M is termed as the mutual inductance of the two coils or the coefficient of the mutual
inductance of the two coils.

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Inductance

Leakage Inductance: In practical coils and transformers, not

all the magnetic flux generated by one coil links
with the other coil. This unused flux is termed "leakage flux,"
and the associated inductance is leakage
inductance. It's undesirable in some applications as it can lead
to voltage spikes and inefficient energy transfer.

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