Python Programming

The ultimate crash course for

learning Python quickly, with
practical examples and coding
language tricks
for beginners.
Computer programming for data
science and machine learning.
Table of Contents
Introduction

Chapter 1: What is the Python Language, and Why Should I Use It?
How to Use Python
The Benefits of Python
Chapter 2: How Can I Install Python on My Computer?
Installing Python on Mac OS X
Python – V
Python3 – V
Installing Python on a Windows System
Installing Python on a Linux Operating System
Chapter 3: The Basics of the Python Code
The Keywords
Looking at the Comments
The Importance of Variables
Bringing in Python Strings
The Python Functions
The Operators
Chapter 4: The Different Data Types in Python

Chapter 5: The Python Functions

The Different Types of Functions
The Advantages of Python Functions
The Syntax of the Function
Chapter 6: How to Write Your Own Conditional Statements
Starting with the If Statement
Moving to the If Else Statements
 Finishing Off with the Elif Statements
Chapter 7: The Python Classes and How to Write Your Own

Chapter 8: Handling Files in Python

Creating Our Own New Files
Can I Create a Binary File?
How to Open a File
How to Seek One of the Files
Chapter 9: Tips and Tricks to Get the Most Out of Python
Comment Out the Code
Print Things Out
Work with the Code You Know Will Behave
Read All of the Error Messages
Run the Code Often
Take a Break When Needed
Ask for Help
Chapter 10: A Quick Introduction to Data Analysis
Define the Question
Pick Out the Important Measuring Options
Collect the Data
Look Through and Analyze the Data
Interpret the Results
Chapter 11: Some of the Best Python Algorithms for Data Analysis
Neural Networks
Clustering
Support Vector Machines
Naïve Bayes
Decision Trees
Conclusion
Introduction
Congratulations on purchasing Python Programming, and thank you for
doing so.

The following chapters will discuss many of the different topics that you
need to know when it is time to learn how to work with the Python
programming language. There are a lot of companies and individuals who
want to be able to learn how to code, and the Python language is going to be
one of the best options for you to choose to go with. This guidebook will
make sure that you are able to get some of the basics of this process down,
so you can write your own codes down in no time, no matter what you
would like to use these for.

To start, this guidebook is going to take a look at some of the basics that
come with Python. We are going to spend some time looking at the benefits
of working with Python and why it is such a good language to work with,
and then we will spend some time exploring what this language takes to get
installed on the various different operating systems that are out there. From
there, we can look at a few of the basic parts that come with this code,
including the objects, comments, keywords, functions, and more.

Now that some of those basics are out of the way, it is time for us to take a
look at some of the coding that we are able to do when it is time to work
with this language. The best way to learn anything about coding and how to
make this happen, we first need to look at some of the codes and get some
practice with those. Here we are going to learn how to work with the
different data types that are there, how to work with the functions, the
importance of classes in the Python language, and how to write out some of
our own conditional statements. All of these are going to provide us with
some really great codes that we are able to write with the help of the Python
language.

After we have had some time to learn those different parts of the coding
world, it is time to look at some of the tips and tricks that we are able to do
when it comes to learning how to code. No matter how much we prepare,
there are times when things are not going to work the way that you want.
These tips are going to show you some of the things that you can do when
your code is not behaving the way that it should.

The end of this guidebook is going to spend some time looking at the basics
of data analysis and why this is an important part of the process. Many
companies are jumping on board and looking at how to work with data
science and data analysis easier than ever before. You will quickly be able
to keep up with the benefits of working with this, the different steps that
you need to take in order to work with a data analysis for your own
projects, and some of the best algorithms that we are going to be able to
work with when it comes to the Python language and data analysis.

There is so much that we are able to work in order to get started with the
Python language, and this guidebook will spend some time talking about
the most important parts of this process so that you are able to make it work
for all of your business need. When you are ready to learn more about
Python programming and how you can work with this on data science or a
data analysis project, make sure to check out this guidebook to get
started!

Every effort was made to ensure it is full of as much useful information as

possible; please enjoy it!
Chapter 1: What is the Python Language, and
Why Should I Use It?

There are a lot of different coding languages out there that we are able to
work with. We may find that some of these are going to work the best when
they help us create webpages and work online. Others are going to be able
to handle some of the more technical aspects of our work, whether we are
working with math or science, and can tell us a lot about the world, the
trends around us, and more. And still, others are able to be there to help a
beginner get into the world of coding.

If you are just getting started with the idea of coding, then the best option
that you can choose to learn how to code is with the Python language. This
language is simple to learn while having all of the features and power that
you need to get coding done. This language is going to come with the
standard library and plenty of extensions to get the work completed. And as
we go through this guidebook, you will quickly see why this language is
actually pretty easy for you to learn, even as a beginner.

There are a lot of programmers out there who love to work with the Python
language and wouldn’t choose anything else to work with for their coding
needs. And this could easily become you with a little bit of knowledge and
practice along the way. when you are ready to learn a bit more about the
Python language and how it works, make sure to check out the rest of this
guidebook to see what we are talking about!

How to Use Python

While we are here, we need to spend some time taking a look at some of the
major uses that come with the Python language. Many companies are more
than willing to learn how to work with the Python language for some of
their big computer tasks. You will find that Python is already making a bit
different in some of the methods that companies use to work well, and
towards making sure that the bottom line is not going to bottom out in the
process. Here are some of the different ways that we are able to work with
the Python language in order to see just all of the capabilities that can come
with this language.

The first way that we are able to work with Python is to help us to develop
some applications. This can include things like a software development
application, network programming, games, web applications, GUI based
applications, and more. This is due to the fact that Python is able to make an
interface that is interactive and is easy to develop applications with.

Python is also going to be able to help out with multiple programming

paradigms. Python is going to provide us with some of the support that is
needed to handle these. As it is able to support OOP, as well as support for
structured programming, Python is going to come with a bunch of features
that allow it to support the concepts and more that comes with a functional
programming language. We are able to use this language to help out with a
system that is dynamic, and even with automatic management of the
memory.
We will also see that Python is going to have a robust and fairly large
library that is going to be useful for developing any applications that you
would like. It is also going to make it easier for a developer to rely more on
Python compared to the other languages as well. The standard Python
library is going to help us use a different range of modules that are available
so that we can complete any of the tasks that you would like.

Next on the list is that the Python language is going to be compatible with a
lot of major systems and platforms. This is going to make it easier for us to
complete a lot more projects because we will be able to finish them no
matter what platform or system we are working with. Python is going to be
so compatible because it is used mainly for developing some new
applications.

With the help of the interpreter, the code is going to be run on the right
platform, and it has the tools that are needed to support most of the major
operating systems that are out there. this makes it easier to pull up the
programs and more that come with Python and get them to work no matter
what you plan to do with them or where they need to work.

If you plan to do some work with databases while you are doing your
coding, then Python is going to be a good one to use to help with this. You
will find that the Python language is going to make it easier for us to access
the databases that we would like. Python is going to help us to customize
the interfaces that come with most of the common databases, making it
easier for us to get some of the work done that we would like in the process.

These, of course, are just a few of the ways that you are able to work with
the Python language and see some results in the process. When you are
ready to handle some coding, no matter what kind of coding you are
looking to work with, you will find that the Python language is going to be
one of the best choices to go with. Python is going to have all of the tools
and the features that you are looking for, and it is easy to use as well. This
all comes together and ensures that you are going to be able to finish any
project that you would like with the help of this coding
language.
The Benefits of Python
When it is time to start working with a coding language, you will find that
there is no one out there that is better than the Python coding language.
There are so many benefits that you will be able to receive when it is time
to work with Python that it will not take long before you are able to see why
it is the one that most programmers are going to choose for their needs.
Let’s take a look at some of the benefits that you will be able to get when
you work with this kind of coding language.

The first benefit is that this language is designed to be easy to read and
write. Unlike some of the options that have been around for a long time and
are more traditional coding languages, Python wanted to be easy for even
beginners to learn how to use. Whether you have been a coder in the past
and have some experience with making all of this work, or this is the first
time that you have ever done anything with coding, you will find that the
Python language is the best choice to go with.

Even though there is a nice learning curve when it is time to work with the
Python language, you will find that this is not going to take away any of the
functionality or the capabilities that you will see with this language. Python
is a language that has power, and it often has more power than those who
are first exploring it will think. In addition to doing some basic coding that
you would like and that we will explore more in this guidebook, Python
comes with the extensions and more that will help you handle data analysis,
data science, machine learning, and more.

The large community that comes with Python is another added bonus that
you are likely to enjoy as well. This is a community of all kinds of
programmers found all throughout the world. You will be able to work with
beginners all the way up to advance, with those who are just beginning with
the work of coding for the very first time, all the way to professionals who
have been doing it for a very long time.

This is a great thing for someone who is just getting started with Python for
the first time. This allows you to find a bunch of other programmers, many
with some experience in coding, who can answer your questions, show you
how to try something new with the coding that you want to do, and more.
Any time that you get stuck or want to learn something new with Python,
this community will be able to help you out.

Python is also known as an OOP or object-oriented programming language.

This is good news for someone just starting because it has a nice logical
way that you are able to work with organizing your code. You will find that
this is going to make it easier for you to store all of your objects, or parts of
the code, into the right class, and then everything will be right where you
left it when it is all done. This will make more sense when we explore it a
little bit later, but it is basically going to make things easier when it is time
to write the code.

All of the libraries that come with this kind of language are going to be nice
to work with as well. The traditional or standard library that comes with
Python is able to take on a lot of different tasks and can help with some of
the basic codings that you want to do. But if you would like to do
something that is a little more complex, such as what we see with data
analysis and machine learning, then you may need to add something on to
Python to make this work.

The good news is that Python comes with the capabilities and extensions
that you need to make all of this happen. There are a ton of data science and
machine learning libraries out there that match up perfectly with the Python
coding language. This makes it easier for you to work on creating the kinds
of codes that you need with Python, no matter how simple or how complex
they may be.

As we can see, there are a lot of different parts that come with the Python
language, and understanding what these parts are and how they work
together is going to be so important when it is time to work on some of your
codes. With this in mind, let’s take some of those basics and explore some
of the neat things that you are able to do with the Python language.
Chapter 2: How Can I Install Python on My
Computer?

Now that we have had a chance to talk about Python a little bit, and some of
the reasons why you would want to choose to work with this coding
language rather than one of the others that are out there, it is time to get to
work. Before we are able to jump in and start doing some of the codings
that need to be done, we first need to take some time to learn the proper
steps needed in order to install Python on your system

The good news, as we mentioned a little bit in the past chapter, is that
Python is able to work with any kind of operating system or platform that
you would like to focus on. This is good news because it ensures that we are
able to go through and work with this language without changing up our
system, no matter what system is the one that we are using, or the one that
we will want to work with for this project.

The first thing that we need to consider here is which version of Python we
would like to work with. There are a few different options here, which is
going to ensure that we are going to be able to pick the version that is right
for you. Python is an open-sourced language, which means that it is free to
install and use, and can be modified to fit your needs. There is still a
development team that works on fixing the bugs and making the updates
that are necessary. This is good news for you, but it does mean that you
have to figure out which version is the right one for you.

There are Python 2 and Python 3 right now, with a few updates that fit into
each one. They are similar, but they will often depend on the kinds of
features that you would like to use. If your computer is already providing
you with a version of Python 2, then this is a good one to work with, and
you don’t have to update it if you do not want to in this process. It is going
to be pretty similar to Python 3 and some of the codes that we will do in this
guidebook.

However, most programmers are going to work with Python 3. This is the
newest version of the Python language that is out there, and it is going to
have some of the best features and more that you need for coding. And it is
likely that at some point, the developers who work on Python 2 will stop
providing support for that version, so going with the newer option is going
to be the best option to go with.

You will be able to find both of these downloads online to work with
overall, so you have to choose which one is the best for you. You can also
find versions of these that will work on all of the main operating systems so
it should not be too hard to add these onto whichever system you are
working with.

Another thing to keep in mind here is that with the coding we are going to
look at below, and with the steps that we will look at in order to install
Python on all three of the major operating systems, is that we are going to
get our files from www.python.org . Python is going to come with a
compiler, a text editor, and an IDE, along with some other files as well.
These are all important to ensure that the program is going to run properly,
and if one is missing, then you will not be able to get any of the codes that
you want to work on.

There may be some other third-party sights that you are able to give a look
at and then download those instead. This is an option, and depending on
what you would like to do with the Python language when you are done,
you may want to do this. But not all of them are going to provide you with
all of the extras that are needed. You will have to go through and download
each of the parts to make sure that you are not missing something.

On the other hand, when you download from the link that is provided at
www.python.org , you will be able to know for a certainty that all of the
files and parts that you need are there. you just need to go to the link there,
click on the operating system that you are working with, and then move on
to let it download on your system without any problems along the way at
all.

Now that we have had some time to take a look at some of the things about
installing Python on your computer, no matter which operating system you
will use, it is time to take a look at the specific steps that are needed to
make this happen.

Installing Python on Mac OS X

The first option that we are going to take a look at when it is time to install
Python on our computers is the Mac OS X. If you are working off a
computer that will rely on the Mac operating system, then you should notice
early on that there will be some kind of version of Python 2 already on the
computer. The exact version is something that can change based on how
long you have had your computer, but we can easily check on which
version by opening up our terminal app and work with the prompt below to
get it done:

Python – V
This is going to show you the version you get so a number will come up.
You can also choose to install Python 3 on this system if you would like,
and it isn’t required to uninstall the 2.X version on the computer. To check
for the 3.X installation, you just need to open up the terminal app and then
type in the following prompt:
Python3 – V
The default on OS X is that Python 3 is not going to be installed at all. If
you want to use Python 3, you can install it using some of the installers that
are on Python.org. This is a good place to go because it will install
everything that you need to write and execute your codes with Python. It
will have the Python shell, the IDLE development tools, and the interpreter.
Unlike what happens with Python 2.X, these tools are installed as a
standard application in the Applications folder.

You have to make sure that you are able to run both the Python IDLE and
the Python shell on any computer that you are using. And being able to run
these can be dependent on which version you have chosen for your system
as well. You will need to go through and check on your system which
version of Python is there before proceeding and then moves on from there
to determine which IDLE and shell you need to work with.

Installing Python on a Windows System

The second option that we are going to take a look at when it is time to
work with the Python language on an operating system is on a Windows
computer. There are many people who rely on the Windows operating
system, so it is important to know how to go through this process and how
to get Python set up. This process is going to take a bit longer than the other
two, mainly because Windows already has its own coding language pre-
installed, so we have to take some of the extra steps that are needed to get
this done.

The good news is that even though Python is going to not be the automatic
option on your computer doesn’t mean that it won’t work great. You will
find that this coding language will be fine on Windows, and there will be a
lot that you are able to do with it on these systems. It is just there to give
you some notice that you have to take on a few extra steps.

Now that we have that out of the way, some of the steps that you will need
to follow in order to make sure that the Python language is set up and ready
to go will include the following:
1. To set this up, you need to visit the official Python download
page and grab the Windows installer. You can choose to do the
latest version of Python 3, or go with another option. By default,
the installer is going to provide you with the 32-bit version of
Python, but you can choose to switch this to the 64-bit version if
you wish. The 32-bit is often best to make sure that there aren’t
any compatibility issues with the older packages, but you can
experiment if you wish.
2. Now right-click on the installer and select “Run as
Administrator.” There are going to be two options to choose
from. You will want to pick out “Customize Installation.”
3. On the following screen, make sure all of the boxes under
“Optional Features” are clicked and then click to move on.
4. When you are still under the part for Advanced Options, you
need to spend a few moments figuring out where you would like
the Python files to be installed. You can then click on the Install
button. This will take a few minutes to finish, so have some
patience and wait. Then, when the installation is done, you will
be able to close out of it.
5. After this part is done, it is time for us to go through and create
the PATH variable that we need for the system. We want to have
it set up so that it includes the directories and all of the packages
and other components that are needed later on. The steps that we
need to use to make all of this fit together will include:

a. First, we need to get the Control Panel opened up. We

are going to do this by clicking on the taskbar and then
typing in the Control Panel. Then we are going to click
on the icon.
b. Inside of this same Control Panel, do a search for the
table of Environment. Then we can click on the button
for Edit the System Environment Variables. When we
are on that part, we are able to click on the part that
says Environment Variables.
c. Inside of the Environment Variables, we are going to
find a tab for User Variables. You get two choices here
 of either editing the PATH variable that you find there,
or you can create a brand new on.
d. If there isn’t a variable for the PATH already on the
system you are using; then it is time for us to go
through and create our own. You can do this by
clicking on the button for New, make a name for the
variable of that PATH, and then add in the directories
that you would like. Then it is time to click or close
out of all the dialogs that have come up for the Control
Panel and go to the next step.

6. When you reach this part, you should be able to open up the
Command Prompt. This is easy to do if you go to the start menu.
Then click on Windows System and then on Command Prompt.
Type in the word python. This will help us to get the interpreter
of Python up and running and ready to go for us.

When we have the steps above done, which will really only take a few
minutes overall and won’t be as bad as it may seem when you first get
started, you will be able to use the Python program on your Windows
system. You can then choose to open up the interpreter of Python and
anything else that you need, and writing out all of the codes that you need
in no time.

Installing Python on a Linux Operating System

And finally, we need to take a moment to see some of the steps that are
needed to make sure that we can properly install the Python language on
our Linux operating system. Linux is not quite as big of a household name
as we will find with the other two operating systems that we spent some
time within this guidebook. But there are so many uses for it, and it is able
to provide us with a bunch of neat features and more. There are many
programmers who already use this language, and many more who are likely
to do it in the future, so it is a good thing to know a little bit more about
when it is time to install our Python coding language eon it.

The first step that we need to take is to see whether or not there is already a
version of Python 3, or really even any version of Python found on our
operating system yet. The best way that we can get all of this done is to
open up the Linux command prompt, and then write out the following code
to see what information we are able to get:

$ python3 - - version

If you are on Ubuntu 16.10 or newer, then it is a simple process to install

Python 3.6. you just need to use the following commands:

$ sudo apt-get update

$ sudo apt-get install Python3.6

If you are relying on an older version of Ubuntu or another version, then

you may want to work with the deadsnakes PPA, or another tool, to help
you download the Python 3.6 version. The code that you need to do this
includes:

$ sudo apt-get install software-properties-common

$ sudo add-apt repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
# sudo apt-get update
$ sudo apt-get install python3.6

The good news here is that if you are working with other distributions of
Linux, it is likely that you already have Python 3 installed on the system. If
not, you can use the distribution’s package manager. And if the package of
Python 3 is not recent enough, or not the right one for you, you can go
through and use these same steps to help install a more recent version of
Python on your computer as needed.

And there we have it! We have now gone through and downloaded Python
onto the three major operating systems that are out there. this is going to
make things so much easier when you are ready to handle some of the
codings that you want. And if you used the codes that we described, and
went through the other steps that we talked about, you will find that
working with the Python language is going to be easy. You can now just
open up the right files and all of the parts that you need, and it will work
well for you!
Chapter 3: The Basics of the Python Code

At this point, we are going to know a bit about the Python code and why it
is so important to helping you get a lot of projects done. We also know the
steps that are needed in order to download and install this code, and all of
the necessary files, on your computer. Now it is time for us to move on to
some of the basic parts that come with the Python code and how we are able
to use these to help us go through all of the more advanced codes that we
will need to do later on.

The Keywords
The first thing that we need to take a look at is the Python keywords. These
are basically going to be the words that we need to reserve. These are going
to be the commands that you will need to give the compiler when you
would like it to do. We need to make sure that we are using the keywords in
the proper manner and ensure that we are not using them in the wrong
place, or the compiler will really get confused and raise an error.

There are a number of keywords that are already found in the Python code,
and it is important to use them in the right place when we are working on
some of the codes that we want to do with this program. Remember that the
compiler is using these as commands to tell it what to do. So, treat them as
something special along the way as well.
Looking at the Comments
The second thing that we need to take a look at when it is time to start
writing some codes in the Python language is working on the comments.
These comments are going to be important when it is time to leave a little
note or a message inside of your code. This is helpful when you would like
to leave this message, and you want to make sure that it is not going to
interfere or mess with any of the rest of the code that you are writing.

To make this happen in Python, we just need to add the # symbol before any
of the messages that we would like to use. You are able to add in as many of
these as you would like, but you need to make sure that you keep it as
limited as possible. This will help us to keep some of the coding as nice and
neat as possible and will make it easier for no problems to show up because
of the coding that you are trying to complete.

These comments are a nice way to work with the code and leave the
messages and more that you are looking for. This will make it easier for you
to write out something that you need to remember or that you would like
another coder to know about before getting started, and all you need to do is
add in the right symbol in front of the work that you are writing.

The Importance of Variables

The Python variables are also going to be important when it is time to
handle some of our codes. And in specific, we need to spend some time
learning how to assign a value over to the variable that we are working
with. The variable is just going to be a blank piece of the memory if we
don’t make sure that some kind of value is assigned over to it. This means
that we will not be able to get something to show up when we try to pull
that part of the code. If the variable assigns some value to it, then it is going
to be able to react in this manner when you run the code.

As we work with some of these variables in our code, you may find that
there are going to be three main options that you have available to use. Each
of these is going to be useful, and it will depend on the type of code that
you plan to use and the value type that you want to assign to that variable.
The main variables that you are able to work with will include:

Float: this would include numbers like 3.14 and so on.

String: this is going to be like a statement where you could write
out something like “Thank you for visiting my page!” or another
similar phrase.
Whole number: this would be any of the other numbers that you
would use that do not have a decimal point.

As we do some work with these variables, we have to remember that we do

not have to spend our time creating some declaration to save up this
particular spot in memory. This is needed in some of the other coding
options that you use, but it is going to happen automatically when working
in Python right when you assign a value over to the variable with the help
of the equal sign. If you would like to make sure that this is going to
happen, you are able to look to see that this equal sign is there, and then you
know that it is going to work the way that you want.

The good news here is that assigning a value over to the variable is going to
be pretty easy. Some of the ways that we are able to do this inside of our
code will include:

x = 12 ​ ​#this is an example of an integer assignment

pi = 3.14 ​#this is an example of a floating-point assignment
customer name = John Doe ​#this is an example of a string
assignment

Another option that you can do here, and that we have mentioned a little bit
in this chapter already has a variable assigned to two or more values. There
are some instances when you are writing code, and you will need to take
two values and place them with the same variable.

To do this, you simply need to use the same procedure that we talked about
above. Just make sure that you add in an equal sign to each part to help the
compiler know that these are all associated with the same variable. So, you
would want to write out something like a = b = c = 1 to show the compiler
that each of these variables equals one. Or you could have 1 = b = 2 to show
that there are two values to a variable.

The most important thing to remember here is that the variable needs to be
assigned to a value in order to work in the code and that these variables are
simply spots that are reserved in the memory for those values. Then, when
the compiler needs to call up those values, it simply will call up the variable
to bring everything out.

Bringing in Python Strings

For some of the codes that we are going to write out in Python, there is
going to be a type of data that is known as a string. These strings are going
to just be a series of characters that are found in your code and can help you
to get different things done in the process as well.

We also will be able to see that there are a variety of operators that we are
able to work with when we want to make sure that the strings are going to
work with our Python code. An operator is going to just be a symbol that is
able to perform a specific operation in the code that you are writing. In this
case, the operation is just going to be done on the string and nothing else.
Some of the operators that are going to be nice for helping us to get this
done and to ensure that the code will behave will include:

1. The concatenation operator: This is going to be the operator that

will come in use when you would like to concatenate some of
your strings.
2. Repetition operator: This is going to be the best operator to use
when it is time to create many copies of the same string. You will
be able to make some decisions on how many different times
you would like to repeat that string and how many copies you
would like.
3. The slice operator: This is the best operator for a programmer to
use when they want to be able to go through a specific string and
then pull out a character that they would like. Any time that we
are working with this option, we are going to have to remember
 that 0 is going to be the first character of the string, and then you
can move on from there.
4. Range slice operator: This is a good operator that we are able to
work with when we wish to a range of characters from the index,
rather than just picking out one character. This would work if
you would like to show off one word, one part of the sentence, or
one sentence.
5. In operator: This operator is going to search for a specified
character in a target string. If the character is present somewhere
in the string, then you will get an answer of True returned to you.
If that character is not inside the string, then you will get an
answer of False returned to you.
6. No in operator: This is the operator that will work in the opposite
manner as the in operator. It is going to search for a specified
character in your string. But if the operator is not able to find
that character in the string, then you will get the True answer
returned. If that character is found in the string, then it is going
to return False.

The Python Functions

Another part of our basics that we are going toned to look at is the Python
functions. These functions are just going to be a set of expressions that we
will know as statements as well. They are going to be some of the first
objects that fit int classes, which means that you will not have to
concentrate on a ton of restrictions as well. There will be a lot of freedom
on what you are able to use. You will instead be able to use these functions
how you would like, and they are going to work in a manner that is similar
to things like strings, numbers, and more. And these are going to also come
with some attributes that we are able to bring out as long as we are working
with the prefix of dir for our function.

One thing that you are going to find is that with these functions, you are
going to find a ton of diversity that comes with them. And there are also a
lot of attributes that are there for you to use to create and bring up these
functions. Some of the different choices that you are going to see with these
functions will include:

__doc__: This is going to return the docstring of the function

that you are requesting.
Func_default: This one is going to return a tuple of the values of
your default argument.
Func_globals: This one will return a reference that points to the
dictionary holding the global variables for that function.
Func_dict: This one is responsible for returning the namespace
that will support the attributes for all your arbitrary functions.
Func_closure: This will return to you a tuple of all the cells that
hold the bindings for the free variables inside of the function.

There are different things that you can do with your functions, such as
passing it as an argument over to one of your other functions if you need it.
Any function that is able to take on a new one as the argument will be
considered the higher-order function in the code. These are good to learn
because they are important to your code as you move.

The Operators
We can also spend a little bit of time taking a look at the operators that
show up in the Python language. These operators are going to help us to
make our codes a little bit stronger and will ensure that we are able to see
some great results in the codes as well. We will also find that there are
many types of operators that we are able to work with, based on the
operator that you want to work with.

For example, there are arithmetic operators. These are the ones that allow
you to add, subtract, multiply, and divide parts of your code. There are
comparison operators that will allow us to have a way to compare one or
more parts of the code with each other. And we can even do assignment
operators that are going to help us to work on putting a value to the
variable. You have to choose which option is the best for the coding that
you do.
There are a lot of different parts that you are able to work with when it
comes to some of the basics of the Python code. Knowing how to make
some of these parts work for your needs and the codes that you want to
write is going to be important. Even some of the more complex codes that
you will work on later, you will find that working with some of these basics
is going to help us to get through that part of the code.
Chapter 4: The Different Data Types in Python

Data is going to be a really important part of the Python language. No

matter what kind of coding you are trying to work on at the time, you will
find that Python is going to be able to take control over it, and ensure that
you are able to see some amazing results in the long run. So, with that in
mind, we need to spend some of our time learning a bit more about the
different data types that are found in Python, and how we are able to use
these for our needs.

For the most part, the types of data will be able to help define the format,
will set up the upper and lower bounds of the data to help the program use it
appropriately and more. But we will find that the data types that we use in
Python are going to be a bit more than that. In Python, we don’t even need
to spend time declaring the variable by explicitly mentioning the data type.
This is known as dynamic typing and can really save us a lot of time and
hassle in the process.
Python is able to determine the type of a literal just by looking at the syntax
that is found at runtime. For example, the quotes are going to be there to
mark the declaration that is found in a string value, the square brackets will
show us a list, and the curly brackets are going to be for the dictionary.
Another example of this is when the decimals that are not numbers are
going to be assigned to a type of integer, but then the ones that have a
decimal in them will be seen as a floating number instead.

Everything, including the modules, the functions, and variables will be a

Python object. Another interesting fact here that we can look at is that the
variables are not going to have types like they do in other languages.
Instead, we will find that they are just going to be labeled. It is the value
that we are going to associate over with a variable that will have a type.
This is why the same variable can talk about different Python data types.

With this in mind, there are quite a few different types of data that we are
able to use in the Python language. We are going to take a look at some of
the most common ones below:

First, we are going to have a Boolean. This is going to be a data type that is
found in almost all of the programming languages that we can work with.
The Boolean that we work within Python is going to come with two values,
the True and the False. These values are going to be constants, and we are
able to use them to either compare or assign a Boolean value.

Another type of data that we are able to work with is the numbers. These
are actually going to be one of the most prominent of the data types in
Python. Unlike what we are going to see with some of the other languages
out there, the ones that will rely on just floats and integers, Python is going
to introduce a few different parts, such as the complex, to help us handle
these numbers. The things that we need to remember when it comes to
working with numbers in this language will include:

1. The numbers that we see in Python are going to be classified

with some of the keywords that you may have seen already,
including complex, float, and int.
2. Python is going to have a function known as type() that is
already built-in, and that will determine the data type that comes
 with a variable or with a value we are using.
3. Another function instance() is going to be built in and will help
us to test for the type that we have with an object.
4. We are also able to work with imaginary and complex numbers
when it comes to working in Python. We just need to add in the
“j” or “J” to help with this.
5. To help us to form a complex number, we are able to use the type
as a constructor if we would like.
6. The integers in this language are not going to come with a size
limitation at all, as long as we already have some of the required
memory in place.
7. Afloat type number is able to have some precision. This can’t go
on indefinitely, though. But we can see it go up to 15 decimal
places if we would like.

Another data type is the string that we talked about a bit before. This is
going to be a sequence that has one or more characters that we are able to
enclose within one single quote or in a double quote. We are able to put any
kind of number, letter, or symbol into the string that we want to work with.
You will find that the Python language is also able to support a multi-line
string. You just need to make sure that there is a triple quotation mark right
at the beginning of this string and then one at the end.

Next on the list is the byte. This is going to be considered a data type that is
immutable. It is able to store a sequence of bytes, which is each going to be
8-bits, which will range from between 0 to 255. Similar to what we see with
an array, it is going to be able to fetch the value of one byte when we use
the index. But we will not be able to modify the value that we are working
with.

Now that we compared the byte to a string a little bit, we need to make sure
that we know how they are different. Some of the main differences that
come with these include:

1. The byte objects are going to hold onto a sequence of bytes. But
the string is going to be responsible for storing a sequence of
characters.
 2. The bytes are going to object that can be read by a machine. But
the strings are going to be in a form that humans are able to read.
3. Since the byte is something that the machine is able to read, it
can be stored right onto a disk without more work. But the
strings have to go through and have some encoding done before
we can change them to be on a disk.

One of the situations where we are going to find that these bytes really do
matter is when we are carrying out the I/O operations with buffering
enabled. We may have, for example, a program that is always receiving all
of the data that comes over the network. This program is going to parse the
data after waiting for the terminators of the headers of the message to
appear in the message. It is going to keep appending the incoming bytes to a
buffer.

Now we are able to move on to the lists. The Python list is going to be a
construct that is similar to an array, and it is able to store some of the
arbitrarily typed objects in an ordered sequence that you would like the
most. It is going to be a very flexible option when it comes to working with
data types, and it doesn’t have to come in at a fixed size. The index is a list
that is going to begin on 0 when we are in Python.

Another definition that we are going to see when we are working with lists
in this language is that these are going to be a heterogeneous collection of
items of varied data types that we are able to work with. For example, when
we have a list object, we are able to store the files onto a folder, or the
employee data in a company and know where it is later on. These lists and
the objects that are found in them are going to be mutable. Python is going
to allow us to make some modifications to a list, and any of the elements
that are in it through assignments and we can work with some of the list
methods that come with Python as well.

We are also going to spend some time looking at the Tuples in this
language. A tuple is a bit different, but there may be some similarities that
we need to focus on. A tuple is basically going to be a heterogeneous
collection of objects in Python that are separated out with commas. This
means that the objects of different types of data are able to be together in
one tuple. The tuple and the list are going to be similar because there are a
lot of traits that they share together, including the following:

1. Both of the objects are in an ordered sequence.

2. They are able to store values of different types
3. Nesting is something that we are able to do in these.
4. They are going to allow us to work with indexing and repetition
as much as we would like.

However, the tuple and the list are going to be different. The biggest reason
that they are so different is that the tuple is going to be seen as immutable.
Python does not allow us the option to make modifications to the tuple once
it is created. This means that we are not able to remove or add any kind of
element at a later time. If we do need to go through here and make some
changes, then we will need to go through and create a brand new one with
an updated sequence of elements to get this done.

At some point, you may find that you need to work with something that is
known as a set in Python. This is the one option that is going to support
some of the different operations of math that you may need to do like
symmetric difference, intersection, and union. If you plan to do some
mathematical work with the use of Python, then this is the data type that
you want.

To keep it simple, a set is going to be an unordered collection of immutable

and unique objects. Its definition is going to have some enclosing braces
with it, which allows us to have the items separated out with a comma
inside of there. since the set is going to get some of the implementations
from the Set in mathematics, it is also going to be able to have more than
one occurrence within the same element.

You will find that there are many codes that you can write that will need a
set. The set type is going to have a big advantage over some of the lists that
you may want to write as well. It is able to implement a highly optimized
method that is then responsible for checking whether the container is
hosting a specific element or not the mechanism here is based on a data
structure that we can call a hash table.
And the final data type that we are going to spend some time on in this
chapter is the dictionary. This is going to be an unordered collection in
Python that has some key-value pairs we can call it a built-in mapping type
in Python where the keys are going to provide us a map to the values that
we are working with. These pairs are there in this language because they
will help us to have a more intuitive method to store the data that we have.

The dictionary is so important because it is going to come in and help us

solve the problem that comes up with efficiently storing a large set of data.
We are going to spend some time later in this guidebook talking about data
analysis and what it is able to do for your business if you let it. But the fact
is that most companies are already gathering a huge amount of data to use
for some of their own needs. And the dictionary is the perfect tool to make
all of this happen. Python has already set it up so that the dictionary object
is going to be optimized as much as possible to retrieve the data that you
would like in the process.

As we can see here, there are a lot of different types of data that we are able
to use when it comes to working with the Python language. Each of these
data types is going to be so important to what you would like to accomplish
with this kind of process, and you will find that you will have your choice
of them based on what is going on in your code at that time. take some time
to look over the different types of data and what they are able to do for you,
and then see how valuable they will be to your needs.

Chapter 5: The Python Functions

Another topic that we need to spend some time looking at when it comes to
the Python language is that of the functions. Blocks of code or some logic
in the code that is able to perform a specific operation that you would like
are going to be known as a function in Python. We have already spent a bit
of time in the previous chapters taking a look at what these functions are all
about and how we are able to get them to work for our needs. But now we
need to take a bit closer look at what these functions can do and how they
are able to help us get the best results in no time.
The Different Types of Functions
There are going to be two main types of functions that we are able to find in
the Python language. Knowing what these are and how we are able to make
them work is going to be so important when it is time to work with this
language. The two main types of functions that show up here will include:

1. The library functions: These are going to be some of the built-in

functions that show up in the python language. We do not need
to worry as much about some of the logic that is in the library
function because these are the ones that Python is able to handle
on its own. You will find that some of these library functions that
will be there often in your codes may include examples like
round() and print().
2. User-defined functions: Instead of relying on some of the built-in
functions, this language is going to allow a user to create some
of their own functions as well. So, if you would like to do
something like performing a mathematical calculation in these
codes, then you would be able to place them in a separate
function with the right name, and then you are able to call up
that function many times.

The Advantages of Python Functions

With that understanding in place, we need to take a look at some of the
advantages that we are able to see when we are working with our functions
in Python. There are many of these, which is why you are going to see these
functions show up in a lot of the work that you do and in many of the codes
that are needed for this language.

The first advantage that we are going to see with these functions is that it is
able to take some of the larger programs that you are writing out, and then
divide them into smaller groups. This may seem like a bad idea, but it is
done so that we are able to gain a better understanding of the code in a
faster manner, and it will really make the process of debugging the program
easier and better in no time.
Another benefit is that some of these Python functions are going to prevent
us from writing out the same kind of logic more than one time. This is good
news because it helps us to wrap up the logic in just one function, and then
we can call it up the same many times over.

Then there are two more benefits that are going to come up when we are
able to work with some of the Python functions. First, we will find that
these functions are going to allow more than one person to work on the
exact same program at the same time. this is because we can assign
different functions to each person on the team and let them get to work on
that. It is also able to help us out because we can call up the same function
with different inputs over and over again, as many as we would like, and
can save a lot of time and hassle in the process as well.

The Syntax of the Function

We also need to spend some time taking a look at the way that this is going
to appear in some of the codings that we do. To start, we need to look at the
syntax that comes with Python functions, and then we can move on to an
explanation of some of the different parts that are in it, so we know more
about how this is supposed to work.

def Function_Name (Parameters): Local Variable Declaration

Programming Logic Executable Statement 1 …… return

1. Def: This is going to be the keyword that will introduce the

function definition that we are working with. Keep in mind here
that the def keyword needs to be followed right away with the
Function_Name.
2. Function_Name: This is going to be any name that you would
like to give other than the reserved keywords that we talked
about before.
3. Parameters: Every function of Python is going to accept any
amount of parameters that you would like. You can have none, or
you can have many. It is going to be dependent on what the
requirements of the user are all about.
 4. The local variable declaration: Sometimes we may need to go
through and use a temporary variable. These are going to be the
kind that is only needed for that function then we can declare
them inside of the function that we are working with. It is not
something that is mandatory here, and it is going to depend on
the kinds of requirements that you want to have for your work.
Remember that these variables are going to be available just to
one particular function, and you will not be able to access them
when you are outside of that function.
5. Logic: This is going to be anything mathematical or any type of
code or calculation that you would like to be able to implement
on that kind of function.
6. Executable statement: This is going to be any of the print
statements that tell the code to print some data from the function
that you would like.
7. Return: This is another keyword that we are able to focus on
because it is going to be needed if we would like to return
something form our function. For example, we can use this to
help us return the sum of our two integers and more.

There are a lot of things that we are able to do when it is time to bring out
the functions and get them to work the way that we would like. When we
are able to bring out those functions and use them properly in the code, they
are going to ensure that we get the best results out of this possible and that
our code stays strong and secure as well.
Chapter 6: How to Write Your Own Conditional
Statements

The next thing that we are going to take a look at is a conditional statement.
These conditional statements are going to make it easier for the system to
respond to any kind of answer that the user is able to give, without the
programmer having to know what this is ahead of time. it is pretty much
impossible for the programmer to go through and know what answers the
user is going to provide in all situations, so working with these conditional
statements will help the program run in a proper manner to the information
that the user is going to provide.

There are a lot of different programs that are going to rely on these
conditional statements. These can often be seen as something that is a bit
more simplistic to work with, but this is always something that we are able
to add to our code and see some great results. The three conditional
statements that you are likely to see along here is the if statement, the if else
statement, and the elif statement. Let’s take a look at each one and who it is
able to work.

Starting with the If Statement

The first of these conditional statements that we need to take a look at is the
if statement. You will quickly find that this is one of the most basic of the
three conditional statements because it is only going to let the program that
you have written proceed forward when the user provides the right answer
based on your condition. With this one, if the user ends up putting in an
answer that is seen as false based on what you have put into your code, then
the code is going to stop, and nothing is going to happen. If the answer
though, is seen as true on your conditions, then your code is going to
display some kind of message on the screen, or there is going to be some
other task that you assigned.
As we can see already, there are going to be some times when if the
statement is going to cause problems in the codes that you are writing, but it
is still going to be an important thing for a beginner to learn how to use
these statements. A good example of the syntax that you are able to write
out to handle some of these conditional statements will include:

age = int(input(“Enter your age:”))

if (age <=18):
​print(“You are not eligible for voting, try next election!”)
print(“Program ends”)

There are a few things that will show up with this code. If you have a user
go to the program and state that their age is under 18, then the program will
work and display the message that is listed there. The user can read this
message and then end the program right there.

But, things can go wrong if the user puts in that their age is above 18. This
is true for the user, but because it doesn’t meet the conditions that you wrote
out, the program will see it as false. As the code is written right now,
nothing is going to happen because it isn’t set up to handle this. The user
will just see a blank screen any time they enter an age that is over 18.

Moving to the If Else Statements

The second type of conditional statement that we need to take a look at is
the if else statement. We can already see that while the if statement is a
good one to practice with, but they're probably are not too many times in
the program when you would be able to use this kind of statement. It is
likely that the codes you are trying to write will benefit if the user is able to
work with whatever answer the user puts in, no matter what their age is.
And it is not likely that you want to leave your code so that nothing shows
up all of the time.

A better option to use is the if else statement. These statements will provide
an output to the user, no matter what they provide as their input. With the
example above, the user may get the previous message if they state their
age is 16, but then the code would also have a response if the user says their
age is 32. It will respond to any answer that it is given, helping the code to
keep moving through the program and ensuring that nothing just stops.

With the voting example that we had above, you can implement the
following code to make an if else statement:

age = int(input(“Enter your age:”))

if (age <=18):
​print(“You are not eligible for voting, try next election!”)
else
​print(“Congratulations! You are eligible to vote. Check out your local
polling station to find out more information!)
print(“Program ends”)

With this option, you are adding in the else statement, which will cover
every age that doesn’t fall under 18. This way, if the user does list that as
their age, something will still pull up on the screen for them. This can
provide you with more freedom when working on your code, and you can
even add in a few more layers to this. If you want to divide it up so that you
get four or five age groups and each one gets a different response, you
simply need to add in more if statements to make it happen. The else
statement is at the end to catch everything else.
There are a lot of options that we are able to use with this one. For example,
you can work with the code syntax that we had before and then ask your
user what their favorite color is. you can then work with the if else
statements to help you cover up some of the basic colors that you would
like. If the user is able to put in one of these colors, then the statement that
you put in it is going to show up on the screen. The else statement is going
to be the part that we can add to hold onto any of the other colors that you
did not plan on, and gives us a good statement to go with it as well.

As we can see, there are a ton of different benefits that are going to come
with using the if else statement. These are going to come in to help us really
get some results, no matter what input we are getting from the user. There
are a lot of programs where you will be able to use the if else statements
and get the best results.
Finishing Off with the Elif Statements
And the third type of conditional statement that we are going to work with
is the elif statement. These elif statements are going to add on another level,
but they are going to be easy to work with as well. You are able to add in as
many of the elif statements to the code as you would like to help with the
code, and this can help us to cover up any of the different conditions or
statements that we want to cover in the code. Think of this elif statement in
a manner similar to what we see with some old games, the ones where a
gamer is able to pick from options on a menu to decide what actions they
would take. The elif statement is going to work in a similar manner.

From this, we are going to be able to work with as few or as many options
as the elif statement. You are able to go through and just two or three of
these, or you are able to expand out and have thirty of these if you want. A
good rule here, though, is that less is more in many cases. You don’t want to
have too many of these in place, or you are going to end up with a mess,
and that is a lot of code to write out in the process as well.

Now that we have had a moment to discuss what these elif statements are
about, and how they differ a bit from the if statement and the if else
statement, let’s take a look at some of the syntax that we are able to work on
when it comes to programming with these statements:

Print(“Let’s enjoy a Pizza! Ok, let’s go inside Pizzahut!”)

print(“Waiter, Please select Pizza of your choice from the menu”)
pizzachoice = int(input(“Please enter your choice of Pizza:”))
if pizzachoice == 1:
​print(‘I want to enjoy a pizza napoletana’)
elif pizzachoice == 2:
​print(‘I want to enjoy a pizza rustica’)
elif pizzachoice == 3:
​print(‘I want to enjoy a pizza capricciosa’)
else:
​print(“Sorry, I do not want any of the listed pizza’s, please bring a
Coca Cola for me.”)
With this option, the user is able to choose the type of pizza they want to
enjoy, but you can use the same syntax for anything you need in your code.
If the user pushes the number 2 in the code, they are going to get a pizza
rustica. If they don’t like any of the options, then they are telling the
program that they just want to have something to drink, in this case, a Coca
Cola.

This is a simple way to use the elif statements to give the user a set of
choices. In the other options, the user could add in any choice that they
wanted, but in the elif statement, they can either pick that they want one of
the choices that you provide, or they will have to go with the default option
at the end. This can work well for many games that you may want to pick,
for some tests online, and other programs where you want to limit the
choices that the user gets to pick from in the code.

And this is how the conditional statements are going to work for your
needs. You are able to set up any kind of condition that you would like to
work with to ensure that the program is going to work the way that you
want. You can set it up with one true condition like the if statement, you can
set it up so that you can handle all of the answers that the user can give and
still get some kind of response out of the process, or you are able to work
with the elif statements and do something that is similar to how a menu
works in a game. Each of these can be important, and it is easy to add these
conditions into our code to add in some power.
Chapter 7: The Python Classes and How to Write
Your Own

One thing that is really neat about working with the Python coding
language is handling some of the classes that come with this language.
These classes are going to be the containers in the language that is able to
hold onto all of the objects, or the different parts, that come with some of
the code that you are writing. Being able to write these classes and get the
right kinds of codes into them is an important part of keeping your code as
organized and easy to use in this language as possible.

That is why we are going to spend some time in this chapter taking a look at
how we are able to work on creating a new class. This is one of the best
ways to organize the code and will make it so that nothing will get lost or
move around in the wrong manner when it is time to execute the code that
you want to write. To get started with the process of making one of these
classes though, we need to make sure that we use the right keywords.

With the classes, you have some freedom in naming them anything that you
would like. We just need to make sure that we are not using a keyword as
the name, and that the class name is going to show up right after the
keyword that we are using. And it is usually a good idea to pick out a name
for the class that you will be able to remember and pull up later.

After you have had some time to go through and name your class, we also
need to spend some time naming the subclass. This is the part that is found
inside of the parenthesis. And then add in a semicolon at the end of this line
so that you match up with some of the good coding protocols in Python that
are available to make things easier.

With all of this running through your head, it is likely that this process, and
the idea of creating your own class, is going to seem really complicated.
That is why we need to stop for a few minutes and look at an example of
how we would want to write all of this out in Python. The code that we are
going to use to help us to write out a class in the Python language will
include:
class Vehicle(object):
#constructor
def_init_(self, steering, wheels, clutch, breaks, gears):
self._steering = steering
self._wheels = wheels
self._clutch = clutch
self._breaks =breaks
self._gears = gears
#destructor
def_del_(self):
print(“This is destructor….”)

#member functions or methods

def Display_Vehicle(self):
print(‘Steering:’ , self._steering)
print(‘Wheels:’, self._wheels)
print(‘Clutch:’, self._clutch)
print(‘Breaks:’, self._breaks)
print(‘Gears:’, self._gears)
#instantiate a vehicle option
myGenericVehicle = Vehicle(‘Power Steering’, 4, ‘Super Clutch’, ‘Disk
Breaks’, 5)

myGenericVehicle.Display_Vehicle()

If you would like, you can try out this code. Just open up your text editor
and type the code inside. As you work on writing this out, you will notice
that a few of the topics we have already discussed in this guidebook show
up in this code. Once you have a chance to write out and then execute this
code, let’s divide it up and see what happened above.

Now the first part here is the class definition. This is the part where we have
to instantiate the object, and then we end up with the definition of the class.
This is going to make it easier to know the right syntax of the code. During
this time, pay some attention to the code because it is the part that will tell
the compiler what you would like it to do, and it is going to highlight the
commands that you think are the most important there. if you would like to
take the time to bring on a new kind of class definition to the code, then you
will be able to work with the functions of object_method or object_attribute
to help.

Then we are able to work on some of the special attributes. These are found
in many of the codes that you want to write out, including the one above.
These attributes are good because they will provide the programmer with
some peace of mind, ensuring that this attribute is going to be used in the
proper manner and that you will not mess it up. There are a few options
with these that are found in the code that we wrote before, but there are a
few other special attributes that you can consider in the codes that you
would like including:

__bases__: this is considered a tuple that contains any of the superclasses

__module__: this is where you are going to find the name of the module,
and it will also hold your classes.
__name__: this will hold on to the class name.
__doc__: this is where you are going to find the reference string inside the
document for your class.
__dict__: this is going to be the variable for the dict. Inside the class name.

And finally, we need to take a few minutes to look at the steps that are
needed in order to access the members of one of your classes here. You
want to make sure that while you are writing the code, both the text editor
and the compiler are set up to recognize any of the classes that you are
writing. This will ensure that your code is going to be executed in the
proper manner.

But for the compiler to execute the code in the right manner, then the code
is going to need to be written properly. There are going to be a few different
methods that the programmer is able to choose to make this work, and all of
them can help you get the work done. However, we are going to focus on
working with the accessor method because it is a common option to work
with, and it is often going to be the most efficient to get the work done.

To help us to understand the process that is needed in order to access the

different members of your created class, the first thing that we need to do is
take a look at the code below:
class Cat(object)
​itsAge = None
​itsWeight = None
​itsName = None
​#set accessor function use to assign values to the fields or member
vars
​def setItsAge(self, itsAge):
​self.itsAge = itsAge

​ ef setItsWeight(self, itsWeight):
d
​self.itsWeight = itsWeight

​ ef setItsName(self, itsName):
d
​self.itsName =itsName

​ get accessor function use to return the values from a field

#
​def getItsAge(self):
​return self.itsAge
​def getItsWeight(self):
​return self.itsWeight

​ ef getItsName(self):
d
​return self.itsName

objFrisky = Cat()
objFrisky.setItsAge(5)
objFrisky.setItsWeight(10)
objFrisky.setItsName(“Frisky”)
print(“Cats Name is:”, objFrisky.getItsname())
print(“Its age is:”, objFrisky.getItsAge())
print(“Its weight is:”, objFrisky.getItsName())

Before we move on, type this into your compiler. If you have your compiler
run this, you are going to get some results that show up on the screen right
away. This will include that the cat’s name is Frisky (or you can change the
name to something else if you want), that the age is 5, and that the weight is
10. This is the information that was put into the code, so the compiler is
going to pull them up to give you the results that you want. You can take
some time to add different options into the code and see how it changes
over time.

Keep in mind during this process that there are often a lot of classes that
you are able to work with inside of your Python code, and they are meant to
make life easier in coding, not more difficult. These classes can come into
use when you would like a better way to take care of your information and
make sure it is in the right order so that it makes a lot more sense. You are
able to create the class that you would like and add in the objects that match
the most.

But do keep in mind that when someone else comes and takes a look at
some of the code that you are writing, they should be able to look into the
class and understand why some of the objects are found there. The objects
don’t need to be identical with this, but they do need to make sense as to
why they are going to be found in the same class.

There are a lot of times when a class is going to be useful inside your code.
And it is definitely worth your time to take a look at them and learn how to
use them. Most of the codes that you are going to work on and write in
Python are going to rely on these classes, so take some time to look through
this code and see how you are able to write out some of the classes that you
want to do.
Chapter 8: Handling Files in Python

Working with files is going to be a topic that comes up in the Python

language. When you are working in Python, there are going to be times
when we would like to take some of the data that we are working on and
then store it, making it accessible for you to use later when the data is
needed. You are able to choose to save this data in a manner that you are
able to find it later on and then see it show up at the right time in any code
that you are working with.

This data is something that you are able to save, just like a file on a disk. Or
you can make the decision to reuse the data as often as you would like,
doing something like an inheritance, as long as you make sure that the
correct steps are done along the way. While inheritances are an important
part of a lot of the code that we want to write, we need to focus more now
on how to create and work with some of the files that are found on the
Python code.

Now, there are going to be a few things that we are able to work with when
it is time to handle the files in Python. To make sure that this is as easy to
understand as possible, we can imagine the files as similar to what we are
going to see in a Word document that you have written in, and then at some
point, you will want to save them. These files are going to work in a similar
manner, but rather than saving the pages, you will need to go through and
save some of the code that you are writing.

In this chapter, we are going to take a look at a few of the different things
that you are able to handle when it is time to work with some of these files
in Python. We are going to take a look at how we are able to write out a new
code onto a file that we were able to create before. We are going to look at
how we can seek out or move a file to a brand-new location. We are going
to look at how we are able to create a file. And then we can finish up with
some information on closing and saving a file that we worked on.
Creating Our Own New Files
One of the first things that we need to focus on when it comes to working
with these files is how to create a new one when you would like so that you
can add in some code to that file. If you want to make your own file and
create it with some code on it, then it is important that we open it up inside
of the IDLE. You will then need to choose the model that you would like to
use when you write some new code. As you work with these, there are
going to be three main options for the codes, and you can pick the right one
based on what your code is doing. The three modes that are present will
include appending (a), write(w), and mode(x).

Any time that you want to make some changes to the current file that is
opened, you can use the (w) or write option because this is often the easiest
one to work with. Any time that you are trying to open up a file and then
write a new string in that file, you will work with binary files and will need
the write() method. This is going to work well because it ensures that you
will get the right characters returned at the end.

The write() function is really easy to use and allows you to make as many
changes to the file as you would like. You can add some new information to
the file, or you can make some changes to one that you opened up. If you
are interested in doing the writing in the code, you can use this example to
make things easier:

#file handling operations

#writing to a new file hello.txt
f = open(‘hello.txt’, ‘w’, encoding = ‘utf-8’)
f.write(“Hello Python Developers!”)
f.write(“Welcome to Python World”)
f.flush()
f.close()

Before we take the time to go through and learn more, we need to type the
code above onto the compiler and let it execute. This code is helpful here
because it will ensure that you can create a new file and get all of the
information that you want into the right directory. Keep in mind that the
default directory is known as the current directory at all. It is always
possible to go through and switch out the directory that you want to use to
store the information, but this is something that you should do before
writing any code in it because it is much easier to accomplish.

Whatever directory you are in when you get started is the one where you
will need to find yourself back in when it is time to search for that file. If
you want to find that file in a new directory, then it is time to move it over
there before you save. With the option that we wrote out above, when you
go to the right directory, and you open it up, you are going to get the
message to show up that is there.

At this point, we have taken some time to write out this program, and we
may be happy with it. But then there are going to be times when we would
like to do some overwriting of the program. This will change things up so
that we will end up with a new statement, rather than the one above, that
shows up on the screen when we open that file. This is possible to change
things up; even on a previously created file, we just need to make a few
changes to the syntax that we are working with. A good example of what we
need to write out in order to overwrite our previous code will include:

#file handling operations

#writing to a new file hello.txt
f = open(‘hello.txt’, ‘w’, encoding = ‘utf-8’)
f.write(“Hello Python Developers!”)
f.write(“Welcome to Python World”)
mylist = [“Apple,” “Orange,” “Banana”]
#writelines() is used to write multiple lines into the file
f.write(mylist)
f.flush()
f.close()

The example above is a good one to use when you want to make a few
changes to a file that you worked on before because you just need to add in
one new line. This example wouldn’t need to use that third line because it
just has some simple words, but you can add in anything that you want to
the program, just use the syntax above and change it up for what you need.
Can I Create a Binary File?
We are going to take a little bit of a detour here and explore for a minute
what we are able to do with binary files in Python. This is going to be a bit
different, but it is simple and can make a difference in some of the codes
that we are writing. You can complete this process in Python because you
just take the data that you are working with and then make sure that it turns
into a sound or an image file, rather than writing it out as a text file like
before.

You can change any of the text files that you write out in this language over
to a binary file if that is easiest. In fact, it doesn’t matter what kind of file
you are working with, whether it is a picture, sound, or text file. The most
important thing that we have to remember when we are changing things
into binary files is that we need to supply our data inside of the object to
make it easier to expose a bit later on. We can then use the syntax below to
help us get our files turned into binary files:

# write binary data to a file

# writing the file hello.dat write binary mode
F = open(‘hello.dat’, ‘wb’)
# writing as byte strings
f.write(b” I am writing data in binary file!/n”)
f.write(b” Let’s write another list/n”)
f.close()

How to Open a File

We have taken a look at how to create a file and how to turn any file that we
have over to a binary file. These are both really important topics when we
are exploring what can happen with the files in Python. But now we need to
take some time to look at the process of opening up our files.

At some point, you will need to close down a file and move on to
something else. Then at a later time, you will want to open up one of the
files again and see what is in it or get it to execute it. Once you have taken
the time to open up that file, it is going to be easier to work with again. The
code that we are able to work with here will include:

# read binary data to a file

#writing the file hello.dat write append binary mode

with open(“hello.dat”, ‘rb’) as f:

​data = f.read()
​text = data.decode(‘utf-8’(
print(text)

the output that you would get form putting this into the system would be
like the following:

Hello, world!
This is a demo using with
This file contains three lines
Hello world
This is a demo using with

This file contains three lines .

As we can see here, this is going to be a really simple way that we are able
to open up the file that we are working on, and then we can go through and
overwrite it as we talked about before, or just write something brand new as
a continuation of what we were talking about before.

How to Seek One of the Files

As we go through this chapter, you shall find that these files are a great way
to work with and keep the Python script as clean and organized as possible.
We have taken some time to really explore a few of the things that we are
able to work with when it is time to see results with these files. All of these
things can be useful to ensure that the files are going to be opened, written
in, and saved in the manner that we would like along the way.
We have taken the time to write out a new file, how to overwrite some of
the data that we already wrote in, and even how to open up the files. There
may also be some times when you want to move a file to a new place. For
example, if you are working on your file, and you find that things are
matching up the way that you want, such as misspelling the name of your
identifier the wrong way, or you place it in the wrong directory, you may
want to use the seek option to help you find that file and then make the
changes.

You will be able to go through and change up the position where the file is
so that it goes to the right spot, or even so that it becomes a lot easier for it
to find. You just need to tell your code where you would like to find the
code and then make the changes that are needed.

Working with files in the Python language will help you out a lot when you
are trying to get things in order inside your code when you want to make
changes to what you wrote, and so much more. Try out a few of the codes
that are inside this guidebook and see just how easy it can be to create a
new file, make changes, and get the files to work the way that you would
like.
Chapter 9: Tips and Tricks to Get the Most Out of
Python

Now that we have had some time to talk about the Python code and all of
the different things that we are able to do with that kind of code, it is now
time for us to work on how to get the most out of this code. In this chapter,
we are going to really focus on some of the things that you can do when
your code is not behaving the way that you want, or to help make coding, in
general, a bit easier as well. Some of the tips that you as a beginner can
follow when working with Python in this manner include:

Comment Out the Code

Every type of coding language that you will work on is going to have the
comment, which is basically a way that you can leave a note in your code
without the compiler going through and trying to execute these notes as part
of the program. This is advantageous to you because you can choose to
comment out of a code that you don’t want to run right now, but which you
don’t want to lose track of. You just need to put the # in front of that line
that you want to comment out of.

If your script is long, you can comment on some parts of the code that are
not related to the changes that you want to work on. This can sometimes
make it run faster, and it can make it easier to search through the rest of the
code to help find that mistake. You need to be careful when doing this
though because it won’t help you to comment out of parts that set the
variables that the program needs to use later on. If you do this, then you are
going to have issues getting the code to run.

When you are done testing out the code, and you have gotten it all
organized and ready to go, you must go back through and remove these
comment characters. This helps you to turn the whole program back on so
you can see if it works the right way.

Print Things Out

When there are times when you are not able to figure out what is wrong
with the code that you are working on, then you can take some time to print
out a lot of things to see what is going to work. If you are unsure about
which values are ever attached to one of your variables, then print it out. if
you are uncertain about anything that is going on in the code that you are
writing, then it is time to print it out. Then, when you are actually going
through and running the program, you are able to look at your screen and
see how the values change or what has been a bit different thanks to that.

You may find that this is going to be helpful to print out some strings before
you go through and print out the variable. This is a good way to make sure
that your print statements are going to help you to learn how to make the
program work for your needs.

Work with the Code You Know Will Behave

When you are in doubt about things, you may want to take some time to
practice codes that are in existence already, ones that you know are going to
work, and you don’t have to worry about whether they are going to do what
you would like or not. This is going to help you to figure out some of the
syntax and the structure that has to come with these codes, and then you can
work from there to get the best results. This is a good thing for a beginner to
just gain some familiarity so that they are able to use that later on as they
work on their own codes, or on things that are more complex.

If you do decide to work on your own project, then you can Google around
to find a script that has a lot of what you need. It doesn’t have to be perfect,
but sometimes having that background in place and some of the syntaxes
can make a big difference. Make sure that you take the time to run the code
before you try to implement any changes. This ensures that the code works
before you make any changes. Then you can add in some small changes to
that code, and stop to test it often to see if any of the changes that you
implement cause the bugs.

Read All of the Error Messages

This one is sometimes hard as a beginner because you may assume that you
will have no idea what the error messages mean in the first place, so why
should you take the time to learn them and actually read them? But, actually
taking your time to read through those and learn how they work, and what
they are telling you, can make it easier to fix up some of your code when
things are not working well.

You will quickly find that a lot of your error messages are accurate and will
actually be pretty descriptive for you. The language runtime tried to execute
the program, but it ran into a problem. This would mean that you skipped a
step, you had a typo, or something else is missing from your code.

There may be times when you do not understand the message that comes up
with an error, but it does try to tell you what went wrong with the code. At a
minimum, there will be information on a line number the error is on, and
you can head to that part of the code and look for where the bug might be
located.
Run the Code Often
Another thing that you need to consider doing when it is time to work with
the Python code is run it on a regular basis. There is nothing worse,
especially when you are a beginner, then sitting down and writing code for
hours. You may feel accomplished, but when you go and try to run that
code, you are going to be in for a surprise. There will be a ton of errors that
you need to go through and fix, and then you will feel really frustrated with
yourself in the process.

Instead of having hours of code that you need to sort through and try to sort
through a bunch of errors, it is best if you try to run the code as often as
possible. If you are able to go through and run it every few minutes or after
you finish each little part that you are working with, then this is often going
to be the best. It will ensure that you are catching some of the mistakes and
issues early on in the work, and will make it so much easier for you to
really figure out what is going on in the code, and fix the errors.

It is a lot easier to find the errors and the mistakes in a small amount of
code than it is to try and do this in a large block of code that you worked on
for hours. It may seem like a waste of time and that it is slowing you down
to run the code so often. But in the long run, it is going to end up saving
you a ton of time and energy and can ensure that you are able to find the
solutions that you are looking for. And it makes it so much easier to be able
to fix any of the errors that show up because you know exactly where they
are going to fall along the way as well.

Take a Break When Needed

Sometimes, working on coding can be a breeze. Everything is going to fit in
just as you need it to and you can spend hours working on this part and
getting it all to match up the way that you would like. And other times,
things are not going to run as smoothly for you and will not work out as
well. When the latter starts to happen, it is time to take a break.

Often, we work on the code for far too long. We want to get it done or get
something figured out with it, so we will spend hours and hours working on
it. And then we get frustrated. Something or other on the code is not
working out the way that we want, and we can’t seem to get it fixed and
working well again. And no matter how hard we try, and how much work
we put into it, we end up just making the whole situation worse in the
process.

While it is sometimes hard to just let go of the coding that we are doing and
take a break, sometimes this is just what we need. When we are tired and
have been staring at something for a long time, it is just going to be worse if
we continue to stare at it and try out too many things. When we take a break
and learn how to walk away from what we are doing on the computer, it is
going to become so much easier.

You may have to force yourself to take this break a bit. When we are
frustrated is usually the time when we wan to dig our heels into it a bit
more, and we don’t want to leave all of the work that we are doing at the
time. But even an hour break or more can be nice to allow us to get away
and rethink things. And when we come back, we can find the mistake or the
error or the problem that we couldn’t before, and we can get it taken care
of.

Ask for Help

As a beginner, there may be some times when you will need help with the
coding that you are doing. It is hard for some people to ask for help because
they want to be able to do it all on their own. But learning how to code
takes some time and patience, and then there are going to be those times
when we just need some help because we aren’t sure what steps to take
next.

When you are asking for help, there are a few steps that you should
consider taking in order to make it easier. These help to make sure that the
other person knows what you have tried and doesn’t waste time going
through all of that again as well. Some of the things that you can consider
knowing and explaining to the person who is going to help you out with
your code will include:
 1. Explain what you want the program to do for you and where the
error is occurring.
2. Show the other person the code that is sending you an error so
they can see it for themselves.
3. Show the other person the stack trace, all of it, including the
message you got stating the error.
4. Explain everything that you have already tried on the error. This
helps the other person have a good idea of what you have tried
and what they should try to get the code to work.

You may find that the process of thinking through these items in your mind
and then getting them written down on paper can help make a brand-new
solution obvious. If that doesn’t work, try to find someone who may be able
to look through the code and tell you what is going wrong and what you can
do to fix the error.

There are a lot of parts that need to come together when you are working as
a programmer for the first time. being able to get all of these to work with
one another, and ensuring that you are able to learn how to fix some of the
problems that come up in your own code can be so important when you are
a beginner trying to figure all of this out. Make sure to check out some of
the different steps and tips that you can do when working in Python to make
sure that you are coding correctly and that your program or application is
going to work for your needs.
Chapter 10: A Quick Introduction to Data
Analysis

Many of the topics that we have spent time talking about in this guidebook
are going to lead us to a good look at data analysis and what this can entail
for us. There are many companies who would like to learn how to work
with the Python coding language because they know it is going to help them
figure out how to better serve their customers, figure out the best options
when it comes to which products to release to their customers, and so much
more.

There are a lot of benefits that will come with working on data analysis, but
before we do that, we need to first learn a little bit more about data analysis
and what this process is all about. Data analysis is simply going to be a
process that we can use in order to take our raw data and order and organize
it in a meaningful manner. This is going to make sure that we are able to
take out some of the important information that is found in that set of data,
and then use it for our needs.
The process of organizing and then thinking about our data is going to be so
important in helping us figure out what the data is going to contain and
what we are able to learn from it. There are going to be methods that we are
able to use in order to approach one of these kinds of analyses for their own
needs, but the most important thing that we need to remember here is to
keep our biases and any manipulation out of the mix.

It is really easy for someone to get in there and add in some of their own
biases and more in the mix. This is sometimes done on purpose if the
person wants to make sure some of their ideas are going to be the ones
picked. But this is also something that can happen on a more unconscious
level as well. No matter where it comes from, it is important to pay
attention to the presentation of the data analysis and to really be critical
about the process that is used along with it.

Another thing to remember here is that raw data can easily take on a lot of
different forms. And we are going to see the data come at us in places like
observations, social media, survey responses, and measurements. In the raw
form that we usually collect this data from, the information is going to
prove to be really useful. But there are also problems with it being
overwhelming as well.

Over the course of the process that you take for this data analysis, we need
to take all of that raw data, no matter how much of it there is, and then order
it in the manner that will make it the most useful for us. For example, we
may go through and tally some of the survey results that you are going to
see after sending these out to your customers. this will give you a better
idea of how many people actually went through and answered the survey,
and can help you see how people responded to the different questions that
were there.

In the course that you take, in general, to organizing the data, there are
going to be some trends that will emerge. And sometimes, we are going to
see that these trends are highlighted in the writeup that you see of the data.
This is done so that the readers are going to take note. In a causal survey
over something, it may be interesting to note that men like one thing better
than women, or that women are more favorable to something than men.
This is important for marketers to know sometimes, and can make it easier
to learn how to market and reach each one.

In addition, modeling the data with the help of things like mathematics and
some other tools is going to help us here. These can make sure that the right
points are exaggerated, the ones that are of the most interest to us, which
makes them a bit easier for the researcher to see and pay some attention to
as they go through the process.

Another thing to add to any data analysis that we are working on is that the
charts, textual writeups, and graphs are all going to be important forms of
data analysis. These methods are going to be important because they are
meant to distill and refine the data in a manner that readers are able to glean
the most interesting parts of the information without having to sort through
the data all on their own.

Summarizing the data and what all has happened during the analysis is
often going to be pretty important when you would like to support any of
the arguments that you made with that data, as is presenting the data in a
manner that is clear and understandable. The raw data is something that you
may choose to include in the appendix in some cases, because this allows
those who need it, and why maybe using the information to make important
decisions, a way to look through the specifics of the data, of the analysis,
and more, if they so choose along the way.

With this in mind, it is time for us to take a look at some of the steps that
are going to come to us when it is time to work on our data analysis. These
steps are going to be pretty similar no matter what kind of project we are
performing or working on in data analysis, and we will be able to see the
Python language help us get it all done. Some of the different steps that you
are able to take to complete a data analysis successfully will include:

Define the Question

In the business or organizational data analysis that you are working on, we
need to make sure that we are jumping in on the right kinds of questions. It
is never a good idea to start out with the idea that you will just sort through
the data and hope that some good insights will pop out at you. There is just
too much data to work with any more. And doing this is going to waste a lot
of time and energy. You will end up in a rabbit hole if you do this and not be
able to get anything done.

The questions that you rely on to get this work done need to be measurable,
clear, and concise. You should also make sure that the questions are going
to be there to either qualify or take away some of the potential solutions to
the opportunity or problem that we are working with.

For example, a good way to start with this is to make sure that you know
your clearly defined problem ahead of time. Maybe you are currently
working for the government as a contractor, and you find that a lot of your
costs are rising. This makes it a lot harder for you to submit contracts that
are competitive, and you might lose your work. One of the questions, out of
many that you are able to use in order to solve this business problem, could
include whether or not you can reduce your staff without compromising on
quality.

Pick Out the Important Measuring Options

Once we know what kind of business problem we would like to focus on, it
is time for us to step back and work on creating the clear measurements and
the priorities that we want to go with them. This is a step that we are able to
break down into two parts, which makes it easier for us to work through.
These steps are going to include deciding what you need to measure and
then deciding which steps we need to take in order to measure it.

So, with the first step, we have to decide what exactly we would like to
measure in the first place. Going back to that government contractor that we
were looking at, we would want to focus on what kind of data is needed to
help answer these key questions. For this one, it would be a good idea to
know how many staff members you have, how much they cost you, and the
percentage of their time that they are spending right now on functions that
are pretty necessary to the business.
In answering these questions, you are going to then come up with some
sub-questions as well. For example, do you see that your staff is not being
utilized to their full potential, and are there some improvements to the
process that you could do to help with this and reduce costs? There are
always a lot of options and questions that you are able to work with on this
one, and the more you focus on these questions, and the further down you
go with them, the better you will be able to make a decision as well.

And the final thing that we need to look at when it is time to decide what to
measure out of your process, you need to make sure that all of the
reasonable objections that may come up if you do go with one action over
another. For example, if you do decide to cut down on a few staff, how will
you be able to respond if there is a big surge in demand for your services.

You need to then move on to the second step that is going to come with this
process. Thinking about how you are going to measure out this data is going
to be just as important as all of the other steps, especially before you go
through the phase for data collection. The reason for this is that the
measuring process that you are working with is either going to be able to
back up the analysis that you do later on, or it is going to discredit the
analysis that you are doing. There are a few different key questions that you
are able to work with here, and they will include:

1. What is the time frame that you want to follow? Think about
how long you want to search for the information, how much
historical data you want to use, and how long you expect these
changes to last. If you are just dealing with a temporary decline,
such as a seasonal one, maybe finding another way to reduce
costs is better than laying people off.
2. What is the unit of measure that you are going to work with?
This could b a comparison of Euro and USD for example.
3. What factors do you think should be included in this process.
You could check out the cost of your employees with just their
annual salary. However, this is not going to provide you with the
full picture because you will be able to learn a lot more if you
work with the annual salary, and the cost of benefits that you are
providing to your employees can add up as well.
It is important to have a good plan in place before you try to do anything
with your data. Even collecting it is something that can be done after you
have your measurement criteria in place, and you are sure that you know
what steps to take next.

Collect the Data

At this point, we have had some time to go through and clearly define the
question that we would like to solve for our business. And then, we also
took some time to learn which measurement priorities we need to set as
well to ensure we get the right kind of data and more. Now it is time to
collect the data. As we go through and organize and collect the data, there
are going to be a few points that we are able to keep in mind that will make
it easier for us to really see some of the results that we want.

First, before we go through and collect the new data, we need to look at the
information that we already have. if you already have some of your own
sources and databases that have been collecting data, then you need to look
at those first. This can help you to really take a look at this data and save
yourself a lot of time and money in the process. Depending on how much
data is collected, you may have all of the data that you need without having
to look in other locations.

Then we need to move on and determine how we are going to handle the
data that we bring in. if we look at some of our own resources and find that
we need some more information, we then need to think of a good naming
and file storing system ahead of time. This is going to make it easier for
those who are on the team to work with this to collaborate with one another.
This process is going to save your team some time and can prevent the
members from going through and collecting the same information more
than one time.

If you end up needing to go through the process of gathering up the data

and using interviews and observations to finish this up, then you need to
make sure that there is a good interview template that everyone is able to
use. This is going to make sure that there is a level of consistency in what
you will see, and can save some time.
And finally, we are going to make sure that we keep all of the data that we
are collecting through this process as organized as possible. The method
you use is going to depend on the data that you are using and how you plan
to use it for your needs. You could do something like having a log with the
collection dates, and then add in any of the sources notes that you need to
keep this all in line. this practice is important to spend some time on
because it is going to help validate some of the conclusions that you are
making later on.

Collecting the data that you need to finish this process will help us to really
get the data analysis done. You need to make sure that when you collect this
data, you are picking it out from some reputable and good sources along the
way. the higher the quality that you can put with the data that you collect,
the better it is going to be later on. When you perform the analysis, this data
is going to give you some of the results and predictions that you are going
to put your decisions on, so being a bit selective with this can help.

Look Through and Analyze the Data

And this brings us to our fourth step, which is where we are going to take
all of that data that we have been collecting so far, and we will analyze it.
After we have been able to collect the data that is able to help us answer the
question that we came up with in the first step, it is time for us to go
through a deeper analysis of the data. There are a few options and steps that
we are able to follow to make this happen, and we are going to spend some
time discussing those now.

Begin this with manipulating the data such as plotting out that data and
seeing what kind of correlation is there. or you can even create your own
pivot table to work within Excel. This pivot table can work for you because
it will allow you to do some sorting and filtering of your data by some
different variables. It is also going to make it easier to figure out the
maximum, mean, standard deviation, and a minimum of the data that you
have.

As you are working on manipulating the data, you will sometimes find that
you already have the exact data that you need right from the start. But in
most cases, you will still need to either gather more data to help or make
some revisions to the original question that you were asking. Either way,
this initial analysis of the correlations, outliers, variations, and trends will
make sure that you are able to focus the analysis that you are doing on
answering the question that you originally posted. It is also a good way for
us to handle some of the objections that others may have worked raised
against you.
During this specific step, the tools and software that come with data
analysis are going to be really helpful. There are a few different advanced
processes that you are able to choose from that will help us handle these
advanced statistical data analyses that we want to complete. In most cases,
though, you are able to keep things simple because you can work with
Microsoft Excel and get a lot of the same decision-making tools that you
need. There are a lot of features and functions that come with Excel, and
you will find that you are able to use this to help you get the best results as
well.

The analysis that we do during this step is going to take some time. Picking
out the tools that we want to use, and the right algorithm is going to make it
a lot easier. We will talk about some of the algorithms that are available to
help us complete this analysis and often it is going to depend on how much
data you want to work with, and what answers you are hoping to get out of
it as well. There are also a few ways that we need to go through and
separate our data.

These two methods are going to be the training set and the testing set.
Before we are able to get through and actually work on the analysis, we
need to train and test the algorithm that we would like to use on the proper
methods and what it needs to do overall. The algorithm is not going to come
already prepared and ready to go. Instead, we have to show it how to
behave and do some work with it, and then we can put through the data we
want and get the predictions.

To start, we need to split our data into two sets, the training, and the testing
set. The training set needs to be a lot larger than the testing set. This is
because we are basically using this as a way to teach the program how we
want it to behave, and ensuring that it has plenty of time to see the
relationships that are there and figure things out. We need to also make sure
that the data we are working with is high quality so that it is going to work
for learning faster and helping us later.

After we have had a chance to go through and send the training data into the
algorithm, it is then time for us to work with the testing set. We send this
one through to see how well the algorithm was able to retain the
information that is gathered in the last set. The accuracy the first time is not
going to be perfect, but since the algorithm is going to learn more times
than it does the process, this is not a big deal. It will get better.

The higher the accuracy that you are able to get, the better. But if you end
up getting an accuracy level that is below 50 percent, then this is a sign that
something went wrong. Your algorithm should be able to make random
guesses on the testing and get 50 percent or more right. So, if you are
getting less than this, it is a sign that the algorithm is not set up right, or
maybe that the data that you are using in that is not very good, and you need
to restart with something else.

You will need to go through the training and testing phases a few times if
you are able to. This will make it easier for us to figure out the best way to
train the algorithm and ensure that it is set up properly. The more
information and data that you are able to send through to the algorithm, the
easier things get, and the higher the accuracy will become overall. When
you do this a few rounds, you should notice that when you finish with each
of the testing grounds, the accuracy rate is going up.

We do not need to have 100 percent accuracy with our algorithm, but the
higher that we are able to get this, the better. When we get to an accuracy
level that we are comfortable with, we can then move on to actually using
this algorithm for some of the information that we need. It is then ready for
us to put the data we want into it and learn how to make our decisions and
have some good predictions in the process.

Interpret the Results

The final thing that we need to take a look at here is interpreting the results
that we get out of the analysis. After we have spent some time analyzing the
data, and maybe doing some more research if it is needed, it is time for us
to go through and interpret the results that we get from this. As you spend
some time interpreting the analysis, keep in mind that you will need to go
through and see whether the original hypotheses that you formed was the
right one or not. Sometimes it is going to be right, and other times it is
going to be wrong. And when the hypotheses are wrong, you need to go
through and make some adjustments to figure out how to get things back on
track.

As we are going through and interpreting some of the results that we are
able to get out of the data, there are a few questions that we need to ask for
the data. We need to first start out by asking whether the data is able to
answer our original questions. Think back to that question that we had in
the first section of this, and then determine whether the analysis that we just
went through was able to answer the original question and how it was able
to help out with this.

The next thing that we need to look at is whether the data is going to be
strong enough and sound enough to help us defend against any of those
objections that we had before. Think back to all of the objections that you
had heard when we got started with the project, and think of what you are
able to do in order to allay any fears and worries that are going to come up
with this.

We also need to make sure that this is the right conclusion that we came up
with and that it is going to be the right one for us to work with. For
example, we need to take a look and see if there are any limitations on the
conclusions that we have, and any other angles that we may not have
looked at yet concerning this. The more in-depth that we are able to get
with this, the better it is going to be for us when we finally do come up with
the conclusion that we want to use.

If you find that the interpretation that you are able to get of this data after
finishing the analysis is able to hold up under the questions that we just did
and more, and they meet with the considerations that we just had, then you
likely have a conclusion that is productive and that you are able to use. The
only step that is left for this one is to use the results of the analysis in order
to figure out the best course of action to work with.
This is a process that takes some time to accomplish and is not always as
easy and straightforward as we may like. It is supposed to be this way. The
algorithms are meant to come into this process and speed it up, though,
much more than we would be able to see if we tried to go through this
process in a manual manner.

When we take the time to follow the five steps that we listed out above to
help with data analysis and all of the parts that come with this process, it is
easy to see how we are able to make better decisions for your business or
any company you are working with. The reason that your decisions are
going to be stronger and smarter than ever before is that they are going to
be backed by data that has been collected robustly and analyzed so you
know you are able to trust them.

With some practice, and with some careful consideration of what is found in
the data that you are looking at, you will find that your analysis of the data
is going to only get faster and more accurate. And this is going to mean a lot
of good things for your business because it means that you are able to make
better and more informed decisions that will help your business run in the
most effective manner possible.
Chapter 11: Some of the Best Python Algorithms
for Data Analysis

We have spent some time in this guidebook looking at some of the basics of
the Python language, as well as some of the basics of data analysis and what
we are able to do with this for some of our own needs. Now it is time for us
to take both of these ideas and put them together.

In order to complete a good data analysis in the first place, we need to be

able to run the data that we have collected through a number of algorithms,
usually, a few, though in some cases, one will be fine. These algorithms are
going to help us to learn what patterns and insights are found in that data,
and can give us some good predictions in the end.

There are a number of different Python data analysis algorithms that we are
able to work with along the way, and it is going to often depend on the what
we would like to do with that data to start with, and how we are able to
benefit from this as well. With this in mind, let’s dive right into some of the
basics that come with these algorithms, and learn a bit more about why
Python algorithms are the best for data analysis.

Neural Networks
The first kind of Python algorithm that we are able to use for data analysis
is going to be known as the neural network. This is a fairly sophisticated
type of algorithm to work with in the first place, but it is going to provide
you with a lot of the power and more that you need to get some of the work
done.

The neural network is going to work in a manner similar to how the brain
will function. It is going to form connections to the things that it gets right,
and it can remember this for future use as well. This helps it to learn as time
goes on, and makes it easier and faster and more efficient at some of the
work that it needs to complete as well. Once it has been able to go through
and learn something new, you will find that it will remember it in the future.

In addition, the neural network is really good at helping with things like
identifying what is in an image. It does this by going through the different
layers of the pictures, one at a time, and then making a good prediction of
what is going to be found in that image. The more layers that it is able to go
through, the more accurate it will be at guessing what is in the picture as
well. This makes it an effective tool to use for many of the projects you are
working with.

However, we have to keep in mind that the computational costs are going to
be a bit higher with this one. Because we are working with an algorithm
that is able to methodically go through a bunch of layers and make accurate
predictions, we can see why the costs will be higher with this one. You have
to determine ahead of time if this is the right kind of process for you to
work with, or if one of the other algorithms out there would work better.

Clustering
There are a number of different clustering techniques that you are able to
work with when it comes to handling a data analysis. These are all going to
take the data, though and put them together in clusters so you can see more
about the distribution of where your points of data are going to fall. There
are different ways that you are able to work with clustering, and different
ways that you can cluster up your data, but it is a good way to put the
information into groups and see some good insights right away.

The number of clusters that you will have in your work is going to depend
on what you are focusing on. For example, if you are working to divide
your group into males and females, then you will only need to have two
clusters. But if you would like to divide things up by the age of your
customers, or by where they live in the country or the world, then you will
probably need to have more than two clusters in order to have the best idea
of what is going on.
With these clusters, you will be able to plot them on something like a
scatterplot, and then figure out where everything is going to fall. This is a
great way to figure out the best options to take, whether there is a new
demographic that you need to work with, and more. You can just put these
clusters on your scatterplot, and you can learn a lot of information in a short
amount of time.

The idea of these clusters is pretty simple. When you have some data points
that fall into the same cluster, you can safely make the assumption that the
points are going to have some similarities with one another. But if the data
points are not in the same cluster, then this is a sign that they are going to be
different from one another. If we are able to keep this in mind, it is a lot
easier for us to work with understanding this kind of algorithm.

Support Vector Machines

These are going to be the algorithms that you are able to use in order to
figure out the right course of action to take. When you see that the line and
the hyperplane come together, then this is a good idea that the information
that is there is going to lead you to the results that you are looking for. This
can make picking out the right decision easier, as long as you know the
right steps that are going to help you to get the best results as well.

The biggest trick that comes with this one sometimes is figuring out which
lines and hyperplanes we should pick and work with. Sometimes,
depending on the type of data that you are working with and what is all in
it, you will end up with more than one hyperplane. Sometimes this will not
be a big deal because you will be able to see which one is the best for your
needs. Other times it may seem like there is more than one answer that is
going to work the best for your needs as well.

There are a number of options that we are able to work in order to pick out
the right SVM for what we want to do. You will learn how to do this more
with experience, but you will be able to learn about your data and then
figure this out as well. Sometimes experimenting with a few of these to see
which one is the best is another good option that we are able to choose as
well.
Naïve Bayes
The Naïve Bayes algorithm is a good choice to go with when you want to
do a bit of exploration with the data in the beginning. Maybe you want to
see what the best way is to split up the data that you have, or you are not yet
certain about what kind of algorithm is going to be the best one for you to
focus your attention on yet. In some cases, you may need to show some of
the data and some of the information that you have ahead of time, right after
collecting it, to those who want to see what is going on, but may not
understand all of the more technical aspects that come with it.

This is where the Naïve Bayes algorithm is going to come into play and can
really help us. With this option, we are able to take a good exploration of
the data that we have, and then determine the best steps to take after.
Sometimes this helps us to choose which of the other algorithms are the
best ones for us to go with. And other times, it may be a good way to create
a beginner's model so that we can show this off before being able to finish
all of the work for the final project.

The Naïve Bayes algorithm is usually not going to be the first choice that
we make when it is time to handle some of our data, and we will usually go
through and make a few other adjustments to the process as well and finish
off with another kind of algorithm. But it is definitely a good algorithm to
go with because it adds in a lot of the different parts that you need to get a
good idea about what the data contains, and what else we are able to do
with it along the way.

Decision Trees
Another option that we are able to go with here is the decision trees. These
trees are going to help us to make some good decisions and compare some
of the likely outcomes of the decisions that we do make. if you are
uncertain about which steps to take, especially if you have a few choices to
pick from, then the decision tree is going to be one of the best algorithms
for you to choose from.

To start, you would be able to ask your question and implement it in the
information or the data that you have. Of course, we first need to clean and
organize it, but we will assume that this part is already done. When you are
ready, the data can tell us which steps are the best, and the likely outcome
of each choice that you try to make along the way. This can help you to
make some better decisions because you can look at the data in a more clear
and organized manner, and you know that it actually makes sound sense,
rather than just using your intuition along the way.

In addition, you are able to take a bunch of these decision trees and
combine them together into a random forest. The random forest is simply
going to be when we combine together a bunch of those decision trees in
order to compare more than one option. Maybe you want to see which is
best for you. If you ever want to compare more than one idea or thought for
you to take, then working with the random forest, or even a simple decision
tree, can get this done. You just add in the information that you want to
work with, and then compare the decisions and their potential outcomes
before going.

As we can see, there are a lot of different types of algorithms that we are
able to use when it comes to handling our data and making sure that it
makes as much sense as possible. A bit point of working with data analysis
is to help us to sort through all of that data. Otherwise, that data is just
going to sit around and be worthless to us and just sitting there taking up
space.

Each of the algorithms that we went through above is meant to help us to

figure out different ways that we are able to move around our data, and
different ways that we will come to a better understanding of what is inside
of our data, and how we can use that. Whether you want to be able to make
smarter decisions for your business, or you are looking for ways to find new
customers or beat out the competition, the algorithms above, with the help
of the Python code, will be able to help you get there.
Conclusion

Thank you for making it through to the end of Python Programming , let’s
hope it was informative and able to provide you with all of the tools you
need to achieve your goals whatever they may be.

The next step is to get started with the basics of programming in Python.
You will find that even as a beginner, or someone who has never done any
kind of coding in the past, working with the Python language is easy
enough to learn. And we spent some time in this guidebook learning more
about how this is going to work, and how we are able to code in no time.

There are a lot of reasons why people and businesses are going to want to
learn how to work with the Python language, and with some of the codes
and more that we looked at in this guidebook will show us just how easy
working with this kind of language can be overall. It is one of the best
coding languages for basic coding all the way up to data analysis and
machine learning, so there is always going to be a lot of things that you are
able to do with it.

This guidebook took some time to explore more about what Python is able
to do for us. We looked at some of the basics, like how to install this
language on your own computer, and then moved on to some of the
different codes that you are able to write out with the help of this language.
And then, we moved on to how we can use this in a more practical manner
with the help of a good data analysis to push it along and actually help your
business learn from the data and everything it has been able to do overtime.

When it is time for us to explore more about Python programming and what
we are able to do with some simple coding along the way, make sure to read
through this guidebook and learn how to get started.