Chapter 2

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electrostatic Potential Energy

Electrostatic potential energy difference between two points
Electric potential energy difference between two points in an electric field ,
can be defined as the work done by an external force in moving (without
accelerating) charge q from one point to another in the electric field .

P
∆U = UP − UR = − ∫R F . dr

• The work done by an electrostatic field in moving a charge from one

point to another depends only on the initial and the final points and is
independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other.
Electrostatic Potential Energy at a point
Electric potential energy at a point P in an electric field is defined as the
work done by the external force in bringing the charge q from infinity to
that point.
UP∞ = UP − U∞ = UP − 0 = UP
𝐏
𝐔𝐏 =− ∫∞ 𝐅 . 𝐝𝐫
Electrostatic Potential (V)
W
V=
q
W=qV
Unit of potential is J/C or volt (V)
Electrostatic Potential between two points
Electrostatic Potential difference between two points in an electric field is
the work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from
one point to other in that field.
W
VP − VR = RP
q
P
− ∫R F .dr
VP − VR =
q
F=qE
P
− ∫R qE .dr
VP − VR =
q
𝐏
𝐕𝐏 − 𝐕𝐑 = − ∫𝐑 𝐄 . 𝐝𝐫

Electrostatic Potential at a point P

Electrostatic Potential at a point P in an electric field is the work done by an
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
𝐏
𝐕𝐏 = − ∫∞ 𝐄 . 𝐝𝐫
Potential due to a Point Charge
Variation of potential V with r and Electric field with r for a point charge Q

Example
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10−7 C,located
9 cm away
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10−9 C from
infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path along which
the charge is brought?
1 𝑄
(a) V=
4πε0 𝑟
9 4 𝑥 10−7
= 9 × 10 x
0.09
𝟒
V = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 V
(b) W= qV
= 2 𝑥 10−9 x 4 𝑥 104
W = 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 J
No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal path
can be resolved into two perpendicular displacements: One along r and
another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to the later will be
zero.
Potential due to an Electric Dipole

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
−𝐫 =
𝐫𝟏 𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐪 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
V=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐
Potential due to a System of Charges
By the superposition principle, the potential at a point due to a system of
charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges.

V = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
V = + + ……………+
4πε0 r1 4πε0 r2 4πε0 rn

𝟏 𝐪 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝐧
𝐕 =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+ ……………+
𝐫𝐧
)
𝟏
Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

a)The potential at a distance r, from the shell ,where r≥ R

(R-radius of sphere)
For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the shell is
as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre
𝟏 𝐪
V= 𝟒𝛑𝛆 (r≥ R)
𝟎 𝐫
b) Inside the shell
Inside the shell the electric field is zero. This implies that the potential is
constant inside the shell ,which is equal to the value of potential at the
surface
𝟏 𝐪
V= 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐑

Example
Two charges 3 𝑥 10−8 C and –2 𝑥 10−8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what
point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take
the potential at infinity to be zero.

Let P lies between O and A at a distance x from O,

Potential at P due to charge 3 𝑥 10−8 C

1 3 𝑥 10−8
𝑉1 =
4πε0 𝑥

Potential at P due to charge −2 𝑥 10−8 C

1 −2 𝑥 10−8
𝑉2 =
4πε0 15−x
 Total potential at P , V=𝑉1 + 𝑉2 =0
1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
− =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 15−x

1 3 𝑥 10−8 2 𝑥 10−8
[ − ] =0
4πε0 𝑥 15−x
3 2
[ − ] =0
x 15−𝑥
3 2
=
x 15−𝑥

45-3x=2x
45=5x
x=9cm
If P lies on the extended line OA,

1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
- =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 x−15
3 2
=
x 𝑥−15

3x-45=2x
x=45cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive
charge on the side of the negative charge.
Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all
points on the surface.
• As there is no potential difference between any two points on an
equipotential surface, no work is required to move a test charge on the
surface.
• For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is
normal to the electric field at that point
Equipotential surfaces for a single point charge
For a single charge q, the potential is
1 q
V=
4πε0 r
V is a constant if r is constant .
Thus, equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical
surfaces centred at the charge.

Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.

Equipotential surfaces for a dipole

Equipotential surfaces for two identical positive charges.

Relation between electric field and potential
b)For a system of three charges
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Electrostatics of conductors
1.Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
A conductor has free electrons. In the static situation, the free charges have
so distributed themselves that the electric field is zero everywhere inside.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal
to the surface at every point.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation.
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface.
σ
5.Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E =
ε0

6.Electrostatic shielding
The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. This is known as
electrostatic shielding. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
outside electrical influence.
Why it is safer to be inside a car during lightning?
Due to Electrostatic shielding, electricfield E=0 inside the car.
So it is safer to sit inside a car than standing outside during lightening.

Dielectrics and polarisation

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, the
Dielectric substances may be made of polar or non polar molecules.
Non polar molecules

In a non-polar molecule, the centres of positive and negative charges

coincide. The molecule then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.
Eg: oxygen (O2 ) , hydrogen (H2 )
In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a nonpolar
molecule are displaced in opposite directions. The non-polar molecule thus
develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to be polarised by
the external field
Polar molecules

In polar molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are

separated (even when there is no external field). Such molecules have a
permanent dipole moment.
Eg: HCl , H2 O
In the absence of any external field, the different permanent dipoles are
oriented randomly ; so the total dipole moment is zero. When an external
field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the field. A
dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net dipole moment in an
external field.
Polarisation(P)
The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation .
For linear isotropic dielectrics,
𝐏 = 𝛘𝐞 𝐄
where χe is the electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
Capacitor
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator.
Capacitor is a charge storing device.

Capacitance
The potential difference, V ( V = V1 - V2 ) between the two is proportional to
the charge , Q.
Q∝V
Q=CV
𝐐
𝐂=
𝐕
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
C is independent of Q or V.
The capacitance C depends only on the geometrical configuration (shape,
size, separation) of the system of two conductors .
SI unit of capacitance is farad.
1 farad =1 coulomb volt −1
1 F = 1 C V −1
Other units are,
1 μF = 10 -6 F , 1 nF = 10 -9 F , 1 pF = 10-12 F, etc.
Symbol of capacitor
Fixed capacitance Variable capacitance

Q
• C= . For large C, V is small for a given Q. This means a capacitor
V
with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively
small V
• High potential difference implies strong electric field around the
conductors. A strong electric field can ionise the surrounding air and
accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely charged plates,
thereby neutralising the charge on the capacitor plates, at least partly.
 • The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric
strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 V𝑚−1
The parallel plate capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting
plates separated by a small distance.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance can be increased,

• By increasing the area of the plates.
• By decreasing the distance between the plates.
• By introducing a dielectric medium between the plates.
Effect of dielectric on capacitance
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when the medium between the
plates is air,
ε0 A
Cair =
d

When dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is placed between the

plates, the capacitance ,
Kε0 A
Cmed =
d

The capacitance increases K times, where K is the dielectric constant.

𝐂𝐦𝐞𝐝 =K 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
Definition of dielectric constant in terms of capacitance
Kε0 A
Cmed d
= ε0 A =K
Cair
d
𝐂𝐦𝐞𝐝
K= 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the capacitance
increases from its vacuum value, when a dielectric is inserted between the
plates.
Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors In Series

In series combination the charge Q is same and potential drop is different in

each capacitor. The total potential drop V across the combination is
V = V1 + V2
Q
V1 =
C1
Q
V2 =
C2
𝐐 𝐐
𝐕= + ---------(1)
𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
If the two capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacitance C with
the same charge Q and potential difference V.
𝐐
𝐕= ------------ (2)
𝐂
Q Q Q
Equating eq (1) & = +
C C1 C2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
▪ For n capacitors in series, = + + ……….. +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝐧
▪ If all the capacitors have the same value, C1 = C2 = ……………= Cn = C
1 n 𝐂
=C , 𝐂′ = 𝐧
C′
eg:- If C=1μF n=10
C 1μF
C′ = = = 0. 1μF
n 10
The effective capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in series.
In series combination the effective capacitance will be smaller than the
smallest among individual capacitors.
Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.

1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 8
= + + =
C 2F 5F 10F 10F
10F
C= =1.25F
8
Capacitors In Parallel

In parallel connection, the same potential drop across both the capacitors,
but the charges are different.
Q = Q1 + Q 2
Q1 = C1 V
Q 2 = C2 V
𝐐= 𝐂𝟏 V + 𝐂𝟐 V ------------ (1)
If the two capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacitance C with
the same charge Q and potential difference V.
Q=CV ------------------ (2)
From eq(1) & (2) CV = C1 V + C2 V
C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐
 ▪ For n capacitors in parallel , C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 + 𝐂𝟑 +……..+ 𝐂𝐧
▪ If all the capacitors have the same value, C1 = C2 = C3 =….....= Cn = C
𝐂 ′ = nC

Eg: If C=1μF n=10

C ′ = nC = 10 x 1μF = 10μF
The effective capacitance increases when capacitors are connected in
parallel. In parallel combination the effective capacitance will be greater
than the greatest among individual capacitors.

Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.

C = C1 + C2 + C3
C =0.1 μF + 0.2 μF + 0.3 μF
C =0.6 μF
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
1 2

This work is stored as potential energy in the electric field between the
plates.
𝐐𝟐
Energy 𝐔 =
𝟐𝐂

Energy stored in a capacitor can also be expressed as

 U
u=
Ad
Van de Graaff Generator
This is a machine that can build up high voltages of the order of a few million
volts. The resulting large electric fields are used to accelerate charged
particles (electrons, protons, ions) to high energies needed for experiments
to probe the small scale structure of matter.
Principle
If a small charged sphere , is introduced into a large charged spherical
conducting shell and if these two spheres are connected by a wire, the
charge on the smaller sphere will immediately flow onto the surface of
larger sphere. We can in this way keep piling up larger and larger amount of
charge on the larger sphere.
Construction and working of Van de Graaff generator

A large spherical conducting shell (of few metres radius) is supported at a

height several meters above the ground on an insulating column. A long
narrow endless belt insulating material, like rubber or silk, is wound around
two pulleys – one at ground level, one at the centre of the shell. This belt is
kept continuously moving by a motor ,which is connected to the lower
pulley. The belt continuously carries positive charge, sprayed on to it by a
brush at ground level, to the top. These positive charges are transferred to
another conducting brush connected to the large shell. Thus positive charge
is transferred to the shell, where it spreads out uniformly on the outer
surface. In this way, voltage differences of as much as 6 or 8 million volts
(with respect to ground) can be built up.