PREPARED BY:

DR. ZULKIFFLI BIN ABDUL HAMID

1
 PART 1
BASIC COMPONENTS

2
Introduction
 Electrical power system:
 A network of components designed to transmit and distribute the energy
produced by generators to locations where it is used.
 Required to generate and supply electrical energy to consumers.

 The three main characteristics of electricity supply are as follows:

 Electricity cannot be stored in bulk form. Thus, power must be generated
continuously so that it meets the demand at a specific voltage and
frequency.
 Increases in population, industrial expansion, housing areas and etc lead to
the continuous increase in demand for power.
 Power station is located near to the resources location.

3
Introduction
 The power system today is a complex interconnected network.

 The basic components of a power system are:

 Generation
 Transmission and subtransmission
 Distribution
 Loads

4
Introduction
Generator Load
bus Transformer bus

Generator
Load

Generation Transmission Distribution

Power system representation

5
 100 kV to 500 kV 10 kV to 20 kV

10 kV to 30 kV
240 V and 415 V

6
Generation
 Generation is the first part of power system and is responsible for generating
electricity through synchronous generators.

 The synchronous generators are the essential components of generation and it

is located in power plant.

 Synchronous generator is driven by prime mover (such as steam turbine, gas

turbine, hydraulic turbine, nuclear fuel, diesel engine).

 Generation is modeled by an AC voltage source in power system.

 Standard generated voltage (TNB) by a power plant is between 10 kV to 25 kV.

7
Generation
Powers supplied by all power stations are based on power demand,
which is predicted based on previous demand.

Daily load curve for 24 hours

8
Method of electricity generation
Other Process
(turbine & Electrical
energies energy
generator)

Method of Power plant Source of energy

generation
Thermal energy Thermal power plant Coal, oil, gas

Kinetic energy Hydroeletric power Water, wind

plant, wind power
plant
Nuclear energy Nuclear power plant Radioactive materials

Solar energy Solar power plant Radiation of sunlight

Wave energy Wave and tidal power Sea wave
plant
9
 Renewable
energy

Main sources of energy for

electricity generation

Coal Oil Nuclear

Gases Water

10
Energy source Advantages Disadvantages
Coal Most common source The most polluting (CO2)
Relatively cheap fuel Need antipollution features
Non-renewable
Oil A bit more polluting than However, much more expensive (price
natural gas but easy to always fluctuates)
transport over long distance Non-renewable

Natural gas Better and cleaner energy Hard to transport over long distance
source than coal Non-renewable
Water The best source Modify & damage ecosystem
Non-polluting
No cost for the ‘fuel’

Nuclear energy Non-polluting Extremely expensive to build

Once built, the cost of the Require elaborate safety system and
‘fuel’ is low expensive training

Renewable energy Clean and zero ‘fuel’ cost High set-up cost
(wind, solar, wave) Generated output is not very high

11
Power Plant

Thermal power station (Coal based)

12
Power Plant

Wind power station

13
Power Plant

Hydro power station

14
Roles of power stations
 Power stations can be categorized based on their role in power system. There 3
categories:
 Base power station
 Intermediate power station
 Peak power station

15
Generation
Powers supplied by all power stations are based on power demand,
which is predicted based on previous demand.

Daily load curve for 24 hours

16
Roles of power stations
 Base power station:
 Base load is the minimum amount of power that a utility company must
make available to its customers.
 Deliver full power continuously i.e. 24 hours a day and 365 days a year.
 Most economical in terms of operating costs i.e. high efficiency output &
most reliable.
 Nuclear & coal-fired stations are suitable for this purpose.

 Intermediate power station:

 Can respond to changes in demand relatively quickly, usually by adding or
removing one or more generating units.
 Operate mainly during day time to complement the base stations.
 The most economical in terms of production costs, although unreliable in
terms of actual energy output.
 Hydropower stations are suitable for this purpose.
17
Roles of power stations
 Peak power station:
 Generally run only when there is a high demand, known as peak demand
 Deliver power for short intervals during the day.
 Able to respond very quickly because they can be started up in a few
minutes.
 Have high operating cost due to their idling-time and unutilized capital
costs but necessary for optimal operation of power system.
 Usually gas turbines are used for this purpose.

18
Transmission
 Transmission is the intermediate part of power system and is responsible for
transporting the generated power from power plant to substation or from
generation to distribution.

 High voltage power lines and towers are the essential components of
transmission.

 Transmission is modeled by an impedance between two buses in power system.

 Between the transmission regions, there are many substations for stepping
down the voltage from high to low level.

 The standard voltage level (TNB) for transmission are 132 kV, 275 kV and 500
kV.
19
Transmission
 Two types of transmission lines:
 overhead lines
 underground cables

Overhead line Underground cable

20
Overhead transmission line
 Consist of three conductors suspended by towers or poles.

 Generally the lowest-cost method (since most of the insulation is provided by

air)

 Classified according to the range of voltages:

 Low voltage: less than 1 kV (distribution system)
 Medium voltage: between 1 kV to ~ 33 kV (distribution system)
 High voltage: between 33 kV to ~230 kV (for long distance transmission)
 Extra high voltage: over 230 kV ~ 800 kV (for long distance transmission)
 Ultra high voltage: higher than 800 kV (long distance transmission)

21
Underground cables
 These lines are designed to be buried underground or under water

 Compared to overhead lines, buried cables are:

 More expensive (cost of burying cables is higher)
 Harder to maintain and repair
 Cannot be used for very long distances due to capacitance problems

 Nevertheless, they are increasingly popular in new urban areas where overhead
transmission lines are considered to be unsuitable.

22
Substations
 In transmission system, there are many substations for transforming from
high to low voltage level (step down) according to consumer requirement.

 Inside the substation there are:

 Transformer (heart of substation)
 Switchgear (on-off switching of the supply)
 Bus-bar (copper made node)
 Control panels (for control purpose)

 In power system, a substation is represented by transformer :

23
Substations
 TNB’s substation:
 Main Intake Substation (PMU) – step up voltage to transmission level (132
kV, 275 kV, 500 kV) from generation level.
 Distribution Substation (PPU) – step down voltage from transmission level
to distribution level (from 33 kV to 11 kV).
 Residential Substation – step down from distribution level to residential
level (from 11 kV to 415 V).
 Interconnecting substation – connect between different power systems (e.g.
HVDC connect Malaysia and Thailand).

24
Substations

PMU PPU

25
Distribution
 Distribution is the last part of power system and is responsible for delivering or
distributing the electricity from substation to the consumers (load).

 Distribution substation and low voltage feeders are the essential components
of distribution.

 In power system, distribution system can be radial or ring network.

 The standard voltage level (TNB) for distribution are 240 V, 415 V, 11 kV and 33
kV.

26
Loads
 Load is the end-component of power system and it receives the electricity from
distribution system.

 They are the consumers of power system.

 Load is modeled by an arrow in power system (to indicate the consumption of

electricity).

 There are three four categories of loads:

 Industrial load
 Commercial load
 Critical load
 Residential load

27
Loads
Type of consumers Required voltage Example

Heavy industrial loads 100 kV to 300 kV Oil and gas platform,

automotive
manufacturer
Medium industrial 10 kV to 30 kV Electronic
loads & commercial manufacturer,
buildings shopping mall,
university
Critical loads 10 kV to 30 kV Hospital, military
defense system

Residential loads 240 V to 415 V Single storey up to

three storey building

28
Transmission grid
 Grid system is an overall network that consists of many interconnected power
system.

 The advantages of grid systems are:

 Stability in operation – has sufficient reserved power (reactive power)
 Service continuity – can still supply electricity when breakdown happens.
 Economy – generators can be scheduled to operate based on demand level.

 In Peninsular Malaysia, the power grid is known as the National Grid.

 It is operated and owned by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB).

 The system spans the whole of Peninsular Malaysia, connecting electricity

generating stations owned by TNB and Independent Power Producers (IPPs).
29
TNB
grid

30
Transmission grid
 IPPs are privately owned power producers. They generate and sell power to
TNB.

 Examples of IPPs:
 YTL Generation Sdn Bhd - Paka, Pasir Gudang
 Malakoff Berhad - Lumut Power Station, Segari, Prai Power Station,
Butterworth, Tanjung Bin Power Station, Johor
 Genting Sanyen Power Sdn Bhd - Kuala Langat Power Station

 There are also two other electrical grids in East Malaysia:

 In Sabah: Sabah Electricity Sdn. Bhd. (SESB)
 In Sarawak: Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO)

31
Power system representation
 The essential components of power system are:

 Generator – it is a synchronous generator and represented by a voltage

source

 Synchronous condenser – it is a synchronous generator which acts as a

capacitor for reactive power supply.

 Transmission line – and modeled by an impedance connected between two

buses.

 Bus – it is like a node or terminal in electric circuit.

 Transformer – it is represented by two crossed circles or parallel winding.

 Load – it is the consumer of power system and represented by an arrow

connected on a bus.
32
Power system representation
Load
Generator

Transformer
M Motor

Transmission
line

33
Power system representation
Generator Load
bus bus

Generator
Transformer
Load

Generation Transmission Distribution

34
 30-Bus transmission power system
Synchronous
generator

Transmission
line

Synchronous
condenser

Load

35
13-Bus radial distribution network
Substation
transformer

Substation
transformer

36
 PART 2
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

37
Introduction
 One of the essential components in a power system. Also known as alternator.

 Designed to operate at synchronous speed, ns. Hence, the name.

 A typical generator consists of 2 parts (separated by a small air gap):

 An outside stationary stator
 An inside rotating rotor

38
Introduction

39
Introduction
IAR R
IAY Y
3-phase
IAB B load
N
IF

VF
IN

Synchronous generator
connected to its load

40
Winding types
 It has 2 types of windings:

 Field winding (rotor winding):

 Creates magnetic field
 Placed on the rotor

 Armature winding (stator winding):

 Voltage is induced on it
 Placed on the stator
 Always connected in Y-connection

41
Rotor types
 There are 2 types of rotor:

 Salient pole:
 Driven by low-speed hydraulic turbine
 Require large no of poles
 Posses large diameter to provide space for the poles

 Cylindrical (non-salient/round):
 Driven by high-speed steam turbine
 No of poles cannot be less than 2
 Smaller compared to salient pole

42
Stator and its winding
R
Y
B
Stator
winding N
(armature
winding)

43
 Salient pole rotor
Rotor
winding Slip rings
Shaft

Rotor
Slip ring Rotor Winding
core (field
Shaft Rotor core winding)

Brush _
_ VF
+
+ VF

44
Cylindrical rotor
Rotor Slip rings Shaft
winding
Rotor Brush
Slip ring core

Shaft Rotor
Winding
Rotor (field
Brush slot
+ _ winding)
VF
+
_ VF

45
Operation
 Principle of Operation:

 A dc current is applied to the rotor winding to produce magnetic field.

 Rotor is turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating magnetic field
within the air gap.
 The rotating magnetic field induces 3Ф voltages within the stator winding
 The rotating magnetic field & the rotor rotate at the same speed called
synchronous speed, ns and given by:

120 f
ns = (in rpm)
P

f = Freq of induced voltage (Hz)

P = No of poles

46
Operation
N

EGR Y
EG EBG
BR

3-phase load
N BR
I AR I AY I BA
S S

N S
BR

BS S
VF → I F → B R → τ app → E G → I A N

47
Equivalent circuit
IF

jXS RA IA
RF
VF +
+
EG Vϕ
LF _
_

Rotor Stator

VF = I F RF
Vφ = EG − ( R A + jX S ) I A
48
Equivalent circuit

EG

Xs is 10 to 100 times greater than Ra, and Ra is normally negligible (Ra=0)

49
Equivalent circuit
Synchronous generator 3-phase load

IL IL

RA IDB IDR
I AR
jXS Vϕ
+ ZΔ
ZΔ
EAR VT VD
_
EAB N
_

EAY
_
+

I AB I AY
+

jXS jXS
ZΔ
RA RA IDY

Stator
Rotor

RF LF
IF

VF
50
Powers and power factor
 Input power supplied to generator:

Pin = τ appω s

 The real, reactive and apparent output power delivered by generator is:

P3φ = 3 Vφ I A ⋅ pf = 3 VT I L ⋅ pf = τ out ω s

Q3φ = 3 Vφ I A sin θ = 3 VT I L sin θ

S 3φ = 3Vφ I a* = 3 Vφ I A ∠θ = 3 VT I L ∠θ

 Power factor of generator is:

pf = cos θ

51
Powers and power factor
VT = terminal voltage / line − to − line voltage
I L = line current
pf = power factor of generator
θ = angle of power factor (negative of angle I a )
τ app = applied torque by prime over / input torque
τ out = output torque delivered by generator

52
Maximum power transfer
 From the complex output power supplied by generator:

S 3φ = 3Vφ I a*

 From equation of EG, the phase current Ia is:

Vϕ ∠00 = EG ∠δ − ( RA + jX S ) I A∠θ
Vϕ ∠0 = EG ∠δ − ( Z S ∠γ ) I A∠θ
0

EG ∠δ − Vϕ ∠0 0

I A∠θ =
Z S ∠γ
53
Maximum power transfer

So, the real and reactive output power supplied by generator are:

Output powers
considering RA

54
Maximum power transfer

3 EG Vϕ
P3ϕ = sin δ
XS
Output powers
3 Vϕ ignoring RA
=Q3ϕ  EG cos δ − Vϕ 
XS   Where δ is power angle

55
Maximum power transfer

3 EG Vϕ Maximum output
Pmax(3ϕ ) = power
XS

Value Pmax is called as the steady-state stability limit or static stability limit
(i.e. the maximum power before the machine loses synchronism)

56
Phasor diagrams
EG EG
IA jXS
δ IA jXS γ or δ
γ θ Vϕ
IA IA RA IA Vϕ IA RA

Lagging PF Unity PF

IA jXS
EG
IA
θ
γ δ IA RA Leading PF
Vϕ
57
Voltage regulation
 It is defined as the percentage change in terminal voltage from no load to full
load.

 The voltage regulation for synchronous generator is given by

EG − Vφ
VR = × 100%
Vφ

58
Infinite bus
 Synchronous generators are rarely used to supply individual loads.

 Most are connected to large interconnected power networks.

 At the point of connection, system voltage is constant in magnitude, phase

angle & frequency. Such a point in a power system is referred to as infinite bus.

 The infinite bus or grid can also be defined as a power system so large that its
voltage & frequency do not vary regardless of how much real & reactive power
is drawn or supplied to it.

 It can be applied when the power grid is sufficiently large that the action of any
one user or generator will not affect the operation of the power grid.

59
Infinite bus
 In an infinite bus:
 System frequency is constant, independent of power flow.
 System voltage is constant, independent of reactive power consumed or
supplied.

 An infinite bus assumed in many small electrical applications.

 As an example:

We take for granted that the voltage supply to a residential outlet will be 240V
and 50Hz, but the voltage and frequency are not changed when you turn the TV
on.

60
Infinite bus
 In a power plant, the synchronous generators are connected to or disconnected
from the infinite bus, depending on the power demand on the grid system.

 The operation of connecting a synchronous generator to the infinite bus is

known as paralleling with the infinite bus.

 Before the alternator (i.e. synchronous generator) can be connected to the

infinite bus, however, the incoming alternator and the infinite bus must have
the same:
 1. Voltage
 2. Frequency
 3. Phase sequence
 4. Phase

61
[Answer: a) 23.558 kV, 17.1° (b) 807.485 A, -53.43° , 0.596 lagging
(c) 136 MW, 3248.85 A, 36.32° 62
Equivalent circuit

63
Example 2

Answer: (a) 12.806 kV, 14.47◦ (b) 80.4 MW (c) 3344 A, 36.73◦

64
 PART 3
TRANSFORMERS

65
Introduction
 Transformer is another essential component in a power system.

 It converts AC voltage from one level to another through the action of magnetic
field.
 Convert higher voltage to lower voltage: step-down transformer
 Convert lower voltage to higher voltage: step-up transformer

 Enable transmission of electrical energy over great distances (step-up to high

voltage so that power is transmitted at low current, so low losses).

66
Equivalent circuit – ideal
 Ideal transformer has no losses.

Ideal
transformer

 For an ideal transformer, the voltage & current relationship is given by:

67
Equivalent circuit - practical
 For a practical transformer, there are losses (i.e. flux leakage, core & copper
losses). Taking into account all the losses, the equivalent circuit is given as
below:

Per phase equivalent circuit of a practical transformer

68
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 The equivalent circuit can be simplified by referring to either primary or
secondary side.

 Per phase equivalent circuit referred to the primary side (approximate):

69
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Where:

V1 = V2' + I 2' ( R1 + jX 1 + R2' + jX 2' )

70
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Per phase equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side (approximate)

71
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Where:

V1' = V2 + I 2 ( R1' + jX 1' + R2 + jX 2 )

72
Efficiency & voltage regulation
 The efficiency is given by:

Ploss = PCu + Pcore

 Voltage regulation is given by:

'
Pout = V2 I 2 . pf
V1 − V 2 Referred to
VR = × 100% PCu = I 2 RT
V ' primary
2
V2
V1' − V2 Pcore =
Referred to RC
VR = × 100% secondary
V2
73
Example 1
A 150-kVA, 2400/240-V single-phase transformer has the parameters as
shown in Figure 3.31.

(a) Determine the equivalent circuit referred to the high-voltage side.

(b) Find the primary voltage and voltage regulation when the transformer
is operating at full-load 0.8 power factor lagging and 24o V.
(c) Find the primary voltage and voltage regulation when the transformer
is operating at full-load 0.8 power factor leading.
(d) Determine its efficiency for the condition in (b) and power loss.

Answer: (a) Zseries = 0.4 + j0.9 (b) 2453.933 V, 0.7◦, 2.25%

(c) 2387.004 V, 1.44◦, -0.54% (d) 94.o6% 7.579 kW 74
Autotransformers
 A special purpose transformer or simply called the autotransformer is used
when a voltage level need to be changed by only a small amount; for
instance, from 110 V to 120 V or from 13.2 kV to 13.8 kV.

 This small rise in voltage magnitude is necessary for compensating voltage

drop in power system.

 It is expensive and wasteful to construct a conventional transformer for such

small voltage change. Hence, the autotransformer is needed.

 An autotransformer is constructed from a conventional transformer by

modifying the connection of primary and secondary winding.

75
Autotransformers
 A conventional two-winding transformer can be changed into an
autotransformer by connecting the primary and secondary windings in series.

 This type of transformer is called as autotransformer.

a) Two-winding transformer b) reconnected as an autotransformer

76
Step-up Autotransformer
I1 I2 +

+ + V2 I2
_
V1 N1 N2 V2
_ _ +
V1 I1
S 2− w _
I1 =
V1

S 2− w I L = I1 + I 2 , I H = I 2
I2 =
V2
VL = V1 , VH = V1 + V2

77
Step-down Autotransformer
I1 I2
+
+ +
V1 I1
V1 N1 N2 V2
_
_ _
+
V2 I2
S 2− w
I1 = _
V1

S 2− w
I2 =
V2 I L = I1 + I 2 , I H = I1
VL = V2 , VH = V1 + V2
78
Power & efficiency of Autotransformer
 The kVA rating of autotransformer is:

S auto = VL I L = VH I H

 The output power is:

Pout = S auto ⋅ pf

 Efficiency:
Pout
η= × 100%
Pout + Ploss

 Note: losses of two-winding transformer and autotransformer are the same.

79
Autotransformers
 Performance of autotransformer is measured in terms of power rating
advantage (PRA), which is defined as the ratio of apparent power rating of
autotransformer (Sauto) to two-winding transformer (S2-w).

 This is given below:

S auto N 1
PRA = = 1+ 2 = 1+
S 2− w N1 a

80
Autotransformers
 When a two-winding transformer is connected as an autotransformer, it has
smaller impedance compared to the two-winding connection.

 It is common practice to consider an autotransformer as a two-winding

transformer with its two winding connected in series, where the impedance is
referred to the N1-turn side (primary side).

Autotransformer equivalent circuit with its impedance

81
Example 2

Answer: (a) 360 kVA (b) 99.31%

82
Three-phase transformer
 The previous analysis considers single phase transformer. In practice,
transformers are connected in three-phase form.

83
Three-phase transformer
 In three-phase form, the primary and secondary sides can have either same or
different connection (Y or Δ).

Y-Y connection

Y-Δ connection

84
Three-phase transformer

Δ-Y connection

Δ-Δ connection

85
Three Winding Transformers
 Three-winding transformers are used for:
 Supplying two independent loads at different voltages from the same
source
 Interconnection of two transmission systems of different voltages

 These windings are called as primary, secondary and tertiary windings.

 The tertiary winding is:

 Usually used to provide voltage for auxiliary (additional) power purpose in
a substation or to supply a local distribution system
 Also connected to the switched capacitor or reactor for the purpose of
reactive power compensation

86
Three Winding Transformers
 Equivalent circuit of three-winding transformer is given as:

Equivalent circuit of three-winding transformer

87
Three Winding Transformers
By solving (1), (2) and (3), the
impedances of the three windings
referred to primary side are:

88
Voltage Control of Transformers
 Voltage control in transformers is required to:
 Compensate for varying voltage drops in the system
 Control reactive power flow over transmission lines
 Control phase angle and therefore, real power flow.

 Two methods commonly used:

 tap-changing transformer
 regulating transformers (boosters)

89
Tap Changing Transformer
 Used to control voltage magnitudes at all levels by changing its tap setting.
Tap setting is used to change the transformer’s turn ratio, a.

 2 types:

Off-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):

 Requires disconnection when changing the tap setting
 The changes are not frequent (normally due to load growth and seasonal
change)

Tap-changing under load (TCUL) transformers:

 Can change taps when power is connected
 The changes are frequent, depends on system condition

90
Tap Changing Transformer
 Consider diagram below with a step-up transformer at sending end and a step-
down transformer at receiving end of a transmission line, where tS and tR are
the tap setting in per-unit. V1’ and V2’ are the supply and load phase voltages
referred to high voltage side respectively.

A radial line with tap changing transformers at both ends

91
Tap Changing Transformer
 If VS and VR are the phase voltages at both ends of the line, then:

 The phasor diagram for the above equation is shown below:

Voltage phasor diagram

92
Tap Changing Transformer

93
Tap Changing Transformer

94
Tap Changing Transformer

95
Tap Changing Transformer

96
Tap Changing Transformer

97
Tap Changing Transformer
 So, the tap setting at sending end bus is:

V2'
V1'
ts =
RPφ + XQφ
1−
V1' V2'

 Note: P and Q in the above equation is for single phase load power. V1’ and V2’
are the phase voltages.

98
Tap Changing Transformer
 From the previous equation:

 Pφ and Qφ are single-phase real and reactive power of load

 Sending-end phase voltage (generator voltage) refer to high voltage side:

V1 VP1
V1 ='
a1 =
a1 VS 1

 Receiving-end phase voltage (load voltage) refer to high voltage side:

VP 2
V = a2V2
' a2 =
2 VS 2

99
 23 kV

Answer: tS = 1.08 pu, tR = 0.926 pu

100
Regulating Transformer (Booster)
 Used to change voltage magnitude & phase angle, at a certain point in the
system by a small amount.

 Consists of an exciting transformer and a series transformer

 The advantages of regulating transformers are:

 The main transformers are free from tapings
 It can be used at any intermediate point.
 It can be taken out for maintenance without affecting the system.

 Two types of booster:

 Voltage magnitude control
 Phase angle control

101
Booster - Voltage Magnitude Control
 The connection for phase a is given below

 Other phases have identical arrangement.

Per-phase regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control

102
Booster - Voltage Magnitude Control
 The secondary of the exciting transformer is tapped and the voltage obtained
from it is applied to the primary of the series transformer.

 The corresponding voltage, ΔVan on the secondary of the series transformer is

added to the input voltage, Van.

 Thus, output voltage is:

 The output voltage magnitude can be adjusted by changing the exciting

transformer’s tap.

 By changing the switch from position 1 to 2, the polarity of the voltage across
the series transformer is reversed, so that the output voltage magnitude can be
controlled either to be increased or decreased.

103
Booster - Phase Angle Control
 A typical arrangement for phase a is shown below

 If the injected voltage, ΔVbc is out of phase with the input voltage, Van then the
resultant voltage, Van’ will have a phase shift with respect to the input voltage.

Per-phase regulating transformer for phase angle control

104
Booster - Phase Angle Control
 The series transformer of phase a is supplied from the secondary winding of
the exciting transformer, which is connected to phase b and c.

 The injected voltage ΔVbc is in quadrature with the voltage Van, thus the
resultant voltage V’an goes through a phase shift α as shown below

Phasor diagram for

phase angle control

105
Phase Angle Control
 The output voltage is

 The amount of phase shift can be adjusted by changing the exciting

transformer’s tap.

 By changing the switch from 1 to 2, the output voltage can be made to lag or
lead the input voltage.

106
 PREPARED BY:
DR. ZULKIFFLI BIN ABDUL HAMID

107
 Part 1
Transmission Line Models

108
Introduction
 The purpose of transmission lines is to transfer electric energy from generating
stations to the distribution system which then supplies the load.

 These transmission lines are physically extended over hundreds of kilometres.

 As a result, the associated resistance, inductance & capacitance are distributed

along the length of the line.

109
Introduction
 A transmission line is characterized by a series of resistance, inductance &
shunt capacitance per unit length.

 It might be modelled as a repeating series of lumped constants, each

representing the resistance, reactance & capacitance of a small segment of the
entire line.

110
Transmission line model
 In power system, a transmission line is modeled by a single line connected
between two buses.

 The current or power of the transmission line flows from sending-end bus to
receiving end bus. This is shown below:

VS VR
Ps + jQs

PR + jQR
Sending Receiving
end bus end bus

111
Transmission line model
 A transmission line is modeled based on its length.

 The following are the existing transmission line models according to their
length.
 Short line model – less than 80 km
 Medium line model – between 80 km to 250 km
 Long line model – above 250 km

 Two-port network is used when performing analysis on transmission line. In

this case, the ABCD parameters are used.

Sending Receiving

112
Short trans. line model
 The following diagram represents the short transmission line model.

 In the above figure, VS is the sending end phase voltage, VR is the receiving end
phase voltage, IS is the sending phase current, IR is the receiving end phase
current, Z is the impedance of transmission line

113
Short trans. line model

r + jω L Ω / km series impedance per unit length

z=
Z =z ⋅ l Ω total series impedance

114
Solving for receiving end parameters
 Instead of finding the sending end voltage or current, sometimes, we are also
required to determine the value of receiving end voltage and current.

 This is done through the following matrix equations:

115
Sending and receiving end parameters

S S (3φ )= 3VS I S*= S S (3φ ) ∠θVs − θ Is= PS (3φ ) + jQS (3φ )

Complex power
S R (3φ =
) 3V I = S R (3φ ) ∠θVr − θ Ir= PR (3φ ) + jQR (3φ )
*
R R

S S (3φ ) 3=
VS I S PS (3φ ) S S (3φ ) .cos
= θS QS (3φ ) S S (3φ ) .sin θ S Apparent, real and
S R (3φ ) 3=
VR I R PR (3φ ) S R (3φ ) .cos
= θR QR (3φ ) S R (3φ ) .sin θ R reactive power

116
Sending and receiving end parameters

VS ( L − L ) IS
VS = ∠θVs Phase current
3 Phase voltages (θVr is (found from
VR ( L − L ) usually assumed to zero) IR power)
VR = ∠θVr
3

PFS = cos(θVs − θ Is )
Power factor at sending
PFR = cos(θVr − θ Ir ) and receiving end

117
Voltage regulation of transmission line
 The voltage regulation of transmission line is calculated as follows:

VR ( L − L )( NL ) − VR ( L − L )( FL )
%VR ×100%
VR ( L − L )( FL )

 At no load, IR = 0, so:

118
 Efficiency of transmission line
 Transmission efficiency is a parameter which describes how much percentage
of input power at sending end is delivered to the receiving end and is expressed
in percentage.
 The efficiency of transmission line is found as follows:
PR (3φ )
%η
= ×100%
PS (3φ )

 Where, the sending end real power PS(3φ) is found as:

S=
S (3φ ) 3V=I
S S
∗
PS (3φ ) + jQS (3φ )

 The receiving end real power PR(3φ) is normally given in the question.

 The transmission line losses is equal to the difference between PS(3φ) and PR(3φ) .

119
 Phasor diagram
 The phasor diagrams for various load power factor are given below:

120
 Example 1

Assume the frequency is 60 Hz

Answer: (a) Vs(l-l) = 250 kV, 322.8 MW + j288.6 MVar, 13.6%, 94.4%
121
 Medium line model
 For medium transmission line, the shunt capacitance cannot be neglected.

 It is represented by two lumped capacitors, one before & one after the series
impedance, with values equal to half of the total line capacitance.

 The nominal pi-model of medium transmission line is given below.

 Where, Y is the shunt admittance and the unit is Siemens (S), VS is the sending
end phase voltage, VR is the receiving end phase voltage, IS is the sending phase
current, IR is the receiving end phase current, Z is the impedance of
transmission line. 122
 Medium line model

Note: A and D are in per-unit, B

in Ohms and C in Siemens

z= r + jω L Ω / km series impedance per unit length

Z =z ⋅ l Ω total series impedance
y= G + jωC S / km shunt admittance per unit length
Y= y ⋅ l S total shunt admittance
l = line length (km) 123
 Medium line model
 Derivation of ABCD parameters are as follows:

124
 Medium line model
 So, finally:

 Where:

125
Example 2

Take the frequency as 60 Hz

126
Example 3

127
Example 4

128
Long line model
 For short & medium lines, reasonably accurate models were obtained by
assuming the line parameters to be lumped (combined).

 For lines greater than 250 km, however, the exact effect of the transmission line
parameters must be considered.

 These parameters are not lumped, but are uniformly distributed (repetitively)
along the length of the line as shown below:

129
Long line model
 There are two approaches when performing analysis on long transmission line:
 Using exact model
 Using equivalent pi-model

Exact model Equivalent pi-model

130
Long line model – exact model
 Two important parameters of long transmission line:

(rad/km)

131
Long line model – exact model
 Mathematical property:

θ
a + bi = c∠θ = c ∠
2

132
Long line model – exact model
 The exact ABCD-parameters for exact long line model are follows:

(In per-unit)
(In Ohms)

(In Siemens)

133
Long line model – exact model
 The following trigonometric identities are used for determination of ABCD
parameters

let γl = a + bi
cosh(γl ) = (cosh a )(cos b) + j (sinh a)(sin b)
All angles
sinh(γl ) = (sinh a)(cos b) + j (cosh a)(sin b) are in
radian
 γl  cosh(γl ) − 1
tanh  =
2 sinh(γl )

134
Example 5

Answer:
γ = 3.209x10-5 + j1.244x10-3 per km cosh γl = 0.9312 + j3.51x10-3
Zc = 266.04 – j6.652 Ohm sinh γl = 8.964x10-3 + j0.3646

A = D = 0.9312 + j3.51x10-3
B = 4.81 + j96.94
C = –5.724x10-7 + j1.37x10-3 135
Long line model – pi model
 The transmission line can also be represented by an equivalent pi-circuit.

 The circuit is identical to the nominal pi-circuit of medium line except that Z’
and Y’ replace Z and Y.

Equivalent pi-model
136
Long line model – pi model
 The ABCD parameters of the equivalent pi-circuit are:

' Z sinh(γl )
Z = Z C sinh(γl ) =
(In per-unit) γl

(In Ohms) 2  γl 
Y' = tanh 
ZC 2
(In Siemens)  tanh(γl / 2) 
= Y  
 (γl / 2) 
 cosh(γl ) − 1 
= Y  
 (γl / 2) sinh(γl ) 

137
Example 6

Answer:

138
Inductance of a Transmission Line
 Inductance of a transmission line is given by:

 Where:
r = radius of each conductor
D = distance between the phases

D r

139
Inductance of a Transmission Line
 From the equation:
 If D increases, the ratio D/r increases. Thus the total inductance of the line
increases.
 If r increases, the ratio D/r decreases. Thus the total inductance of the line
decreases.

 Therefore:
 The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the
lower the inductance of the line.
 The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission line, the
greater the inductance of the line.

140
Capacitance of a Transmission Line
 Capacitance of a transmission line is given by:

 Where:
r = radius of each conductor
D = distance between the phases

D r

141
Capacitance of a Transmission Line
 From the equation:
 If D increases, the ratio D/r increases. Therefore the total capacitance of
the line decreases.
 If r increases, the ratio D/r decreases. Therefore the total capacitance of the
line increases.

 Therefore:
 The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission line, the
lower the capacitance of the line.
 The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the
higher the capacitance of the line.

142
 Part 2
Lossless line & compensation
techniques

143
Lossless line
 The concept of lossless line is used for quick & reasonably accurate calculations

 When losses are neglected, simpler expressions for transmission line

parameters are obtained.

 Transmission lines are generally designed to have low losses.

 For a lossless line:

r = 0, g = 0, α = 0

 Hence:
z = j ωL , y = j ωC , γ = j β

144
Lossless line
 The characteristic impedance, ZC (usually called as surge impedance)
becomes:

 Also, the propagation constant, γ becomes:

145
Lossless line
 In general, the velocity of propagation, v (in m/s or km/s) and the wavelength,
λ (in m or km) of the voltage & current waves travel along a transmission line
are given by:

ω 2π
v= & λ=
β β

 For a lossless line, they become:

146
Lossless line
 The rms voltage and current along the transmission line are given by:

V ( x) cos ( β x ) ⋅ VR + j ⋅ Z C ⋅ sin ( β x ) ⋅ I R
=
1
I ( x ) =j ⋅ ⋅ sin ( β x ) ⋅ VR + cos ( β x ) ⋅ I R
ZC

 At sending end, x = l, therefore:

VS cos ( β ⋅ l ) ⋅ VR + j ⋅ Z C ⋅ sin ( β ⋅ l ) ⋅ I R
=
1
IS = j ⋅ ⋅ sin ( β ⋅ l ) ⋅ VR + cos ( β ⋅ l ) ⋅ I R
ZC

147
Lossless line – exact model
 Therefore, for a lossless transmission line using exact long line model, the
matrix equation becomes:

VS   A B  VR 
I  =  I 
 S  C D  R 

 Where: A= D= cos ( β ⋅ l )
=B jZ C sin ( β ⋅ l )
1
=C j sin ( β ⋅ l )
ZC
148
Lossless line – pi model
 For equivalent pi-model, the ABCD parameters are the same as that of medium
line, but the impedance and admittance are found as follows:

VS   A B  VR 
I  =  I 
 S  C D  R 

=' jZ C sin ( β ⋅ l )
Z ' jX
=
' 2  β ⋅l 
Y = j tan  
ZC  2 

149
Wave reflection
 Basically, when an incident wave (voltage or current wave) travels along a
transmission line, some of its portion will be transmitted while the other parts
will be reflected back to the source. This is shown below:

Incident
Wave, e Zo
Transmitted
Wave, e’

Reflected ZL
Wave, e”

150
Wave reflection
 So, there will be two coefficients, namely:

 Transmission coefficient: 2Z L
ct =
Z L + Zo

 Reflection coefficient:
Z L − Zo
cr =
Z L + Zo

 And:
ct = 1 + c r

151
Wave reflection
 So, the transmitted wave, e’ is:

e' = α ⋅ e

 So, the reflected wave, e’’ is:

e '' = β ⋅ e

 Where, e is the incident wave

152
Surge impedance loading (SIL)
 Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the power delivered by a lossless line to a
load whose resistance equal to the surge impedance of the line.

Lossless line

153
Surge impedance loading (SIL)
 SIL for a lossless line is given by:

 At this condition, the receiving end current is given by:-

154
Surge impedance loading (SIL)
 In MW, SIL can be found as follows:

(kVR (l −l ) ) 2
SIL = in MW
ZC

155
 Example 7

Answer:
(a) β = 0.001259 rad/km, Zc = 290.43 Ohms, v = 2.994 x 105 km/s, λ = 4990 km
(b) VS = 356.53 kV, 16.1°, IS = 902.3 A, -17.9°, SS = (800 + j539.672) MVA, VR = 32.87%

156
Line loadability

VS VR
Ps + jQs

PR + jQR
Sending Receiving
end bus end bus

157
Line loadability
 The sending end complex power is:-

 The real and reactive powers at the sending end of the line are:-

158
Line loadability
 The receiving end complex power is:

 The real and reactive powers at the receiving end of the line are:

159
Line loadability
 The real and reactive transmission line losses are:

160
Line loadability
 For a lossless line:

X ' = Z C sin( βl )

 Therefore for a lossless line, the receiving end powers become:

Lossline
line

 As the load increases, the angle δ. The maximum power that can be transmitted to
the load happens at δ = 90.
161
Line loadability
 Since a lossless line has X’ = Zc sin βl, the receiving end real power becomes:

 Therefore, the receiving end real power for a lossless line in terms of SIL is
written as:

162
Line loadability
 Thus, the loadability equations (receiving end power) for a lossless line are as
follows:

Lossline
line

 Any value for δ greater than 90° will cause overloading of transmission line.
Hence, the above equations determine the limit of a transmission line before it
becomes unstable.
163
Transmission Capability
 The power handling ability of a transmission line is limited by:
 Thermal loading limit – depends on line temperature
 Stability / loadability limit – depends on line loading (angle δ)

164
Transmission Capability – thermal
loading limit
 The increase in conductor temperature, due to real power loss, stretches the
conductors.

 This will increase the conductor sag between transmission towers.

 At higher temperatures this may result in irreversible stretching.

 The thermal limit is specified by the current carrying capacity of the conductor
and is available in the manufacturer’s data.

 If the current carrying capacity is denoted by Ithermal, the thermal loading of a

line is:

165
Transmission Capability – thermal
loading limit
T3(>T2) T1
T2(>T1)

Safety limit

Transmission Transmission
tower tower

As the temperature increases, the conductor sag also increases

166
Transmission Capability – stability limit
 Theoretically, maximum power transfer occurs when δ = 90º (for a lossless
line).

 However, to assure stability, the practical operating load angle is usually limited
to 35º to 45º.

 This is because when the reactances of the generators & transformer are added
to the line, it will result in a larger δ for a given load.

167
Example 8

Answer:
(a) 400 kV
(b) 1167 MW

168
Line compensation
 On long transmission lines:
 Light loads appreciably less than SIL result in a rise of voltage at the
receiving end, and
 Heavy loads appreciably greater than SIL will produce a large dip / drop in
voltage.

 To increase line loadability and maintain voltages near rated values, inductors
& capacitors are used.

 Three methods for line compensation:

 Shunt reactors
 Shunt capacitors
 Series capacitor

169
Line compensation – shunt reactors
 Shunt reactors (inductors) are widely used to reduce high voltage to a specified
value under light load (less than SIL).

 The inductors absorb excessive reactive power and reduce overvoltages during
light load conditions. Hence, the load voltage is maintained at desired value.

 A reactor of reactance XLsh connected at the receiving end of a long

transmission line is shown below:

Shunt reactor
compensation

170
Line compensation –shunt reactors
 From the figure, the receiving end current is:

 From the matrix equation for a lossless line:

 cos( βl ) jZ C sin( βl )
VS    VR 
 I  =  j 1 sin( βl ) cos( βl )   I R 
 S  
 ZC 

171
Line compensation –shunt reactors
 Substitute IR into VS :

 Solving for XLsh yields

172
Line compensation – shunt reactors
 If VS = VR :

 The reactive power consumed by the shunt reactor in order to maintain the
desired receiving end voltage is:

(kVR (l −l ) ) 2
QLsh = (MVar )
X Lsh

173
Line compensation –shunt reactors
 Using the same derivation, the relation between IS & IR is found as follows:

 From the above equation, VS = VR then:

174
Line compensation –shunt reactors
 With one reactor only at the receiving end, the voltage profile will not be
uniform, and the maximum rise occurs at the midspan.

 For VS = VR, the voltage at the midspan is given by:

 Also, the current at the midspan is zero.

 Installing reactors at both ends of the line will improve the voltage profile and
reduce the tension at midspan.

175
Example 9
 Given a lossless line with the following parameters:

ZC = 290.43 Ohms, βl = 21.641°

a) Calculate the receiving end voltage when line is terminated in an open

circuit and is energized with 500 kV at the sending end.
b) Determine the reactance and the Mvar of a three-phase shunt reactor to be
installed at the receiving end to keep the no load receiving end voltage at
the rated value (i.e. at 500 kV).

Answer:
a) VR(nl) = 310.57 kV, VR(l-l)(nl) = 537.9 kV
b) XLsh = 1519.5 Ohms, QLsh = 164.53 Mvar

176
Line compensation – shunt capacitor
 Shunt capacitors are used to supply reactive power & increase voltages during
heavy load conditions.

 The effect is to maintain the receiving end voltage at a satisfactory level. Shunt
capacitors are also used for power factor correction.

 Capacitors are connected either directly to a bus bar or to the tertiary winding
of a main transformer and are disposed along the route to minimize the losses
and voltage drops.

 Besides shunt capacitors, static var control & synchronous condensers can also
be used for the same purpose.

177
Line compensation – series capacitor
 Series capacitors are used to increase line loadability (capability of line to
support more loads).

 They are connected in series with the line, usually located at the midpoint.

 They are used to reduce the series reactance between the load & the supply
point.

 This results in:

 improved transient and steady state stability
 more economical loading,
 minimum voltage dip (drop) at load buses.

178
Line compensation – series capacitor
 Major drawbacks of series capacitor:
 Special protective devices are required to protect the capacitors & bypass the
high current produced when a short circuit occurs.
 Also, inclusion of series capacitors establishes a resonant circuit that can
oscillate at a frequency below the normal synchronous frequency when
stimulated by a disturbance. This phenomenon is referred to as subsynchronous
resonance (SSR) & may cause considerable damage to the turbine-generator

 The subsynchronous resonant frequency can be found using:-

 Where fS is the synchronous frequency, L’ is the lumped line inductance corrected

for the effect of distribution & Cser is the capacitance of the series capacitor

179
Line compensation – shunt & series capacitor

SR = PR + jQR

SC = –jQC SL = PL + jQL

Load

180
Line compensation – shunt & series capacitor
Series capacitor Shunt capacitor
The new receiving end real power The reactive power injected by shunt
including series capacitor is: capacitor is:
QC = QR − QL
Where:
QR : receiving end reactive power
Where: QL : load reactive power
XCser : reactance of series capacitor Receiving end reactive power is:
X’ : reactance of line [X’ = Zc sin (βl)]

Compensation percentage:
X Cser
CP = '
× 100% Reactance of shunt capacitor:
X
2
The new impedance (exact & pi-model): VR
XC =
Z ' = j ( X ' − X Cser ) QC 181
Example 10
 A lossless line supplies a load of 1000 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging at 500 kV.
Given the following parameters:

ZC = 290.43 Ohms, βl = 21.641°

a) Determine the Mvar and the capacitance of the shunt capacitors to be

installed at the receiving end to keep the receiving end voltage at 500 kV
when the line is energized with 500 kV at the sending end.
b) Only series capacitors are installed at the midpoint of the line providing
40 percent compensation. Find the sending end voltage and voltage
regulation. Use equivalent pi-model of lossless line.

Answer:
a) δ = 20.044°, QC = 576.85 MVar, C = 6.1 uF
b) A = 0.9577, B = j64.26, VS = 326.4 kV, 10.47°, VR = 18%
182
 Definitions
 A two port network
− is an electrical network model with one pair of input terminals and
one pair of output terminals.
− It is commonly used to model the voltage and current
characteristics of complex electrical networks
 Voltage Regulation
− is defined as the rise in voltage at the receiving end, expressed as
percentage of full load voltage, when full load at a specified power
factor is removed while the sending end voltage is held constant.
− Voltage regulation describes the ability of a system to provide near constant
voltage over a wide range of load conditions.

183
 PREPARED BY:
DR. ZULKIFFLI BIN ABDUL HAMID

1
 Part 1
Per unit system

2
The per-unit system
 In the power systems analysis field of electrical engineering, a per-unit system
is the expression of system quantities as fractions of a defined
base unit quantity.
 Calculations are simplified because quantities expressed as per-unit do not
change when they are referred from one side of a transformer to the other.
 In per-unit system, all parameters (voltage, current, impedance and power) are
unit less or precisely, they are expressed in per-unit (p.u.) basis.
 Generally, the per-unit of any parameter is determined as follows:

 The quantity in per-unit can be voltage, current, impedance or power. This is

given as follows:

3
 The per-unit system
 In the per-unit system, all circuit theories are valid.

 For instance, the complex power and voltage expressed in per-unit can still be
found using the following equation:

 Observe that there is NO 3 or surd(3) in the above equations; this is one of the
advantages of using per-unit system over conventional methods.

4
The per-unit system – base parameters
 Whereas, the base impedance is found as:

 And, the base current is found as:

SB
IB =
3VB

5
The per-unit system – change of base
 Sometimes, the equipment such as generator, transformer and motor have
their own per-unit impedance (Zpu) or reactance (Xpu) which are based on their
rated MVA and rated voltage.

 When performing analysis involving per-unit, all parameters must be based on

the new base MVA and new base voltage. This means that the old per-unit
impedance or reactance have to be converted in accordance with the new base
using the following equation:
2 2
new  SB   Vrated 
old old  S
new
 V old

 Z pu =Z 
pu   @ Zpu 
B
old 
B
new 
 Srated   VB  S B  VB 
 Where, SB and VB are the new base MVA and base voltage, while Srated and Vrated
are the old base MVA (or rated MVA) and old base voltage (or rated voltage) of
the equipment.

6
The per-unit system – load impedance
 The load in power system can be a solid impedance or motor.

 If it is a motor, then the per-unit reactance based on the new base MVA and
voltage can be found using the “change-of-base” equation.

 However, if an impedance represents the load, then the per-unit impedance of

that load is found as:

VL2_ pu
Z L _ pu = *
S L _ pu

 Where, VL_pu is the per-unit voltage at the load bus and SL_pu is the per-unit
load complex power

7
The per-unit system
 Advantages of per-unit system are:

 It gives us a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities, such as

voltage, current, power and impedance.

 The per-unit impedance of equipment (generator or transformer) fall in a

narrow range regardless of the equipment rating. Whereas their impedance
in ohms vary greatly with the rating.

 The per-unit values of impedance, voltage and current of a transformer are

the same regardless of whether they are referred to primary or secondary
side.

 The per-unit systems are ideal for computerized analysis and simulation of
complex power system.

 The circuit laws are valid in per-unit systems, and the power and voltage
equations are simplified since the factors of 3 or surd(3) are eliminated.
8
The per-unit system – analysis
 Analysis of per-unit system can be summarized in the following steps:
1. Divide the system into different voltage zones created by each transformer.
2. Determine the new base voltage (VB) for each zone. The given new base
MVA (SB) are the same for all zones in the power system. Different sides of
transformer (primary or secondary) form two different zones.
3. Convert all reactance or impedance into their per-unit values based on the
new base MVA (SB) and new base voltage (VB). Use appropriate per-unit
equation for each component (such as generator, transmission line,
transformer, motor or load).
4. Convert the given single-line diagram of power system into the single-phase
equivalent circuit. At this stage, replace all components (such as generator,
transmission line, transformer, motor or load) with their equivalent per-
unit reactance or impedance.
5. Analyze the circuit using any circuit theories (Ohm’s Law, KVL, KCL, nodal
analysis, CDR, VDR and etc.). Begin the analysis according to the load
requirement; i.e. the voltage and current must be according to the load.

9
The per-unit system – analysis
 Assumptions made in symmetrical fault analysis
1. All sources are balanced and equal in magnitude & phase.
2. Sources represented by the Thevenin’s voltage prior to fault
at the fault point.
3. Large systems may be represented by an infinite bus-bars.
4. Transformers are on nominal tap position.
5. Resistances are negligible compared to reactances.
6. Transmission lines are assumed fully transposed and all 3
phases have same Z.
7. Loads currents are negligible compared to fault currents.
8. Line charging currents can be completely neglected.

10
 Per-unit equivalent circuit
Load Load

Transformer

Transmission
line

_
+
M Motor M

_
+
Generator
11
Example 1
A power system consists of a generator, two transformers, a transmission line and
a motor is shown below. By taking the MVA and rated voltage of generator G1 as
the base MVA and base voltage:
i) Convert all impedance according to the new base MVA and base voltage
ii) Draw the per-unit equivalent circuit of the following diagram.

G1 T1 L1 T2 M1

M
12 + j75 Ω
100 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
12 kV 11/120 kV 130/11 kV 11 kV
0.1 + j0.9 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.1 + j0.9 pu

12
Solution (division of zones)
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

G1 T1 L1 T2 M1

M
12 + j75 Ω
100 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
12 kV 11/120 kV 130/11 kV 11 kV
0.1 + j0.9 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.1 + j0.9 pu

VB1 = 12 kV VB2 VB3

11/120 kV 130/11 kV

13
Solution (base voltages)
VB1 = 12 kV

T1
 VHV 
VB 2 = VB1  T 1  = (12 kV) 120  = 130.91 kV
V   11 
 LV 

T2
 VLV 
VB 3 = VB 2  T 2  = (130.91 kV) 11  = 11.077 kV
V   130 
 HV 

14
Solution (change-of-base)
2 2
S  VG   100  12 
G : Z G = Z G _ old  B 
 V 
 = ( 0 . 1 + j 0. 9 )   = 0.1 + j 0.9 pu
 SG  B1   100  12 

2 2
 S  V   100  11 
T1 : Z T 1 = Z T 1 _ old  B  T 1  = (0.01 + j 0.05)   = 0.017 + j 0.084 pu
S V
 T 1  B1   50  12 

2 2
 S  VT 2   100  130 
T2 : Z T 2 = Z T 2 _ old  B   = (0.01 + j 0.05)   = 0.0197 + j 0.0986 pu
 ST 2  VB 2   50  130.91 

2 2
 SB  VM  100  11 
M : ZM = Z M _ old    = (0.1 + j 0.9)   = 0.197 + j1.775 pu
V  50 11 . 077
 SM  B 3    

15
Solution (line impedance)

VB22 (130.91 kV) 2

Z B2 = = = 171.374 Ω
SB 100 MVA

actual impedance 12 + j 75
Line 1 : Z L1 = = = 0.07 + j 0.438 pu
base impedance 171.374

16
Solution (per-unit equivalent circuit)
0.017 + j0.084 pu 0.07 + j0.438 pu 0.0197 + j0.0986 pu

T1 L1 T2
j0.9 pu j1.775 pu

G1 M1
0.1 pu 0.197 pu

+ +
EG M EM
_ _

17
Example 2

18
Example 4

19
Solution (division of zones)
Zone 1 22/220 kV Zone 2 220/11 kV
Zone 4
VB1 = 22 kV VB2 VB4

VB3
22/110 kV Zone 3 110/11 kV
20
Solution (change-of-base)
2 2
S  VG   100  22 
G : XG = X G _ old  B 
 V 
 = 0. 18   = 0.20 pu
 SG  B1   90  22 

2 2
 S  V   100  22 
T1 : X T 1 = X T 1 _ old  B  T 1  = 0.10   = 0.20 pu
 ST 1  VB1   50  22 

2 2
 S  VT 2   100  220 
T2 : X T 2 = X T 2 _ old  B   = 0.06   = 0.15 pu
 ST 2  VB 2   40  220 

2 2
 S  V   100  22 
T3 : X T 3 = X T 3 _ old  B  T 3  = 0.064   = 0.16 pu
S V
 T 3  B1   40  22 

2 2
 S  VT 4  100  110 
T4 : X T 4 = X T 4 _ old  B   = 0.08   = 0.20 pu
V  40 110
 ST 4  B 3    

2 2
S  VM   100  10.45 
M : XM = X M _ old  B   = 0.185   = 0.25 pu
 SM  VB 4   66.5  11 
21
Solution (line impedance)
VB22 (220 kV) 2
Z B2 = = = 484 Ω
SB 100 MVA

VB23 (110 kV) 2

Z B3 = = = 121 Ω
S B 100 MVA

actual impedance 48.4

Line 1 : X L1 = = = 0.10 pu
base impedance 484

actual impedance 65.43

Line 2 : X L 2 = = = 0.54 pu
base impedance 121

22
Solution (load impedance)
V4 10.45
V4 (in pu ) = = = 0.95 pu
VB 4 11

V42
S Load Z Load =
S Load (in pu ) = ∠ + cos −1 PFLoad S *Load
SB

57 (0.95) 2
= ∠ + cos −1 0.6 =
100 0.57∠ − 53.13

= 0.57 pu ∠ + 53.13° = 0.95 + j1.267 pu

23
Solution (per-unit equivalent circuit)

24
 Part 2
Symmetrical Fault

25
 Fault
 Faults can be defined as any failure that interferes with the normal flow
of current to the loads
 They can occur in power systems when equipment insulation fails due
to:
 System over voltages due to lightning or switching surges
 Insulation contamination
 Mechanical and natural stress
 In most faults, a current path forms between:
 Two or more phases
 One or more phases and the neutral (ground)
 This current path has low impedance (represented by Zf) resulting in
excessive current flows.

26
 Fault
 In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal flow of electric
current to the loads due to the failure or breakdown in power system.
For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the
normal load.
 In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and
ground, or may occur only between phases.
 If a fault occurs between a phase and ground (such as between a
conductor of transmission line and tower structure), it is called as
flashover.
 When a fault occurs, the high current flow in the line are detected by
protective devices (such as circuit breakers).
 Circuit breakers on affected transmission lines will be automatically
opened isolating the transmission line until the fault can be located
and cleared by repair crew.

27
 Categories of fault
 Fault can be categorized in two ways; in terms of:

 How long the fault happens

 Transient fault
 Permanent fault

 How the fault happens

 Symmetrical fault
 Three phase fault

 Unsymmetrical fault Main focus of

Chapter 3
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault

 Line-to-line (LL) fault

 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault

28
 Categories of fault
 Symmetrical faults (three-phase faults / balanced fault)
 The magnitudes of the AC currents in each phase are the same
 All three phases of a transmission lines are shorted together
 The most severe fault, but happens infrequently.

 Unsymmetrical faults (unbalanced fault)

 The magnitudes of the AC currents in each phase differ
 Can be subdivided into 3:
I. Single line-to-ground fault (SLG) - One line touch the ground
II. Line-to-line fault (LL) - Two lines of a transmission line touch
III. Double line-to-ground fault (DLG) - Two lines touch and also
touch the ground

29
 Symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault
Symmetrical fault (3-phase fault):

The most severe

fault

Unsymmetrical fault:

SLG LL DLG

30
 Causes of fault
 The causes of fault are:
 Momentary tree contact
 Bird or other animal contact
 Lightning strike
 Conductor clashing
 Weather condition (heavy rain, heavy winds, snow and ice)
 Equipment failure
 Ionization of surrounding air (due to smoke particles)

31
 Effects of fault
 Over current flow:
When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the current flow. This results
in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing tripping of relays, damaging
insulation and components of the equipments.

 Danger to operating personnel:

Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals. Severity of the shock depends on
the current and voltage at fault location and even may lead to death.

 Loss of equipment:
Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components being burnt
completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device. Sometimes heavy
fire causes complete burnout of the equipments.

 Electrical fires:
Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of air between two
conducting paths which further leads to fire as we often observe in news such as
building and shopping complex fires.
32
33
Importance of fault analysis
 To determine the size of protective devices (such as circuit breakers)
needed for installation.

 Proper relay setting and coordination of protective devices.

 To determine the capability of insulating materials (such as high

voltage bushing) in sustaining breakdown.

 As a preparation for breakdown in power system.

34
 Fault analysis
 Generally, there are two types of fault analysis:
 Symmetrical fault or balanced fault analysis
 Unsymmetrical fault or unbalanced fault analysis

 Under symmetrical fault analysis, there are:

i. Analysis with no-load assumption where pre-fault voltage = 1 pu
ii. Analysis by considering load – pre-fault voltage must be calculated
iii. Analysis by using bus impedance matrix – for large power system

 For the purpose of this chapter, only the analysis with no-load
assumption is covered. Because symmetrical fault is balanced, it is
solved on a per-phase basis, using Thevenin’s method.

35
 Fault analysis
 Thevenin Theorem:
States that the change in the network voltage caused by the added
branch (the fault impedance) is equivalent to those caused by an added
voltage (V TH ) with all other sources short circuited.

 Important terms:

Short-circuit current:
Ifault = 1 / Zeq
Zeq = ZTh + Zf
Short-circuit MVA:
MVAfault = MVAbase / Zeq

36
 Fault analysis
The following assumptions are usually made in fault analysis in
three phase transmission lines.

 All sources are balanced and equal in magnitude & phase.

 Sources represented by the Thevenin’s voltage prior to fault at the fault
point.
 Large systems may be represented by an infinite bus-bars.
 Transformers are on nominal tap position.
 Resistances are negligible compared to reactances.
 Transmission lines are assumed fully transposed and all 3 phases have
same Z.
 Loads currents are negligible compared to fault currents.
 Line charging currents can be completely neglected

37
 Symmetrical Fault analysis
The steps for symmetrical fault analysis are as follows:
1. Convert all reactances according to the new base MVA and voltages. If the
rated MVA and voltage of each component equal to base MVA and voltage
(i.e. SB = Srated and VB = Vrated), use directly the given reactances without
using change-of-base equation.
2. Draw the per-unit equivalent circuit between the faulted bus and
common bus. Label all the reactances.
3. Determine the per-unit Thevenin equivalent impedance ZTh looking from
the faulted bus. Turn off all voltage sources (short circuit the sources).
4. Calculate the total per-unit fault current using the equation: Ifault = 1 /
(Zfault + ZTh) where Zfault is the fault impedance connected on the faulted
bus. For bolted or solid fault, Zfault = 0 pu.
5. Determine the actual Ifault in Ampere (times with Ibase) and MVAfault.
6. Determine the other fault currents (such as the generator current or
transmission line current under fault condition) if necessary.
38
 Symmetrical Fault analysis
Important terms:

39
 Example 3
 Based on the per-unit equivalent circuit as in Example 4, determine the
magnitude of fault current in per-unit and Ampere if a bolted three-
phase fault happens at bus 3 as follows.

Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4

G1 T1 L1 T2 M1
12 + j75 Ω
M

100 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA

12 kV 11/120 kV 130/11 kV 11 kV
0.1 + j0.9 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.01 + j0.05 pu 0.1 + j0.9 pu

Fault

40
 Example 4
Based on the per-unit equivalent reactances calculated in Example 2,
determine the magnitude of fault current in per-unit and Ampere if a
solid three-phase fault happens at bus 5 as follows.

Fault

44
Example 5

54
49
 Part 3
Unsymmetrical fault

55
Unsymmetrical Faults
 Most faults that occur on power systems are unsymmetrical faults.

 The most common is single line-to-ground fault

 Since the magnitudes of the voltages & currents in each phase differ, a
technique known as the method of symmetrical components is used to analyse
unsymmetrical faults.

Positive sequence

Unsymmetrical Symmetrical Negative sequence

fault components
Zero sequence

56
Symmetrical Components
 Using the method, any unsymmetrical set of voltages or current could be broken
down into three symmetrical sets of balanced three-phase components.

 Positive-sequence components
 Consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120
degrees, and have the same phase sequence as the original power system.
 It has abc sequence

 Negative-sequence components
 Consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120
degrees and have the opposite phase sequence as the original power system
 It has acb sequence

 Zero-sequence components
 Consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and phase
 No phase sequence i.e. all three phases peak at the same time
57
Symmetrical Components - voltage

Representation of symmetrical components

58
Symmetrical Components - current

Positive sequence negative sequence zero sequence

59
Relationship of voltage and current
with symmetrical components

The unsymmetrical three-phase

voltages (VA , VB and VC) and
currents (IA, IB and IC) can be
determined by adding together their
symmetrical components

60
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 The unsymmetrical voltage in each phase (A, B and C) is the sum of the three
components, given by,

(1)

 Let:

61
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 From the phasor diagrams of positive, negative and zero sequence, the voltages
in phase B and C are expressed in terms of that of phase A as follows:

62
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 Substitute (2), (3) and (4) into (1), yields:

 In matrix form, the equations become:

rearrange
63
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 If we make the definition:

 So, equation (5) can be written as:

64
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 Therefore, the symmetrical components of the unbalanced three-phase voltage
can be expressed as:

 Where:

65
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 Thus, equation (6) becomes:

 Finally, the symmetrical components of voltage in phase A can then be

represented as:

66
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 Similarly, currents in each phase can be represented as:

 Then, substituting the a constant, we get:

67
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 The symmetrical components of current in phase A can then be represented
as:

68
Relationship with symmetrical
components – [derivation]
 Note that:

 Therefore:
 if a component has no neutral current, there can be no zero sequence
currents in the component.
 thus, Δ-connected & ungrounded Y-connected components cannot have
zero-sequence components of currents because they have no neutral
connection.
69
Summary: unsymmetrical voltage and
current with their symmetrical components

Unsymmetrical
voltage and
current

Symmetrical
components

70
Sequence Impedance and
Sequence Networks
 In general, the impedance of a circuit differs for positive, negative & zero
sequences currents.

 When only positive-sequence current is flowing, the impedance is known as

the positive sequence impedance of the circuit. Similarly for negative and zero
sequences.

 To analyze an unsymmetrical fault, three different per-phase equivalent circuits

must be constructed.

71
Sequence Impedance and
Sequence Networks
 Each circuit represents each type of symmetrical components:

 Positive-sequence network – a per-phase equivalent circuit containing only

the positive sequence impedances and sources

 Negative-sequence network – a per-phase equivalent circuit containing only

the negative sequence impedances

 Zero-sequence network – a per-phase equivalent circuit containing only the

zero-sequence impedances

72
Sequence Networks for generator
 The equivalent circuit of a three-phase, Y-connected synchronous generator
with grounded neutral is shown below:

73
Sequence Networks for generator –
positive sequence network
Phase A

No grounded neutral

74
Sequence Networks for generator –
negative sequence network
Phase A

No grounded neutral

75
Sequence Networks for generator –
zero sequence network
Phase A

Grounded neutral is considered

76
 Sequence Networks for generator
 So, the symmetrical components of synchronous generators considering
phase A are:

Positive Negative Zero

77
Sequence Networks for transformer
 The equivalent circuit of a transformer for positive & negative sequences
networks is identical. It consists of just the series impedances of the
transformer, regardless of primary and secondary connections (Y or Δ)

 For zero-sequence network, however, there are 5 possible cases, depending on

their connections at primary and secondary sides.

 Table below shows the connection diagram and zero-phase sequence network
for various types of transformer’s connection.

78
Sequence Networks for transformer –
zero sequence networks

79
Sequence Networks for transformer –
zero sequence networks

80
Sequence Networks for transformer –
zero sequence networks

81
 Types of unsymmetrical fault
 As mentioned before, three types of unsymmetrical fault are:
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 Line-to-line fault
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault

SLG LL DLG

82
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 A synchronous generator with SLG fault on phase A is shown below:

SLG fault

83
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 Since IB = 0 and IC = 0, the symmetrical components of current in phase A are:

 It can be observed that:

84
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 Recall that the symmetrical components of voltage in phase A of generator is
given by:

 Substitute IA1 into VA1, VA2 and VA0, the voltage equations become:

85
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 The unsymmetrical voltage in phase A can also be expressed as:

In SLG fault, VA = 0

 So:

 Hence, the positive sequence current is:

86
 Single line-to-ground (SLG) fault
 In general, SLG fault is modeled as: Z0 IA0
+
VA0
I A 0 = I A1 = I A 2 _

Z1 IA1
EA +
I A1 = +
Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3Z f EA
_
VA1 3Z F
_

Z2 IA2
 The fault current is:
+
VA2
I A = I A 0 + I A1 + I A 2 = 3I A1 _
87
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 A synchronous generator with LL fault on phase B and C is shown below:

LL fault

88
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 Since VB = VC, the symmetrical components of voltage in phase A are as follows:

 From the above derivation, we see that:

VA1 = VA2

89
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 Also, since IA = 0 and IB = - IC, the symmetrical components of current in phase
A become:

 From the above derivation:

90
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 Recall that the symmetrical components of voltage in phase A of generator is
given by:

 Substitute the currents (IA0, IA1 and IA2) and voltages (VA0, VA1 and VA2) into the
above equations:

91
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 Equating the equations:

 Therefore, the positive sequence current is:

92
 Line-to-line (LL) fault
 In general, LL fault is modeled as:

Z1 IA1 Z2
EA IA2
I A1 = +
Z1 + Z 2 + Z f +
+

EA VA1 VA2
_
_ _
 The fault current is:

I B = − I C = − j 3I A1 ZF

93
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault
 A synchronous generator with DLG fault on phase B and C is shown below:

DLG fault

94
Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault

95
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault
 Recall that the symmetrical components of voltage in phase A of generator is
given by:

 SinceVA0 = VA1 =VA2 , equating the above equations:

and

(1) (2)

96
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault
 In DLG fault:

 By the fact that IN = 3IA0 , the following derivation is obtained:

IN IB IC

(3)

97
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault
 Substitute (1) and (2) into (3):

 Therefore, the positive sequence current is:

98
Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault
 In general, DLG fault is modeled as:

Z1 IA1 Z2 IA2 Z0 IA0

+ + +
+
EA VA1 VA2 VA0
_
_ _ _

3ZF
The fault current is:
EA
I A1 =  Z1 I A1 − E A 
Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f )
Z1 + I f = 3I A 0 = 3 
Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f  Z + 3Z 
 0 f 
99
 Unsymmetrical fault analysis
 Unsymmetrical fault analysis is about to convert the unsymmetrical faulted power
system to the equivalent symmetrical one.

 This is done by breaking down the unsymmetrical system into its three
symmetrical components, namely:
 Positive sequence component
 Negative sequence component
 Zero sequence component
 As a result, the analysis can be performed in analogous to that of symmetrical fault
analysis.

Positive sequence

Unsymmetrical Symmetrical Negative sequence

fault components
Zero sequence

100
 Unsymmetrical fault analysis
Procedures for unsymmetrical fault analysis:
1. Convert all reactances according to the new base MVA and voltages. If the
rated MVA and voltage of each component equal to base MVA and voltage (i.e.
SB = Srated and VB = Vrated), use directly the given reactances without using
change-of-base equation.
2. Draw the equivalent circuit for positive sequence between the faulted bus
and common bus. Ignore the transformer connection. Simplify the circuit
and determine its total reactance. This will be the total reactance of positive
sequence, labeled as Z1.
3. Repeat step 2 for negative sequence network to determine the total
reactance Z2. No voltage source in this network. If the individual components
have the same values of their positive and negative reactance, then Z2 = Z1.
4. Repeat step 2 for zero sequence network to determine the total reactance Zo.
No voltage source in this network. The transformer connection (Y or Δ)
must be considered in this step.
5. Find the voltage and current based on the type of fault (SLG, LL or DLG) using
the calculated reactances Z0, Z1 and Z2.
101
 PREPARED BY:
DR. ZULKIFFLI BIN ABDUL HAMID

1
Introduction
 When faults occur, excessive currents will flow in the power system.

 These fault currents can be several orders of magnitude larger than normal
operating currents

 If not removed quickly, they may cause:

 Insulation damage
 Conductor melting
 Mechanical damage to windings and busbars
 Fire and explosion

 It is therefore important to have power system protection in order to:

 Remove the faulted equipment from the system
 Maintain the unfaulted system in order to continue service
2
System Protection Components
 Protection systems have three basic components:
 Instrument transformer
 Relays
 Circuit-breakers

 Example:
 Instrument transformer - current transformer (CT) & voltage transformer
(VT)
 Relays – overcurrent relay (OC), directional relay (D), impedance relay &
differential relay.

3
System Protection Components
I

I'

Basic protection system (per-phase)

4
System Protection Components
 The function of the current transformer (CT):
 To reproduce secondary current which will activate the relays.
 It converts (step-down) primary currents I (in kA range) to secondary
currents I’ ( in 0 to 5A range) for convenience of measurement.
 By having low magnitude of current:
Safety: Provide electrical isolation from the power system so that
personnel working with relays will work in a safer environment.
Economy: Lower level inputs enable relays to be smaller, simpler & less
expensive.
Accuracy: Accurately reproduce power system currents & voltages over
wide operating ranges

5
System Protection Components
 The function of the overcurrent (OC) relay:
 To discriminate (differentiate) between normal operation and fault
condition.
 Receive signal (or current) from the secondary winding of the current
transformer.
 Has an operating coil, which is connected to the CT secondary winding & a
set of contacts.
 When I’ exceeds a specified “pick up” value IP (i.e. I’ > IP) the operating coil
causes the relay contacts to close.
 When the relay contacts close, the breaker trip coil is energized, which then
causes the circuit breaker to open.

 The function of the circuit breaker (CB):

 To separate between the faulty and non-faulty parts in power systems.
 It opens when there is a fault happens.

6
System Protection Components
Instrument
Relay Circuit breaker
transformer

Receive the Its contacts

Step-down the current (CT) or remains close if
current (CT) or voltage (VT). no fault happens.
voltage (VT) to
be sent to relay Identify whether When fault
fault happens . happens, its
contacts open
If yes, it tells the and separate the
circuit breaker to faulted zone from
open. the remaining
system. 7
Instrument Transformer
 There are two basic types of instrument transformers:
 Voltage transformers (VT) formerly called potential transformer (PT)
 Current transformers (CT)

 The VT reduces the primary voltage and the CT reduces the primary current to
much lower, standardized levels suitable for operation of relays.

VT : step down from primary voltage to secondary voltage (V to V’ )

CT : step down from primary current to secondary current (I to I’ )

8
Instrument Transformer

VT and CT schematic diagram

9
Instrument Transformer – voltage
transformer (VT)
 VT is usually modelled as an ideal transformer. The secondary voltage is
found as:

 Where, V’ is the secondary voltage, V is the primary voltage and n is the VT

turn ratio. V’ is in phase with V.

 Standard VT ratios, n are given below:

10
Instrument Transformer – voltage
transformer (VT)
 For example, if the primary voltage of VT is 200 kV and its turn ratio is 300:1,
then the secondary voltage will:

V ’=V/n = 200 kV / (300/1) = 0.67 kV

11
Instrument Transformer – current
transformer (CT)
 Approximate equivalent circuit of a CT is shown below:

 Where:
Z’ = secondary leakage impedance
Xe = saturable or excitation reactance
ZB = impedance of terminating device (relay). Sometimes called as burden

12
Instrument Transformer – current
transformer (CT)
 Standard CT ratios are given below:

13
Instrument Transformer – current
transformer (CT)
 The total impedance ZB of the terminating device is called the burden.

 Associated with the CT equivalent circuit is an excitation curve that determines

the relationship between the secondary voltages E’ and excitation current Ie.

 Using the CT equivalent circuit and excitation curves, the following procedure
can be used to determine CT performance.
Step 1: Assume a CT secondary output current I’
Step 2: Compute E’ = (Z’ + ZB) I’
Step 3: Using E’, find Ie from the excitation curve
Step 4: Compute I = n(I’ + Ie)
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 for different values of I’, then plot I’ versus I

 The CT error is given by:

14
Excitation curves for a multi ratio bushing CT with a C100 ANSI accuracy classification
15
Instrument Transformer – current
transformer (CT)
 For example, if the primary current of CT is 500 A and its turn ratio is 900:5,
then the secondary current will (assume Ie = 0):

I ’=I/n = 500 A / (900/5) = 2.78 A

16
Relay
 In this chapter, there are four types of relay to be
covered:
 Overcurrent relay
 Directional relay
 Impedance relay
 Differential relay

17
 Part 1
Overcurrent relay (OC)

18
Overcurrent relay
 There are two types of overcurrent relays:
 Instantaneous overcurrent relays
 Time-delay overcurrent relays

19
Overcurrent relay - Instantaneous
 Instantaneous overcurrent relays respond to the magnitude of their input
current, I’ as shown by the trip and block regions.

 If the magnitude of I’ exceeds a specified adjustable current magnitude IP

called the pickup current, (i.e. I’ > IP), the relay contacts close instantaneously
to energize the circuit breaker trip coil.

 If I’ < IP, then the relay contacts remain open, blocking the trip coil.

I’ > IP : Relay trips, relay contacts close, circuit breaker open

I’ < IP : Relay not trip, relay contacts stay open, circuit breaker remain close

20
Overcurrent relay - Instantaneous

Trip

Block

Instantaneous overcurrent relay - block and trip regions

21
Overcurrent relay - Time-delay
 Time-delay overcurrent relays also respond to the magnitude of their input
current, I’ but with an intentional time delay.

 The time delay depends on the magnitude of the relay input current.

 For I’ > Ip :
The relay will trip.
The time delay for the relay to trip will be small if I’ is large. Otherwise,
the time delay will be large if I’ is small.

 If I’ < IP, the relay remains in the blocking position.

 These relays have two settings:

 Current tap setting: The pickup current, IP in amperes
 Time dial setting: The adjustable amount of time delay
22
Overcurrent relay - Time-delay
td 1 < td 2 < td 3 (time delay)

Trip Increase I’

Block

Time-delay overcurrent relay block and trip regions

23
24
Protection using overcurrent relay
 Many radial systems are protected by time-delay overcurrent relays.

 These relays are coordinated to operate in sequence so that they interrupt

minimum load during faults.

 The breaker closest to the fault opens, while other upstream breakers with
larger time delays remain closed.

Single line diagram of a 34.5kV radial system

25
Protection using overcurrent relay
 Consider a fault at P1 to the right of breaker B3:
 For this fault we want breaker B3 to open while B2 and B1 remain closed.
 Under these conditions, only load L3 is interrupted.
 We could select a longer time delay for the relay at B2 (as a back-up), so that
B3 operates first.
 Thus, B3 provides primary protection for any fault to the right of B3.
 Only if B3 fails to open will B2 open, after time delay, thus providing
backup protection.

I fault

26
Protection using overcurrent relay
 Similarly, consider a fault at P2 between B2 and B3.
 We want B2 to open while B1 remains closed.
 Under these conditions, loads L2 and L3 are interrupted.
 Since the fault is closer to the source, the fault current will be larger than
the previous fault considered.
 We could select a longer time delay for the relay at B1 (as a backup), so that
B2 opens first.
 Thus, B2 provides primary protection for faults between B2 and B3.
 Similarly, B1 provides primary protection for faults between B1 and B2.

I fault

27
 Part 2
Directional relay

28
Directional Relays
 Overcurrent relays can also be used with the use of directional element. This
type of relay is called directional overcurrent relay or simply directional
relay.

 Directional relays are designed to operate for fault currents in only one
direction, i.e. in forward direction.

With the inclusion of directional capability, the overcurrent relay becomes

directional overcurrent relay.

29
Directional Relays

Directional relay in series with overcurrent relay

30
Directional Relays
 Consider the directional relay D in previous figure, which is required to operate
only for faults to the right of the CT.

 Since the line impedance is mostly reactive, a fault at P1 to the right of the CT
will have a fault current I from bus 1 to bus 2 that lags the bus voltage V by an
angle of almost 90 degrees. This fault current is said to be in the forward
direction.

 On the other hand, a fault at P2, to the left of the CT, will have a fault current I
that leads V by almost 90 degrees. This fault current is to said to be in the
reverse direction.

31
Directional Relays
 The directional relay has two inputs, namely the secondary voltage of VT and
secondary current of CT:
V ' ∠0° & I ' ∠φ

The condition to trip:

I'
Block − 180° < (φ − φ1 ) < 0° [Trip ]
Otherwise [ Block ]

Trip V' φ : Angle of current, I’

φ1 : Boundary between trip & block
I' regions (typically 2 to 8 degrees)

Directional relay block and trip regions

in the complex plane
32
Directional Relays - torque
 The torque that will cause a directional relay to trip; (i.e. to close its contacts)
can be calculated as follows:

P 1
τ= = V ' I ' sin(φ1 − φ )
ω 2πf
= kV ' I ' sin(φ1 − φ )
= kV ' I ' sin(θV − θ I )

 Where, k = 1/ω

33
Directional Relays
 From torque equation:
τ = kV ' I ' sin(φ1 − φ )

 For faults in the forward direction:

 The current lags the voltage, the angle (φ1 – φ) is close to +90 degrees.
 This results in maximum positive torque on the rotating disc of relay, which
would cause the relay contacts to close (i.e. trips).

 For faults in the reverse direction:

 The current leads the voltage, and (φ1 – φ) is to close –90 degrees.
 This results in maximum negative torque on the rotating disc of relay,
which would cause the relay contacts to open (i.e. block).

34
Directional Relays - operation
 Fault happens in forward direction of directional relay:

I lags V  (φ1 – φ) = +90 degrees  τ = +maximum  relay contacts close

 directional relay trips

 Fault happens in reverse direction of directional relay:

I leads V  (φ1 – φ) = –90 degrees  τ = –maximum  relay contacts open

 directional relay not trip

35
Directional Relays
So, for a protection system that has both overcurrent relay and directional relay, the
circuit breaker will open if both conditions as follows are satisfied:
Overcurrent relay (OC): I’ > Ip
Directional relay (D): the fault happens in forward direction (I lags V)

36
Example

37
Protection of Two Source System with
Directional Relays
 It becomes difficult and in some cases, impossible to coordinate overcurrent
relays when there are two or more sources at different locations.

 Consider the system with two sources as follows, where B12, B21, B23 and B32
are circuit breakers with directional relays, while B1 and B3 are circuit breakers
with overcurrent relays.

System with two sources

38
 Protection using Directional Relays –
line fault
 Suppose there is a fault at P1.
 The fault happens in forward direction of B23, B32 and B12.
 We want B23 and B32 to clear the fault as they are close to the fault location.
 B12 could functions as a backup by setting its time delay longer than B23. If
B23 fails to open, B12 will replace its role.
 B3 could also function as a backup if B32 fails to open.

39
Protection using Directional Relays –
line fault
 Now consider a fault at P2 instead.
 The fault happens in forward direction of B12, B21 and B32.
 We want B12 and B21 to clear the fault as they are close to the fault location.
 B32 could functions as a backup by setting its time delay longer than B21. If
B21 fails to open, B32 will replace its role.
 B1 could also function as a backup if B12 fails to open.

40
Protection using Directional Relays –
bus fault
 If the fault happens at:
 Bus 1: B1 and B21 will operate to clear the fault.
 Bus 2: B12 and B32 will operate to clear the fault.
 Bus 3: B3 and B23 will operate to clear the fault.

41
Zones of Protection
 A fundamental concept in protection is the division of a system into
protective zones.

 If a fault occurs anywhere within zone, action will be taken to isolate that zone
from the rest of the system.

 Division of protective zones can be performed using three steps as follows:

 Step 1: define the zones for line components such as transmission lines &
transformers from one bus to another bus (each zone will have two
breakers)
 Step 2: define the zones for bus (any breakers connected to the bus are in
the same zone).
 Step 3: define the zones for terminal components such as generators,
motors and loads (each zone will have one breaker).

42
Zones of Protection
 Protective zones have the following characteristic:
 Zones are overlapped.
 Circuit breakers are located in the overlap regions.
 For a fault happens in a zone, all circuit breakers in that zone open to clear
the fault.
 For a fault happens in an overlap region between two zones, all circuit
breakers in both zones open to clear the fault.

 Neighbouring zones are overlapped in order:

 To avoid the possibility of unprotected areas
 Without overlap, the small area between two neighbouring zones would
not be located in any zone and thus would not be protected.

43
Zones of Protection
Zone for motor
Zone for
generator Zone for line

Zone for
Power system protective zones transformer
Zone for bus
44
Zones of Protection
 From the previous power system:
Zones for terminal component: Zone 1, 3 and 9.
Zone for bus: zone 4 and 7.
Zone for line component: zone 2, 5, 6, 8 and 10.

 If a fault occurs at P1, then the two breakers in zone 5 should open.

 If a fault occurs at P2 within the overlap region of zone 4 and 5, then all five
breakers in zones 4 and 5 should open.

 Clearly, if a fault occurs within an overlap region,

 Two zones will be isolated and a larger part of the system will be lost from
service
 To minimize this possibility, overlap regions are kept as small as possible.

45
Example
 Draw the protective zones for the power system shown below. Which circuit
breakers should open for a fault at P1 and P2?

46
Solution

Fault at P1:
Breakers B24 and B42 will open

Fault at P2:
All breakers in zone 4 and 5 will open
(B21, B23, B24 and B42)
47
 Part 3
Impedance relay

48
Impedance Relays
 Commonly used to protect buses and transmission lines.

 These relays operate based on voltage-to-current ratio, which in turn produces

impedance.

 It is also called a distance relay because the impedance is proportional to the

distance in transmission lines.

 The reach of an impedance relay denotes how far down the line the relay
detects fault.

For example, an 80% reach means that the relay will detect any (solid three
phase) fault between the relay and 80% of the line length.

49
Impedance Relays
 Impedance relay block and trip regions are shown below

 The relay trips for |Z| < |Zr|

 Where Z is the voltage-to-current ratio at the relay location
 Zr is an adjustable relay setting.
Im(Z )

Zr
Block

Trip

Re(Z )

Impedance relay block

and trip region
50
Impedance Relays
 Consider an impedance relay for breaker B12, for which Z = V1 / I12

Note: Zone 1, 2 and 3 are

the protective zones
covered by breaker B12.
51
Impedance Relays
 During normal operation,
 Load currents are usually much smaller than fault currents, and the ratio Z
= V / I has a large magnitude.
 Therefore Z will lie outside the circle (i.e. in block region), and the relay
will not trip during normal operation.

 During a three-phase fault at P1, however,

 Z appears to relay B12 to be the line impedance from the relay to the fault
location.
 If |Z| < |Zr| (i.e. in trip region), then the B12 relay will trip.

52
Impedance Relays
 Also, during a three-phase fault at P3,
 Z appears to relay B12 to be the negative of the line impedance from the
relay to the fault
 As long as |Z| < |Zr| (i.e. in trip region), the B12 relay will trip regardless of
fault location (forward or reverse direction).
 Thus, the impedance relay is not directional!

53
Impedance Relays
 Two ways to include directional capability with an impedance relay are (i.e. to
make it operate in forward direction only) :
 Directional restraint: by including a directional relay in series with an
impedance relay
 Mho relay: by offsetting the centre of the impedance circle from the origin.

 If either of these relays is used at B12 in the previous power system, a fault at P1
will result in a trip decision, but a fault at P3 will result in a block decision.

With the inclusion of directional capability, the impedance relay becomes

directional impedance relay.

54
Impedance Relays
Zr Zr

Block Block
Trip Trip

Impedance relay with Modified impedance relay

directional restraint (mho relay)
55
Impedance Relays
 It is common practice to use three directional impedance relays per phase, with
increasing:
 Reaches (i.e. Zr)
 Time delays.

 Thus, there will be three protective zones covered by the relays per-phase.

Zr3 Zr3

Zr2 Zr2

Z r1 Z r1

Impedance relay with directional restraint Mho relay (per-phase)

(per-phase) 56
Impedance Relays
 So in practice, each directional impedance relay will have 3 protective zones, as
shown below:

Note: Zone 1, 2 and 3 are

the protective zones
covered by breaker B12.
57
Impedance Relays
 For example, consider B12 with three relays per phase for the previous power system.

Zone 1 (relay 1):

 Provide primary protection for line 1-2.
 Relay is typically set for an 80% reach of line 1-2. Any fault happens between the relay and
80% of the line length will be cleared by this relay.
 Instantaneous operation (no delay)

Zone 2 (relay 2):

 Provide backup protection for line 1-2 as well as remote backup for line 2-3 or 2-4.
 Relay is set for about 120% reach of line 1-2, extending beyond bus 2.
 Typical time delay of 0.2 to 0.3 seconds.

Zone 3 (relay 3):

 Provide remote backup for neighbouring lines.
 Relay is set for 100% reach of line 1-2 plus 120% of either line 2-3 or 2-4 whichever is longer.
It extends beyond bus 3 and 4.
 Typical time delay one second. 58
Impedance Relays
 In order to determine the tripping status of impedance relay, the secondary
impedance of the relay’s transformer, Z’ must be determined.

 Secondary impedance:

V ' (Vφ / nVT ) Vφ  nCT  n 

Z'= = =   = Z  CT 
I ' ( I φ / nCT ) I φ  nVT   nVT 
 Where:
V’ = secondary voltage of VT
I’ = secondary current of CT
Vφ = phase voltage
Iφ = phase current (assumed to be the same as line current)
Z = primary impedance
nVT and nCT = VT and CT turn ratios respectively
59
Impedance Relays
 After that, the setting impedance, Zr is calculated based on the percentage of
reach defined for each zone.

 The setting impedance of a zone:

 nCT 
Z r = rZ line  
 nVT 

 Where, r is the reach expressed in fraction and Zline is the line impedance.

 By comparing |Z’| < |Zr|, we can determine whether the relay trips or not.

60
Impedance Relays
 Relay connections for a three-zone impedance relay with directional restraint
are shown below:

Relay connections for a three

zone directional impedance
relay (per-phase)
61
Example
 Table below gives positive sequence line impedances as well as CT and VT
ratios at B12 for the 345kV system shown in the previous diagram.
 Determine the settings Zr1, Zr2 and Zr3 for the B12 three-zone, directional
impedance relays. Consider only solid, three-phase faults.
 Maximum current for line 1-2 during emergency loading conditions is 1500
A at a power factor of 0.95 lagging. Verify that B12 does not trip during this
condition.

62
Impedance Relays
 So in practice, each directional impedance relay will have 3 protective zones, as
shown below:

Note: Zone 1, 2 and 3 are

the protective zones
covered by breaker B12.
63
Solution
 The ratio of CT to VT:

nCT 1500 / 5 1
= =
nVT 3000 / 1 10

 Zone 1: 80% reach of line 1-2

 nCT  1
Z r1 = (80%) Z1− 2   = 0.8(8 + j 50)  = 4.05∠80.9° Ω
 nVT   10 

64
Solution
 Zone 2: 120% reach of line 1-2

 nCT  1
Z r 2 = (120%) Z1− 2   = 1.2(8 + j 50)  = 6.08∠80.9° Ω
 nVT   10 

 Zone 3: 100% of line 1-2 plus 120% of either line 2-3 or 2-4 whichever is longer

 nCT   nCT 
Z r 3 = (100%) Z1− 2   + (120%) Z 2 −3  
 nVT   nVT 
1 1
= 1.0(8 + j 50)  + 1.2(8 + j 50)  = 11.14∠80.9° Ω
 10   10 
65
Solution
 At emergency: V = 345 kV and I = 1500A with pf = 0.95 lagging

 Phase voltage and current:

345
Vφ = = 199.2∠0° kV
3
I φ = 1500∠ − cos −1 0.95 = 1500∠ − 18.19°A

 Secondary impedance:

Vφ  nCT  199.2∠0° k  1 
Z'=   =   = 13.28∠18.19° Ω
I φ  nVT  1500∠ − 18.19°  10 

 Since |Z’| > |Zr1|, |Zr2| and |Zr3|, the impedance is in block region. So, no relay
will trip.
66
 Part 4
Differential relay

67
Differential Relays
 Commonly used to protect generators, buses, power transformers and
transmission lines.

 These relays operate based on the difference in current entering and

leaving a component.

 The entering current is noted as input current, I1’ while the leaving
current is noted as output current, I2’.

 The condition for differential relay to trip:

I1 '−I 2 ' ≠ 0 ⇒ relay will trip

I1 '−I 2 ' ≈ 0 ⇒ relay will not trip
68
Differential Relays
 Figure below illustrates the basic method of differential relaying for
generator protection.

Per-phase differential relaying for generator protection

69
Differential Relays
 When the relay in any one phase operates, all three phases of the main
circuit breaker will open, as well as the generator neutral and field
breakers.

 The tripping of differential relay is as follows:

 When no fault happens in the generator windings (stator windings):

 the current in the relay operating coil is zero, i.e. I1’ - I2’ = 0
 relay does not operate.

 When there is fault happens in the generator windings (stator

windings):
 the current in the relay operating coil is not zero, i.e. I1’ - I2’ ≠ 0
 the relay operates.
70
Differential Relays - structure
 An electromechanical differential relay called a balance beam relay is
shown below:

Balance beam differential relay

71
Differential Relays - structure
 The relay contacts close if the downward force on the right side exceeds
the downward force on the left side.

 The electromagnetic force on the right, FR is given by:

FR = [ N 0 ( I1 '− I 2 ' )]2

 Similarly, the electromagnetic force on the left, restraining coil is

proportional to
2
N 
FL =  r ( I1 '+ I 2 ' )
 2 

 The relay will trip if: FR > FL

72
Differential Relays - structure
 Hence:
2
N 
[ N 0 ( I1 '− I 2 ' )]2 >  r ( I1 '+ I 2 ' )
 2 

 Taking the square root:

Nr
N 0 ( I1 '− I 2 ' ) > ( I1 '+ I 2 ' )
2
k Nr
( I1 '− I 2 ' ) > ( I1 '+ I 2 ' ) ⇒ k=
2 N0

2( I1 '− I 2 ' ) > k ( I1 '+ I 2 ' )

73
Differential Relays
 Expanding and simplifying the equation:
I1 ' (2 − k ) > I 2 ' (k + 2)

 Finally, the condition for the relay to trip becomes:

I1 ' 2 + k
> ( trip)
I2 ' 2 − k

74
Differential Relays
 Therefore, a differential relay will trip if one of the following conditions
is satisfied:

 2−k  2+k 
I 2 ' < I1 '   Or I 2 ' > I1 '   ( trip)
 2+k   2−k 

 The relay will not trip (block) if the following condition is satisfied:

 2−k  2+k 
I1 '   < I 2 ' < I1 '   (block)
 2+k   2−k 

75
Differential Relays – curve with k = 0.1
 The previous inequalities are plotted to obtain the block and trip
regions of the differential relay for k = 0.1, as follows:

Upper bound
I 2 ' = 1.11 I1 '

I 2 ' = 0.905 I1 '

Lower bound

Differential relay block and trip regions

76
Differential Relays – curve with k = 0.1
 For upper bound, the percentage of mismatch between I1’ and I2’ is:

I 2 '− I1 ' 1.11 I1 '− I1 '

×100% = ×100% = 11%
I1 ' I1 '

 For lower bound, the percentage of mismatch between I1’ and I2’ is:

I 2 '− I1 ' 0.905I1 '− I1 '

×100% = ×100% = 9.5%
I1 ' I1 '

 Hence, it can be understood that the relay will block for:

 up to 11% mismatch between I1’ and I2’
 down to 9.5% mismatch between I1’ and I2’

 In other words, the relay will trip if the mismatch between the currents is
either below 9.5% or above 11%.
77
Differential Relays
 Note that as k increases, the block region becomes larger (i.e. the relay
becomes less sensitive).

 Advantages of differential relay are:

 provides primary zone protection without backup.
 coordination with protection in adjacent zones is eliminated
 permits high speed tripping.
 precise settings are unnecessary.
 the need to calculate fault current and voltages is avoided.

78
Differential Relays – bus protection
 Differential relay for bus protection is illustrated by the following
single line diagram:

Single line diagram of differential bus protection

79
Differential Relays – bus protection
 In practice, three differential relays are required, one for each phase.

 Operation of any one relay would cause all of the three-phase circuit
breakers connected to the bus to open, thereby isolating the three-
phase bus from service.

 When there is no fault happens at the bus:

 the current in the relay operating coil is zero, i.e. I1’ + I2’ - I3’ = 0
 relay does not operate

 When there is a fault happens at the bus:

 the current in the relay operating coil is not zero, i.e. I1’ + I2’ - I3’ ≠ 0
 relay operates

80
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 The protection method used for power transformers depends on the
transformer MVA rating.

 Fuses are often used to protect transformers with small MVA ratings,
whereas differential relays are commonly used to protect transformers
with ratings larger than 10MVA.

81
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 The differential protection method is illustrated as follows for a single-phase,
two-winding transformer.

Differential
protection of a single
phase, two winding
transformer (per-
phase)
82
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 Denoting the turns ratio of the primary CT (CT1) and secondary CT (CT2) as
follows:
1 1
a1 = & a2 =
n1 n2

 The secondary currents of CT1 and CT2 are:

 And the current in the relay operating coil is:

83
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 When no fault happens, the primary and secondary currents of the two-
winding transformer are related by:

 Where, N1 and N2 are the primary and secondary winding of two-winding

transformer. Substitute (3) into (2), we get

84
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 To prevent the relay from tripping at no fault, the differential relay current I’
must be zero. Hence, at no fault:

(At no fault)

85
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 When there is a fault in the transformer, the differential relay current must be:

 The relay will only trip if the following operating conditions is satisfied.

 Also, the value of k in the above equations can be selected to control the size of
the block region of differential relay
86
Differential Relays – transformer
protection
 Hence for transformer protection using differential relay:

When there is no fault, the following conditions must be satisfied:

I 1  N1 / N 2 
I ' = I1 '− I 2 ' = 1 −  = 0
n1  n2 / n1 

 When there is a fault, the following conditions must be satisfied:

I 1  N1 / N 2 
I ' = I1 '− I 2 ' = 1 −  ≠ 0
n1  n2 / n1 

87
Example
 A single-phase, two-winding, 10 MVA, 80/20 kV transformer has differential
relay protection with two current transformers at primary and secondary sides.
Determine the current in the two-winding transformer and in the CTs at rated
condition. Hence, select suitable CT ratios based on the following table.

88
Example
 Rated primary & secondary currents for two-winding transformer:

S 10 M
I1 = = = 125 A
V1 80k
S 10 M
I2 = = = 500 A
V2 20k

 Since:
 I1 = 125 A, choose 150:5 tap setting for CT1 CT ratio must be
 I2 = 500 A, choose 600:5 tap setting for CT2 than rated current

89
Example
 So, the secondary currents of CT1 and CT2 are:

I1 125
I1 ' = = = 4.167 A
n1 (150 / 5)
I2 500
I2 ' = = = 4.167 A
n2 (600 / 5)

90
Common Problem in Differential
Transformer Protection
 A common problem in differential transformer protection is the mismatch of
relay currents (I1’ and I2’) that occurs when standard CT ratios are used.

 If the primary winding in the previous example has a 138 kV instead of 80 kV

rating, then the rated primary current is:

S 10 M
I1 = = = 72.46 A
V1 138k

 A CT ratio of 100:5 is selected, so the relay current at 138 kV side is:

72.46
I1 ' == = 3.62 A
(100 / 5)
 Hence, there is a mismatch between I1’ and I2’ (3.62 A and 4.17 A respectively).
The mismatch is about 15%. 91
Common Problem in Differential
Transformer Protection
 Solutions to this problem can be solved through:
 auxiliary CT connected to the standard CT
 use tap settings on the relays

92
Example
 A single phase, 30 MVA, 240 kV / 65 kV kV two-winding transformer is
protected by differential relays with taps. Assume that the available relay tap
settings are 5:5, 5:5.5, 5:6.6, 5:7.3, 5:8, 5:9 and 5:10, giving relay tap ratios of 1.00,
1.10, 1.32, 1.46, 1.60, 1.80, and 2.00
 Determine currents in the transformer and in the CTs at rated conditions.
 Select CT ratios and relay tap settings.
 Hence, calculate the mismatch in the relay currents.

93
Example
 Rated primary & secondary currents for two-winding transformer:

S 30 M
I1 = = = 125 A
V1 240k
S 30 M
I2 = = = 461.54 A
V2 65k

 Since:
 I1 = 125 A, choose 150:5 tap setting for CT1
 I2 = 461.54 A, choose 500:5 tap setting for CT2

94
Example
 So, the secondary currents of CT1 and CT2 are:

I1 125
I1 ' = = = 4.167 A
n1 (150 / 5)
I2 461.54
I2 ' = = = 4.615 A
n2 (500 / 5)

 Relay tap setting can be determined from:

I 2 ' 4.615
= = 1.11
I1 ' 4.167
 Hence, the closest tap ratio is 1.10. So choose relay tap setting of T1’:T2’ = 5:5.5.

95
Example
 The percentage of mismatch is given by:

I 2 ' / T2 '− I1 ' / T1 '

= × 100%
I1 ' / T1 '
4.615 / 5.5 − 4.167 / 5
= ×100%
4.167 / 5
= 0.683%

 This is a good mismatch; since transformer differential relays typically have

their block regions adjusted between 20% and 60%. So, 0.683% mismatch gives
an ample safety margin in the event of CT and relay differences.

96
3-Phase Transformer Protection
with Differential Relays
 Figure 10.37 illustrates differential protection of a three-phase Y-Δ two-winding
transformer.

 Note that a Y-Δ transformer produces 30 degrees phase shifts in the line
currents.

 The CTs must be connected to compensate for the 30 degrees phase shifts, such
that the CT secondary currents as seen by the relays are in phase.

 The correct phase angle relationship is obtained by connecting CTs on the Y

side of the transformer in Δ and CTs on the Δ side in Y.

97
3-Phase Transformer Protection
with Differential Relays

Differential protection of a
three-phase

98