PHY 1203; Segment: 04

Nuclear Physics

❖ Nucleus of an atom:
The nucleus is the central core of an atom that contains most of its mass which is positively
charged and consists of one or more nucleons (protons and neutrons).

❖ The properties of the nucleus.

Properties of the nucleus:

(i) Charge: If the charge number of nucleus i.e., the number of protons in it be Z, then charge on
the nucleus = +Ze where e is the positive charge equal to the charge on the electron = 1.6  10-19
Coulomb.

(ii) Mass: If A is the mass number i.e., the total number of nucleons in the nucleus i.e., Z protons
and (A – Z )neutrons, then the mass of the nucleus is very nearly is equal to A atomic mass units. In terms
of atomic units, the mass of carbon atom C12 is taken to be =12 (a.m.u.) and

1 a.m.u.(also written as 1u) = 1.6604  10-2 7kg =931.48MeV.

(iii) Radius: As the nucleus is approximately Spherical, its volume is proportional to the total
number of nucleons in it or its mass number A.

4
  r 3 A
3
1
where r is the radius of the nucleus.Hence r A 3

1
r = r0 A 3

where r0 = 1.3  10-15m = 1.3 fermi [1 fermi (fm) = 10-15m]

Nuclear mass
(iv) Density: Nuclear density ρN = Where, A = mass number
Nuclear volume
Nuclear mass = A.mn and mn= mass of the nucleon
= 1.67  10-27kg.

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 3
4 4  1  4
Nuclear volume = π r 3 = π  roA 3  = π ro 3 A
3 3   3

A mn mn 1.67  10 −27
 ρN = = =
4
3
π ro 3 A
4
3
π ro 3
4
3
(
π 1.3  10 − 15 )3
= 1.816  10 17 kg m− 3
This shows that the nuclear matter is in a highly compressed state.
As the density of nucleus is independent of A, its value is almost the same for all nuclei.

Binding Energy of Nucleus:

The nucleons exert short range nuclear forces of attraction on each other. When any two
particles attract each other, the sum of their masses when separated, exceeds that of the bound system
since energy (or mass) must be added to the system to separate it into component particles.
The binding energy (EB) of a nucleus is defined as the energy required to separate a nucleus into its
constituent parts. This energy holds the nucleons together to form a stable nucleus.
For a nucleus having Z protons and N = (A - Z) neutrons

Assumed nuclear mass = Zmp + Nmn

The real nuclear mass MN is, however, less than the assumed nuclear mass. The difference in
assumed and real mass
( Zmp + Nmn) – MN =  m = mD
or, mass defect
mD = ( ZmH + Nmn ) − M 
where M is mass of atom
(including electrons mass). By using the mass of the hydrogen atom, we can avoid the necessity of
subtracting electron masses. and the binding energy is given by
Binding energy B.E.=  mc2 = c2[( ZmH + Nmn) – M]

(1) Mass defect (m)

It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent
nucleons in free state. This difference in masses is called mass defect. Hence mass defect
m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus
(2) Packing fraction
Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction packing fraction measures the stability of a
nucleus. Smaller the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of the nucleus.

(i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero value.

(ii) At A = 16, f → Zero.

Nuclear Reactions:

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The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle
is called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows.

Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are known as products. This reaction is known as (a, b)
reaction and can be represented as X(a, b) Y.

(1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction

The energy absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-value of nuclear
reaction.

Q-value = (Mass of reactants – mass of products)c2 Joules

If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (The energy is absorbed in the reaction)
If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The energy is released in the reaction).

Radioactivity:
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations by heavy elements is called radioactivity. The
elements which show this phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
(1) Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in uranium salt in the year 1896.
(2) After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Pierre Curie and Madame Curie discovered a new
radioactive element called radium (which is 106 times more radioactive than uranium)
(3) Some examples of radioactive substances are : Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium etc.
(4) Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any physical (pressure, temperature, electric or
magnetic field) or chemical changes.
(5) All the elements with atomic number (Z ) > 82 are naturally radioactive.
(6) The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements by the bombardment of fast moving
particles is called artificial or induced radioactivity.
(7) Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence electronic configuration of atom don't have any
relationship with radioactivity.

Radioactive Disintegration:

(1) Law of radioactive disintegration

According to Rutherford and Soddy law for radioactive decay is as follows.

"At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of atoms present
at that instant"

(2) Activity
It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or count rate) of the substance (or the number of atoms of
any material decaying per second)
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where A0 = Activity at time t = 0, A = Activity after time t=t.
Units of activity (Radioactivity)
It's units are Becquerel (Bq), Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd)
1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/sec, 1 Rutherford = 106 dis/sec, 1 Curie = 3.7  1011 dis/sec.

❑ Activity per gm of a substance is known as specific activity. The specific activity of 1 gm of radium –
226 is 1 Curie.
❑ 1 mill curie = 37 Rutherford
❑ The activity of a radioactive substance decreases as the number of undecayed nuclei decreases with
time.

(3) Half life (T1/2):

Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of it's atom reduces to half of
it's initial value is called the half life of the substance.

Nuclear Radiation
When an unstable nucleus decays, it breaks apart emitting particles and energy as it decays. This
phenomenon is called nuclear radiation.
Three types of nuclear radiations:
• Alpha particles
• Beta particles
• Gamma radiation electromagnetic wave
➢ Alpha Particles
• An alpha particle is made of 2 protons & 2 neutrons.
• The decaying nucleus emits an alpha particle ( 42He) with a mass number of 4 & atomic
number of 2.
• An alpha particle is the same as the nucleus of a Helium (He) atom.
• Alpha particles have much more mass than beta or gamma radiation with an electric
charge of +2.
• Penetrate or pass through matter
• Attract negatively charged electrons away fro m atoms they pass
• Lose energy quickly & slow down
• Heavier & move more slowly than β or gamma
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 • Sheet of paper can stop alpha particles.
➢ How can alpha particles harm us?
• Think of alpha particles like bowling balls moving in slow motion – they may not penetrate deeply
but they can do lots of damage to whatever they hit.
• Released inside the human body they can damage cells causing illness & disease.
➢ How can alpha particles help us?
• Smoke detectors work by emitting alpha particles, which collide, with molecules in the air forming
ions that flow within the detector to create an electric circuit. Smoke particles break this circuit
causing the alarm to sound.
➢ What is transmutation?
Transmutation is the process of changing one element to a different element by the decaying process.
210 – He4 = Pb206
84Po 2 82
The polonium atom has become a lead atom.

➢ What are Beta Particles?

• A second type of radioactive decay, beta radiation, a neutron decays into a proton by emitting an
electron (-1e0). Beta decay is caused by the weak force.
• An atom that loses a beta particle undergoes transmutation
• 53 I 131 → -1 e 0 + 54 Xe 131 Here iodine becomes xenon.
➢ How can beta particles harm us?
• Beta Particles are faster than alpha because they’re smaller & lighter so they penetrate deeper
into material they hit.
– Pass through paper
– Aluminum foil will stop a beta particle
– Can damage human cells if released inside the body.
➢ What are Gamma Rays?
• Gamma radiation is emitted as electromagnetic waves.
• Gamma rays are EM waves with the highest frequencies & the shortest wavelength in the EM
spectrum.
• The symbol for a gamma ray is the Greek letter γ gamma.
• Have no mass & no charge.
• Travel at the speed of light.
• Emitted by nucleus when alpha or beta particle is created.
• Takes thick blocks of concrete or lead to stop gamma rays.
• Cause less damage to cells inside the body than alpha or beta particles.

➢ What is the Radioactive Decay Series?

• Radioactive decay produces a simpler and more stable nucleus. A radioactive decay series
occurs as a nucleus disintegrates and achieves a more stable nuclei
There are 3 naturally occurring radioactive decay series.
• Thorium 232 series - Thorium 232 ending in lead 208
• Uranium 235 series - Uranium 235 ending in lead 207
• Uranium 238 series - Uranium 238 ending in lead 206
➢ How Radiation can be measured?
– Film badges
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 • Workers who are exposed to radioactivity carry film badges
• The film is exposed and the optical density of the film shows the workers exposure
levels during the time the film badge was worn.
– Ionization counter
• Measure ions that are produced by radiation
– cintillation counter
• Measures the flashes of light that occur when radiation strikes a phosphor.
– Geiger counter
• Measures pulses of electrons released from the ionization of gas molecules in
a metal cylinder
Each pulse of electrons is heard as a pop or click.
➢ What is Background Radiation?
• The air, the ground, & even the walls of our home give off radiation in small amounts.
• Radioactive isotopes that occur in nature emit background radiation from rocks, soil, air, bricks,
wood, stone, food, water, animals, plants, etc.

➢ Where does background radiation come from?

• Cosmic radiation is greater at higher elevations where there is less atmosphere to absorb it.
• Background radiation comes from natural processes.
•
# Radiation Exposure
– Background radiation is constantly present in our environment.
• Most people are exposed to between 100 to 500 millirems per year.
• This background radiation comes from many natural source.
– The harm that radiation does to living organisms is due to the fact that it produces
ionization which can:
• Disrupt chemical bonds in biological macromolecules such as DNA
• Produce molecular fragments which can interfere with enzyme action and essential
cell functions.
❖ Graphical representation of Radioactive Half-Life.
• The measure of the time in which half of the
radioactive substance will disintegrate is called the
half-life.
• The remaining nucleus is called the daughter
nucleus.
• Various isotopes decay at different rates.
Radioactive bismuth (Bi210) can undergo alpha decay
to form the thallium (Tl210) with a half-life equal to 5 days.
If we start with 100 g of bismuth in a sealed lead
container, after 5 days we will have 50 g of bismuth & 50 g of thallium in the jar.
After another 5 days One-half of the remaining bismuth will decay & we will be left with 25 g of
bismuth & 75 g of thallium in the jar.

➢ What is Radioactive Dating?

• The process of measuring the ages of rocks & fossils using radioactive isotopes & their half-lives
is called radioactive dating.
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 • The amount of the radioactive isotope in object is measured, then the amount of the daughter
nuclei is measured. With these the number of half-lives or age of the object can be calculated.
# How is carbon used to date objects?
• Carbon-14, with a half-life of 5,730 years is often used to estimate the age of plant & animal
remains.
• CO2 which plants use in photosynthesis contains C-14 which stays in the same ratio while alive.
• Once it dies, C-14 decreases as the C-12 increases over time. The ratio estimates ages up to
50,000 years.

# How is uranium used to date objects?

• Some rocks can be dated using the amount of radioactive uranium isotopes that have decayed into
lead.
• The ratio of the amounts of U isotopes & and their daughter nuclei are compared to estimate the
age of the rock.
➢ What are Radiation Detectors?
Special instruments used to detect the electric charge of the ions formed by the radioactive particles as
they pass through matter are known as radiation detectors.
❖ Who discovered Nuclear Fission?
• 1934- Enrico Fermi bombards U nuclei with neutrons.
• 1938- Otto Hahn & Fritz Strassmann split U-235 into smaller nuclei.
• 1939- Lise Meitner theorized that splitting occurs when the nucleus becomes so unstable that it
splits.
# What nuclei can split during nuclear fission?
Only large nuclei like Uranium or plutonium can split apart during nuclear fission.
U-236 is so unstable that it immediately splits into barium & krypton nuclei, several neutrons & a large
amount of energy.

❖ The phenomenon of Nuclear Fission

Fission is a nuclear process in which a heavy nucleus splits

into two smaller nuclei with the release of a large amount of energy.

Fission occurs spontaneously, generally when a nucleus has an excess

of neutrons, resulting in the inability of the strong force to bind the protons and neutrons together.
The fission reaction used in many nuclear reactors and bombs involves the absorption of neutrons by
uranium-235 nuclei, which immediately undergo fission, releasing energy and fast neutrons.
An example of a fission reaction that was used in the first atomic bomb and is still used in nuclear
reactors.
➢ How are mass & energy related?
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 • Albert Einstein showed us that energy and matter are the same thing, both are inter-convertible.
E=mc2
• Using mass losses during nuclear reactions, one can calculate the energy change of a system.
E=mc2
• There is a difference between the mass of the individual nucleons that make up a nucleus and the
actual mass of the nucleus.
• This is called the mass defect of the nucleus.
• The mass defect occurs as energy is released when nucleons join to form a nucleus.
# What is Nuclear Fusion?
• In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small, light nuclei combine to form one larger, heavier nucleus.
• Fusion combines nuclei & fission splits them apart.
Splitting one nucleus of U-235 releases about 30 million times more energy than when one molecule of
dynamite explodes.
❖ The phenomenon of nuclear Fusion
Fusion is a nuclear process in which two light nuclei combine to form a single heavier nucleus.
An example of a fusion reaction important in thermonuclear weapons and in future nuclear reactors is the
reaction between two different hydrogen isotopes to form an isotope of helium:
2 3 4 1
1H + 1H → 2He + 0n + Energy
# How are temperature & fusion related?
• How can two nuclei get close enough to combine? They must be moving very fast.
– All nuclei positively charged
– Thus repel each other
– KE must overcome electric force to push them close enough to combine
– KE increases as temperature increases
– Temp must be millions of °C like Sun & other stars

❖ How does the Sun produce energy?

• The Sun, made mostly of H produces its energy by fusion of H nuclei
• 2 protons 1H fuse to make a H isotope 2H; then 1H + 2H form an isotope of 3He

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 • To complete the process, 4 H nuclei combine into 1 He nucleus during which a small amount of
matter changes into a huge amount of energy.
• The heat & light Earth receives comes from this process.
• About 1% of the Sun’s hydrogen has been changed into energy.
• Sun has enough H to continue fusion reactions for another 5 billion years.

# How Nuclear Reactions are Using in Medicine?

• A tracer is a radioactive isotope used to find or keep track of a molecule as it moves through our
body.

# How are iodine tracers used?

• If the thyroid gland in your neck is not working properly, you get sick. The radioactive isotope I-131
is used to see if the thyroid is working properly. The I-131 decays giving off gamma rays which can
be detected.

# How can cancer be treated with radioactivity?

• Radiation can be used to stop some cells from growing into tumors.
• Sometimes a radioactive isotope can be placed inside or near a tumor; other times, tumors can be
treated from outside the body.
• The radiation emitted when particles decay can turn nearby atoms into ions.
• If a source of radiation is placed near cancer cells, atoms in those cells can be ionized such as
atoms in DNA or RNA which can stop the tumor from growing or even kill it.
• Because cancer cells grow quickly, radiation affects them more than other cells. Patients receiving
radiation suffer side effects when it ionizes healthy cells.

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 ❖ What is a chain reaction?
A Chain reaction is a self propagating process which once started the reaction continues
without requiring further energy and a tremendous amount of energy is released because of the
fission of the all nuclei.

• Free neutrons produced by fission can hit other nuclei emitting more neutrons repeating the
reaction over and over.
• A series of fission reactions is called a chain reaction.
• An uncontrolled chain reaction releases a huge amount of energy in a short time & requires a
critical mass of starting material to produce more reactions.

❖ Give an example of nuclear chain reaction.

❖ What Is A Nuclear Reactor?

A nuclear reactor is a device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction . Nuclear
reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in propulsion of ships.

❖ State the basic principle of A Nuclear Reactor?

*Each fission of a U235 nucleus releases 2 to 3 neutrons and energy of about 200 MeV.
*The neutrons liberated by the fission of U235 nuclei are either lost through the reactor surface or
are absorbed without producing further fission.
*For the reaction to be self sustained at least one neutron should always be available to continue
the chain reaction.
*For this purpose the size of the reactor is increased so that it has a small surface area as compare
to its volume.
*Secondly the reacting fuel is surrounded by a material that scatters neutrons without absorbing
them so that most of the escaping neutrons are reflected back.
*Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid (water or gas), which runs through turbines.
These either drive a ship's propellers or turn electrical generators.

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Demonstrate the basic diagram of a nuclear power plant.

Basic diagram of a nuclear power plant 1

Basic Mechanism of a nuclear reactor:

Reactor vessel 1
Just as conventional power-stations generate
electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactors convert
the thermal energy released from nuclear fission of a nuclear fuel.

Nuclear fuel:

Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy. The most common
type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a
nuclear reactor The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu. Not all nuclear fuels are used in
fission chain reactions.

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Control rods:

Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into the bundle using a
mechanism that can rise or lower the control rods. . The control rods essentially contain neutron
absorbers like, boron, cadmium or indium.

Steam generators:

Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert water into steam from heat produced in a
nuclear reactor core. Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as the coolant.

Steam turbine:

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and
converts it into useful mechanical Various high-performance alloys and super alloys have been used for
steam generator tubing.

Coolant pump:
The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to pressures of the order of 155bar. The pressure of the
coolant loop is maintained almost constant with the help of the pump and a pressurizer unit.

Condenser :

Condenser is a device or unit which is used to condense vapor into liquid. The objective of the
condenser are to reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to increase the efficiency and to recover high
quality feed water in the form of condensate & feed back it to the steam generator without any further
treatment.

Cooling tower : Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower for cooling and reuse.

What Happens to Used Fuel? :

What Happens to Used Fuel? Uranium in a nuclear reactor comes in the form of ceramic pellets.
Only one of the uranium isotopes fission, U-235. New fuel contains about 5% U-235, the rest is U-238.
When most of the U-235 has split, the used-up or “spent fuel” is stored in a large pool to cool off.

Dry Cask Storage :

Dry Cask Storage After the fuel has “cooled”, it is moved into concrete casks. Eventually, the fuel
will be sent for permanent disposal deep underground.

Advantages
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 Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). The
emissions of green house gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming
is therefore relatively little. This technology is readily available, it does not have to be developed first. It is
possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.

Disadvantages :

The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one. High risks: It is technically impossible to
build a plant with 100% security. The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce
resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.

How can we do to minimize radiation exposure?

There are three factors that affect our body’s exposure to radiation: time, distance, and shielding.

Time - All radioactivity loses its strength with time: some of it within days or less, some of it over years.
Limiting the time spent near the source of radiation reduces the amount of radiation exposure you will
receive. Following an accident, local authorities will monitor any release of radiation and determine the
level of protective actions and when the threat has passed.

Distance - The more distance between you and the source of the radiation, the less radiation you will
receive. In the most serious nuclear power plant accident, local officials will likely call for an evacuation,
thereby increasing the distance between you and the radiation.

Shielding - The heavy, dense materials between you and the source of the radiation will provide shielding
from the radiation and reduce exposure to the radiation. This is why local officials may advise you to
remain indoors if an accident occurs. Buildings protect from radioactive fallout by isolation (like an
umbrella “shields” us from rain(land ensure distance between you and the radioactive materials.

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Problem-01:

Calculate the binding energy of 33X75. The mass of one proton, one
neutron, one electron, and atomic mass 33X75 is 1.0073 amu, 1.0087 amu,
0.0055 amu, and 74.9216 amu respectively.

Solution Hints:

Binding energy B.E.=  mc2 = c2[( ZmH + Nmn) – M]

and 1 a.m.u.(also written as 1u) = 1.6604  10-2 7kg =931.48MeV

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