DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Module 1- Introduction
Module 1 Syllabus INTRODUCTION TO DATA
STRUCTURES: Data Structures,
Classifications (Primitive&
Non-Primitive), Data structure
Operations
Review of pointers and dynamic
Memory Allocation,
ARRAYS and STRUCTURES: Arrays,
Dynamic Allocated Arrays, Structures
and Unions,Polynomials, Sparse
Matrices, representation of
Multidimensional Arrays, Strings
STACKS: Stacks, Stacks Using
Dynamic Arrays, Evaluation and
conversion of Expressions

Handouts for Session 1: Introduction to Data

Structures 1.1 Data Structure

∙ Data is basically a fact or an entity and is used for calculation or manipulation. ∙

Data structure is a representation of logical relationship existing between individual
elements of data.
 Data Structure is a way of collecting and organizing data in such a way that we
can perform operations on these data in an effective way.
 A data structure is a storage that is used to store and organize data. It is a way of
arranging data on a computer so that it can be accessed and updated efficiently.  Ex:
GPS, Escalators, QueueSystem,Feeds,Online ticket Booking .

1.2 Classification of data structures

 Data structures are generally categorized into two classes:

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∙ Primitive data Structures

∙ Non-primitive data Structures
Primitive Data Structures: Primitive data structures are the basic data structures that
directly operate upon the machine instructions.They are the fundamental data types which
are supported by a programming language. Some basic data types are integer, real,
character, and Boolean. The terms ‘data type’, ‘basic data type’, and ‘primitive data type’
are often used interchangeably.
Non-Primitive Data Structures: Non-primitive data structures are those data structures
which are created using primitive data structures. Examples of such data structures
include linked lists, stacks, trees, and graphs.
Based on the structure and arrangement of data, non-primitive data structures is further
classified into
∙ Linear Data Structure
∙ Non-linear Data Structure
Linear data Structures :If the elements of a data structure are stored in a linear or
sequential order, then it is a linear data structure.Linear data structures can be represented
in memory in two different ways.
∙ One way is to have to a linear relationship between elements by means of sequential
memory locations.
 ∙ The other way is to have a linear relationship between elements by means of links. ∙
Examples include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues.

1. Array: Simplest type of data structure is linear array. It is the list of finite numbers
n of similar data elements referenced respectively by a set of n consecutive
numbers. Ex: array of students consisting of six students shown in fig.

2. A linked list is a very flexible, dynamic data structure in which elements (called
nodes) form a sequential list. A linked list, every node contains the following two
types of data:
∙ The value of the node or any other data that corresponds to that node
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∙ A pointer or link to the next node in the list

The last node in the list contains a NULL pointer to indicate that it is the end or tail of the
list. Since the memory for a node is dynamically allocated when it is added to the list, the
total number of nodes that may be added to a list is limited only by the amount of memory
available. Figure shows a linked list of four nodes shown in fig.

3. A stack is a linear data structure in which insertion and deletion of elements are done at
only one end, which is known as the top of the stack. Stack is called a last-in, first-out
(LIFO) structure because the last element which is added to the stack is the first element
which is deleted from the stack.
4. A queue is a first-in, first-out (FIFO) data structure in which the element that is inserted
first is the first one to be taken out. The elements in a queue are added at one end called the

rear and removed from the other end called the front.

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Non-linear data Structures If the elements of a data structure are not stored in a
sequential order, then it is a non-linear data structure.
∙ The relationship of adjacency is not maintained between elements of a non-linear
data structure.
∙ This structure is mainly used to represent data containing a hierarchical relationship
between elements.
∙ Examples include trees and graphs.
1. A graph is a non-linear data structure which is a collection of vertices (also
called nodes) and edges that connect these vertices. A graph is often viewed as a
generalization of the tree structure, where instead of a purely parent-to-child
 relationship between tree nodes, any kind of complex relationships between the
nodes can exist.

2. A tree is a non-linear data structure which consists of a collection of nodes

arranged in a hierarchical order. One of the nodes is designated as the root node,
and the remaining nodes can be partitioned into disjoint sets such that each set is
a sub-tree of the root.

Review Questions:
1. What is data structure?
2. What is linear data structure?
3. What is non primitive data structure?
4. What are applications of data structure?
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Handouts for Session 2: Data structure Operations

1.3 Data structure Operations
The data appearing in our data structures are processed by means of certain operations.
Infact the particular data structure that one chooses for a given situation depends largely
on the frequency with which specific operations are performed such as: 1. Creating -
Creating a new record with some data.
 2. Traversing- It is used to access each data item exactly once so that it can be
processed.This accessing and processing sometimes called as visiting the record. 3.
Searching- It is used to find out the location of the data item if it exists in the given
collection of data items.
4. Inserting- It is used to add a new data item in the given collection of data items. 5.
Deleting- It is used to delete an existing data item from the given collection of data items.
6. Sorting- It is used to arrange the data items in some order i.e. in ascending or
descending order in case of numerical data and in dictionary order in case of
alphanumeric data.
7. Merging- It is used to combine the data items of two sorted files into single file in the
sorted form.

1.4 Review of Pointers

A pointer is a variable that contains the memory location of another variable.
Therefore, a pointer is a variable that represents the location of a data item, such as a
variable or an array element. Pointers are frequently used in C, as they have a number
of useful applications. These applications include:
∙ Pointers are used to pass information back and forth between functions. ∙ Pointers
enable the programmers to return multiple data items from a function via function
arguments.
∙ Pointers provide an alternate way to access the individual elements of an array.
∙ Pointers are used to pass arrays and strings as function arguments. We will
discuss this in subsequent chapters.
∙ Pointers are used to create complex data structures, such as trees, linked lists,
linked stacks,linked queues, and graphs.
∙ Pointers are used for the dynamic memory allocation of a variable.

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1.4.1 Declaring Pointer variables

The general syntax of declaring pointer variables can be given as below.
data_type *ptr_name;
 Here, data_type is the data type of the value that the pointer will point
to. Eg code which shows the use of a pointer variable:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int num, *pnum;
pnum = &num;
printf("\n Enter the number : ");
scanf("%d", &num);
printf("\n The number that was entered is : %d", *pnum);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the number : 10
The number that was entered is : 10
Note : The value of *&num is equivalent to simply writing num.
1.4.2Pointer expressions and Pointer arithmetic
Pointer variables can be used in expressions. In C Programmer
may: ∙ Add or subtract integers from pointers.
∙ Subtract two pointers of the same type.
∙ Use shorthand operators with pointer variables.
∙ Compare pointers using relational operators.
∙ Postfix unary increment (++) and decrement (--) operators have greater precedence
than the dereference operator (*).
∙ Write (*ptr)++ , to increment the value of the variable whose address is stored in ptr.

1.4.3Null Pointers

∙ A null pointer is a special pointer value that does not point to any valid memory
address.
∙ To declare a null pointer, use the predefined constant NULL,int *ptr = NULL; ∙
Check whether a pointer variable is null by writing if(ptr == NULL).

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 ∙ Initialize a pointer to null using the constant 0, but it is better to use NULL to
avoid ambiguity.int *ptr; ptr = 0;
∙ A function that returns pointer values can return a null pointer when it is unable to
perform its task.

1.4.4 Generic Pointers

∙ A generic pointer is a pointer variable that has void as its data type. ∙ The void
pointer, or the generic pointer, is a special type of pointer that can point to variables
of any data type.
∙ It is declared like a normal pointer variable but using the void keyword as the
pointer’s data type.
For example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 10;
char ch = ‘A’;
void *gp;
gp = &x;
printf("\n Generic pointer points to the integer value =
%d", *(int *)gp);
gp = &ch;
printf("\n Generic pointer now points to the character=
%c", *(char *)gp);
return 0;
}
Output
Generic pointer points to the integer value = 10
Generic pointer now points to the character = A

1.4.5 Pointer to Pointers

In C, we can also use pointers that point to pointers.

∙ The pointers in turn point to data or even to other pointers.
∙ To declare pointers to pointers, just add an asterisk * for each level of reference.

For example, consider the following code:

int x=10;
int *px, **ppx;
px = &x;
ppx = &px;
printf("\n %d", **ppx);
Then, it would print 10, the value of x.
 1.4.6 Drawbacks of Pointers

∙ If pointers are used incorrectly, they can lead to bugs that are difficult to unearth.
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∙ For example, if a pointer is used to read a memory location but that pointer is pointing
to an incorrect location, then we may end up readinga wrong value.
∙ An erroneous input always leads to an erroneous output.
Example:
int x, *px;
x=10;
*px = 20;
Error: Un-initialized pointer. px is pointing to an unknown memory location. Hence it
will overwrite that location’s contents and store 20 in it.
int x, *px;
x=10;
px = x;
Error: It should be px = &x;

1.5 Dynamic Memory Allocation

∙ The process of allocating memory to the variables during execution of the program or at
run time is known as dynamic memory allocation.
∙ C language provides a mechanism of dynamically allocating memory so that only the
amount of memory that is actually required is reserved.
∙ We reserve space only at the run time for the variables that are actually required. ∙
Dynamic memory allocation gives bestperformance in situations in which we do not
know memory requirements in advance.
C language has four library routines which allow thisfunction.
Function Task

malloc() Allocates memory and returns a pointer to the first byte of allocated space

calloc() Allocates space for an array of elements, initializes them to zeroand returns
a pointer to the memory

free() Frees previously allocated memory

realloc() Alters the size of previously allocated memory

 Memory Allocations process

∙ The free memory region is called heap.

∙ The size of heap is not constant as it keeps changing when the program is executed. ∙
Some new variables are created and some variables cease to exist when the block in
which they were declared is exited.
∙ When an overflow condition occurs, the memory allocation functions will return a
null pointer.

Allocating a block of Memory

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1.malloc()

∙ malloc is declared in <stdlib.h>

∙ The above header file is included in any program that calls malloc. ∙ The malloc function
reserves a blockof memory of specified size and returns a pointer of type void.

The general syntax of malloc() is : ptr =(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size); where ptr is

a pointer of type cast-type. malloc() returns a pointer (of cast type) to an area of
memory with size byte-size.
Eg: arr=(int*)malloc(10*sizeof(int));
dynamically allocates memory equivalent to 10 times the area of int bytes. space is
reserved and the address of the first byte of memory allocated is assigned to the
pointer arr of type int.

Example of malloc()- Program: Write a program to read and display values of an

integer array. Allocate space dynamically for the array.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int i, n;

int *arr;
 printf("\n Enter the number of elements ");

scanf("%d", &n);

arr = (int *)malloc(n * sizeof(int));

if (arr == NULL) {

printf(" \n Memory Allocation Failed");

exit(0);

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

printf("\n Enter the value %d of the array: ", i);

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scanf("%d", &arr[i]);

printf("\n The array contains \n");

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%d", arr[i]);

return 0;

2.calloc()

calloc() function is a function that reserves memory at the run time.

It is used to request multiple blocks of storage each of the same size and then sets all
bytes to zero.

calloc() stands for contiguous memory allocation and is primarily used to allocate
memory for arrays.

The syntax of calloc() can be given as:

ptr=(cast-type*) calloc(n,elem-size);
 The above statement allocates contiguous space for n blocks each of size elem-size

bytes.

The difference between malloc() and calloc() is that when we use calloc(), all bytes are
initialized to zero.

calloc() returns a pointer to the first byte of the allocated region.

When memory is allocated using malloc() or calloc(), a NULL pointer will be returned if
there is not enough space in the system to allocate.

A NULL pointer, points nowhere.

Eg. A call to malloc, with an error check:

int *ip = malloc(100 * sizeof(int));

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if(ip == NULL)

printf("\n Memory could not be allocated");

return;

Example of calloc()- Program:Demonstrates the use of calloc() to dynamically

allocate space for an integer array.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {
 int i, n;

int *arr;

printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");

scanf("%d", &n);

arr = (int *)calloc(n, sizeof(int));

if (arr == NULL) exit(1);

printf("\n Enter the %d values to be stored in the array",

n);

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) scanf("%d", &arr[i]);

printf("\n You have entered: ");

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%d", arr[i]);

free(arr);

return 0;

3.free() - Releasing the used space

∙ Memory allocated during compile time for variables is automatically released by

the system.

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∙ Dynamically allocated memory must be manually released using the free() function.
∙ Releasing unused memory is crucial for efficient memory management, especially when
storage space is limited.
∙ The free() function takes a pointer as an argument and returns the memory block pointed
to by that pointer to the free list within the heap.
∙ The pointer passed to free() must have been previously allocated using malloc() or
calloc().
 4.realloc()- To
Alter the Size of Allocated Memory
∙ Realloc() is a function that can be used to change the size of memory that was previously
allocated using calloc() or malloc().
∙ The function takes two arguments: a pointer to the memory to be resized and the new size
of the memory.
∙ Realloc() returns a pointer to the resized memory block, or NULL if the request fails.
∙ If realloc() was able to make the old block of memory bigger, it returns the same pointer.
∙ Otherwise, realloc() allocates a new block of memory and copies the old data to it. ∙ It is
important to check if the pointer returned by realloc() is NULL before using it.

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/*Example program for reallocation*/

#include < stdio.h>

#include < stdlib.h>
#define NULL 0
int main() {
 char *str;
str = (char *)malloc(10);
if (str == NULL) {
printf("\n Memory could not be allocated"); exit(1);
}
strcpy(str, "Hi");
printf("\n STR = %s", str);
/*Reallocation*/
str = (char *)realloc(str, 20);
if (str == NULL) {
printf("\n Memory could not be reallocated"); exit(1);
}
printf("\n STR size modified\n");
printf("\n STR = %s\n", str);
strcpy(str, "Hi there");
printf("\n STR = %s", str);
/*freeing memory*/
free(str);
return 0;
}
Difference between malloc() and calloc()
Malloc Calloc

The name malloc stands for memory The name calloc stands for contiguous
allocation. allocation.

malloc () doesn‟t initializes the allocated calloc () initializes the allocated memory
memory. It contains garbage values to zero

Since no initialization, time efficiency is More expensive because of zero fillings.

greater than calloc() But convenient than malloc

Syntax Syntax
variable_name=(datatype*)malloc(sizeof variable_name=(datatype*)calloc(n,size);
(

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datatype));

Required no. of bytes to be allocated is Takes 2 arguments: n🡪no. of blocks to be

specified as arguments. i.e., size in bytes allocated, size🡪no. of bytes in each block

Review Questions:

1. What are different dynamic memory allocation functions?

2. What is the difference between calloc and malloc?
3. What is realloc function?
4. What is the function of free()?
5. What is a null pointer?
6. What is the advantage of using dynamic memory allocation over static?

Handouts for Session 3: Arrays

1.6 Arrays
∙ An array data structure, or simply an array, is a data structure consisting of a
collection of (mainly of similar data types) elements (values or variables), each
identified by at least one array index or key. An array is stored so that the position
of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula.
∙ An array is a collection of items stored at contiguous memory locations.

1.6.1 Linear arrays

∙ Linear arrays are called one dimensional arrays which is referenced by one
subscript. A 1-D array is a collection of similar data elements where each element
 is referenced by one subscripts.
∙ An array must be declared before being used. Declaring an array means specifying
the following:

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1. Data_type—the kind of values it can store, for example, int, char, float,
double.
2. Name—to identify the array.
3. Size—the maximum number of values that the array can hold.
∙ Arrays are declared using the following syntax:
Data_type Name[Size];

∙ The type can be either int, float, double, char, or any other valid data type. ∙ The
number within brackets indicates the size of the array, i.e., the maximum number of
elements that can be stored in the array.
∙ For example, if we write, int marks[10]; The above statement declares an array
marks that contains 10 elements. In C, the array index starts from zero. This
means that the array marks will contain 10 elements in all. The first element will
be stored in marks[0], second element in marks[1], so on and so forth. Therefore,
the last element, that is the 10th element, will be stored in marks[9].

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme eleme
nt nt nt nt nt nt nt nt nt nt

Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar
k s[0] k s[1] k s[2] k s[3] k s[4] k s[5] k s[6] k s[7] k s[8] k s[9]

Calculating the address of array Elements

∙ Since an array stores all its data elements in consecutive memory locations, storing
just the base address, that is the address of the first element in the array, is
 sufficient. The address of other data elements can simply be calculated using the
base address. The formula to perform this calculation is, Address of data element
A[k] = BA(A) + w(k – lower_bound)
or
A[k]= α+ k * sizeof (int) where α =base address

∙ Here, A is the array, k is the index of the element of which we have to calculate the
address, BA is the base address of the array A, and w is the size of one element in
memory, for example, size of int is 4 .Ex: Given an array int marks[] =

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{99,67,78,56,88,90,34,85}, calculate the address of marks[4] if the base address = 1000.

99 67 78 56 88 90 34 85
Marks[ Marks[ Marks[ Marks[ Marks[ Marks[ Marks[
Marks[
1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6] 7]
0]
1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 1010 1012 1014 .
marks[4] = 1000 + 4(4 – 0) = 1000 + 4(4) = 1016
or
marks[4]=1000+4*4=1016

Calculating the length of array Elements

The length of an array is given by the number of elements stored in it. The general
formula to calculate the length of an array is:
Length = upper_bound – lower_bound + 1
Whereupper_bound is the index of the last element and lower_bound is the index of
the first element in the array.Ex: in the above diagram,
length of the array = 7-0+1=8

Initialization of one-dimensional array

 Arrays can be initialized at declaration time as:
int age[5]={2,4,34,3,4};
  It is not necessary to define the size of arrays during initialization. Below
instruction justifies it
int age[]={2,4,34,3,4};
∙ In this case, the compiler determines the size of array by calculating the number of
elements of an array.
∙ An array can be initialized by inputting values from the keyboard. In this method, a
while/do–while or a for loop is executed to input the value for each element of the
array.

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Example:C program calculates the sum of marks of n students using arrays.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int marks[10], i, n, sum = 0;
printf("Enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
printf("Enter marks of student%d: ", i + 1);
scanf("%d", &marks[i]);
sum += marks[i];
}
printf("Sum= %d", sum);
return 0;
 }

1.7 Dynamically Allocated Array

If the array size is decided during run time, then it is called dynamically allocated array.

1.7.1 1-D Array:

∙ Consider # define max[100];
∙ Now 100 locations has been created. If we want more locations, we increase the size
of max in definition and recompile the program.But if we set it very large, there
occurs wastage of space, or if we make it small, sometimes our data may not fit in
that. A good solution for this is to do run time allocation of array.
∙ Example:
int *list, n;
printf(“enter the no. of elements to generate”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n<1)
{ printf(“improper value of n”);
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exit(0);
}
list=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int));
∙ Now if n<1, it will come out of the program, else, it will create n*4bytes during
run time.i.e, if n=3, we need to generate 3 memory location for integer no’s (12
bytes

1.7.2Two-D Array:
∙ C uses array of array representation to represent a multi-dimensional array.
 Normally, a pointer contains the address of a variable. A pointer-to-pointer
contains address of another pointer. When we define a pointer to a pointer, the
first pointer contains the address of the second pointer, which points to the
location that contains the actual value as shown below.
⮚ int a; 🡪allocates memory for variable ‘a’ where integer can be stored ⮚
int *p1; 🡪allocates memory for variable ‘p1’ where address of an integer
can be stored
⮚ int **p2; 🡪allocates a memory for variable ‘p2’ where address of
pointer can be stored
∙ A 2-D array represented as a 1-D array of pointers where each pointer contains address
of 1-D array. ex: int x[3][5]; The figure shows array to array representation, where
each of 3 pointers points to 1-D array consisting of 5 locations

∙ Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
int row = 2, col = 3;
int *arr = (int *)malloc(row * col * sizeof(int));

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int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < row; i++)
for (j = 0; j < col; j++) *(arr + i + j) = i + j;
printf("The matrix elements are:\n");
for (i = 0; i < row; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < col; j++) {
 printf("%d ", *(arr + i + j));
}
printf("\n");
}
free(arr);
return 0;
}

Review Questions:

1. What is an array ?
2. What are the applications of arrays?
3. What is the application of 2D array?
4. How many loops are required for defining 3D arrays?
5. What is the method to calculate index of array?

Handouts for Session 4: Structures & Unions

1.8 Structures
∙ Structure is a user defined data type that can hold data items of different data
types.

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∙ The major difference between a structure and an array is that an array can store
only information of same data type.
 Syntax
struct{
member1;
member2;
…..
member n;
}; structurename

Example
struct {
char name[10];
int age;
float salary;
} person;
∙ The above example creates a structure and variable name is Person and that has
three fields:
name = a name that is a character array
age = an integer value representing the age of the person
salary = a float value representing the salary of the individual
∙ Assign values to fieldsto assign values to the fields, use. (dot) as the structure
member operator. This operator is used to select a particular member of the
structure
Ex: strcpy(Person.name,“james”);
Person.age = 10;
Person.salary = 35000;
1.8.1 Structure Declaration
∙ Structure definition with a tag name-Tagged Structure
Syntax:
Struct structure_name
{ member1;
member2;
…
member n;
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};

Example:
struct person
{
char name[10];
int age;
float salary;
};
∙ Example1: Program that uses a simple structure to store the student marks details
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct student {
char name[20], subject[20];
float percentage;
} s1;
int main()

{
strcpy(s1.name, "aditi");
strcpy(s1.subject, "Maths");
s1.percentage = 91.25;
printf(" Name : %s \n", s1.name);
printf(" Subject : %s \n", s1.subject);
printf(" Percentage : %f \n", s1.percentage); return 0;
}
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∙ Type Defined Structure: We can create our own structure data type by using
typedef statement as:
typedef struct
{
data_type member 1;
data_type member 2;
………………………
………………………
data_type member n;
} TypeName;

∙ typedef is the keyword used at the beginning of the definition and by using
typedef user defined data type can be obtained.
∙ struct is the keyword which tells structure is defined to the complier ∙
The members are declared with their data_type
∙ Type_name is not a variable; it is user defined data_type
Method-1:
typedef struct person{
char name[10];
int age;
float salary;
};
person person1, person2;
Method-2:
typedef struct {
char name[10];
 int age;
float salary
} person;
person person1, person2;
∙ In above example, person is the name of the type and it is a user defined data type.
Declarations of structure variables: person person1, person2; ∙ This statement
declares the variable person1 and person2 are of type person. ∙ Example2:Program
that uses a simple structure to store the student marks details using typedef
structure
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
typedef struct {
char name[20], subject[20];
float percentage;
} students;
int main()

{
students s1;
strcpy(s1.name, "aditi");
strcpy(s1.subject, "Maths");
s1.percentage = 91.25;
printf(" Name : %s \n", s1.name);
printf(" Subject : %s \n", s1.subject);
printf(" Percentage : %f \n", s1.percentage);
return 0;
}
 Example3:Program that uses a simple structure to store the student details.
#include <stdio.h>
struct student {
char name[30];
int rollno;
int t_marks;
};
void main() {
int num, i;

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DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

struct student std[10]; // statement declares array of

structure
printf("enter the number of students:");
scanf("%d", &num);
for (i = 0; i < num; i++) {
printf("\n enter the details of student %d", i + 1);
printf("\n name:");
scanf("%s", std[i].name);
printf("\n Rollno:");
scanf("%d", &std[i].rollno);
printf("\n totalmarks:");
scanf("%d", &std[i].t_marks);
}
printf("\n the student details are:");
 for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
printf("\n student %d \n name %s \n Rollno %d\n Total marks
%d\n",
i + 1, std[i].name, std[i].rollno,
std[i].t_marks);
}

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DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
1.9 Unions
Union is a derived data type, like structure, i.e. collection of elements of different data
types which are grouped together. Each element in a union is called member. Union
allocates one common storage space for all its members, or memory space is shared
between its members. So only one field of union is active at any given time
Syntax:
Method-1:
union tagname
{
Type1 member1;
Type2 member2;
….
};
Method-2:
typedef union
 {

25
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Type1 member1;
Type2 member2;
….
};
∙ Similar to structures, a union is a collection of variables of different data types. The
only difference between a structure and a union is that in case of unions, you can
only store information in one field at any one time.
∙ To better understand a union, think of it as a chunk of memory that is used to store
variables of different types. When a new value is assigned to a field, the existing
data is replaced with the new data.
∙ Thus, unions are used to save memory. They are useful for applications that involve
multiple members, where values need not be assigned to all the members at any
one time. Table below shows the difference between structures and unions.

Basis of Structure Union

comparison

Basic The separate memory location is All members of the

allotted to each member of the 'union' share the same
'structure'. memory
location.

Declaration struct struct_name{ union u_name{

type element1; type element1;
type element2; type element2;
…. ….
} variable1, variable2, ...; } variable1, variable2, ...;

Keyword 'struct' 'union'

Size Size of Structure= sum of size of all Size of Union=size of

the data members. the largest members.

Store Value Stores distinct values for all the members. Stores same value for all
the members.

At a Time A 'structure' stores multiple values, of A 'union' stores a single

 the different members, of the value at a time for all
'structure'. members.

Way of Provide single way to view each Provide multiple way to

Viewing memory location. view same memory
location.

∙ Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union student {
char name[20], subject[20];
float percentage;
} s1;
26
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

int main() {
strcpy(s1.name, "aditi");
strcpy(s1.subject, "Maths");
s1.percentage = 91.25;
printf(" Name : %s \n", s1.name);
printf(" Subject : %s \n", s1.subject);
printf(" Percentage : %f \n", s1.percentage);
return 0;
}

1.10 Self- Referential Structure

∙ Self-referential structures are those structures that contain a reference to the data of its same
type. That is, a self-referential structure, in addition to other data, contains a pointer to a data
that is of the same type as that of the structure.
∙ For example, consider the structure node given below. Here, the structure node will contain
two types of data: a character data and a pointer link. The value of link is either the address

in the memory of an instance of a list or the null pointer.

∙ Consider these statements which create 3 structures and assign values to their respective
fields:

link item1, item2, item3;

item1.data=’a’;
item2.data=’b’;
item3.data=’c’;

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DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
item1.link=item2.link=item3.link=NULL;

∙ Structures item1, item2 and item3 each contains the data item a, b and c and the null
pointer. We can attach these structures together by replacing the null link field in
item 2 with one that points to item 3 and by replacing the null link field in item 1
with one that points to item2.

item1.link=&item2;
item2.link=&item3;

Review Questions:
 1. What is a structure?
2. What is an instance of structure?
3. What is self-referential structure?
4. What is union?
5. Differentiate between structure and union?

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DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Handouts for Session 5: Polynomials & Sparse Matrices

1.11 Polynomials
∙ A polynomial is a sum of terms, where each term has a formaxe,Where x=variable,
a=coefficient and e=exponent.
For ex,A(x)=3x20+2x5+4 and B(x)=x4+10x3+3x2+1.The largest (or leading)
exponent of a polynomial is called its degree.
∙ Assume that we have 2 polynomials, A(x)= ∑ai xi& B(x)= ∑bi xi,then A(x)+B(x)= ∑
(ai + bi) xii.e the above sum would be S(x)=3x20+2x5+ x4+10x3+3x2+5 ∙ A polynomial
thus may be represented using arrays or linked lists.If any term is not present, then we
assign 0’s in the corresponding coefficient.
∙ A structure may be defined such that it contains two parts- one is the coefficient and
second is the corresponding degree.Given below is the polynomial representation
using structure.
#define max_degree 100
typedef struct
{
float coef[max_degree];
int degree;
}polynomial;
∙ Array of Structure:Instead of using one array for each polynomial, we use one array
to store all polynomials, which saves space

∙ Polynomial Addition:Suppose a is one polynomial and b is another polynomial then

c=a+b, where c is the addition of polynomial a and b. inorder to add 2 polynomials,
there are different cases to be verified:
Case1: Power of Polynomial a is Equal to Power of Polynomial
b Ex: a = 25x6+10x5+7x2+9 b = 15x6+5x4+4x3
lead exponent(a)=6 lead exponent(b)=6
so, lead exponent(a)=lead exponent(b)
29
 DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

sum is,
25x6+10x5+7x2+9
15x6+5x4+4x3
c=40 x6+………
Case 2:Power of Polynomial a is Greater than Power of Polynomial
b Remaining polynomial is: a =10x5+7x2+9 lead exponent(a)=5 b =
5x4+4x3lead exponent(b)=4
so, lead exponent(a)>lead exponent(b). so copy lead exponent(a) directly to
c sum is,
10x5+7x2+9
5x4+4x3
c=10 x5+………
Case 3: Power of Polynomial a is Less than Power of Polynomial b
Remaining polynomial is: a =7x2+9 lead exponent(a)=2 b =
5x4+4x3lead exponent(b)=4
so, lead exponent(a)<lead exponent(b). so copy lead exponent(b) directly to
c sum is,

7x2+9
5x4+4x3
c=5x4+………
so final polynomial is: 40x6+10x5+5x4+4x3+7x2+9
∙ Coding:
/* d =a + b, where a, b, and d are polynomials */
d = Zero( )
while (! IsZero(a) && ! IsZero(b)) do {
switch COMPARE (Lead_Exp(a), Lead_Exp(b)) {
case -1: d = Attach(d, Coef (b, Lead_Exp(b)), Lead_Exp(b)); b
= Remove(b, Lead_Exp(b));
break;
case 0: sum = Coef (a, Lead_Exp (a)) + Coef ( b, Lead_Exp(b)); if
 (sum) {
Attach (d, sum, Lead_Exp(a));
a = Remove(a , Lead_Exp(a));
b = Remove(b , Lead_Exp(b));
30
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

}
break;
case 1: d = Attach(d, Coef (a, Lead_Exp(a)), Lead_Exp(a));
a = Remove(a, Lead_Exp(a));
}
}
insert any remaining terms of a or b into d

1.12 Sparse Matrix

∙ A sparse matrix is a matrix in which most of the elements are zero. By contrast, if most
of the elements are nonzero, then the matrix is considered dense. Sparse data is by
nature more easily compressed and thus require significantly less storage. If we
apply the operations using standard matrix structures and algorithms to sparse
matrices, then the execution will slow down and the matrix will consume large
amount of memory
∙ When a sparse matrix is represented as a 2-dimensional array, we waste space. For ex,
if 100*100 matrixes contain only 100 non-zero entries then we waste 9900 out of
10000 memory spaces. Solution is to Store only the non-zero elements.
∙ A matrix is typically stored as a two-dimensional array. Each entry in the array
represents an element aij of the matrix and is accessed by the two indices i and j.
Conventionally, i is the row index, numbered from top to bottom, and j is the column
index, numbered from left to right. For an m × n matrix, the amount of memory
required to store the matrix in this format is proportional to m × n. In the case of a
sparse matrix, substantial memory requirement reductions can be realized by storing
only the non-zero entries.
∙ Sparse Matrix Representstion:
A sparse matrix can be represented by using TWO representations:
 1. Triplet Representation
2. Linked Representation

∙ Triplet Representation
#define max 101
typedefstruct
{
int col, row,val;
31
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

}term;
term a[max];
∙ In this representation, we consider only non-zero values along with their row and
column index values. Each non zero value is a triplet of the form <R,C,Value>
where R represents the row in which the value appears, C represents the column in
which the value appears and Value represents the nonzero value itself. In this
representation, the 0th row stores total rows, total columns and total non-zero
values in the matrix.For example, consider a matrix of size 5 X 6 containing 6
number of non-zero values. This matrix can be represented as shown in the fig.

∙ In above
example matrix, there are only 6 non-zero elements (those are 9, 8, 4, 2, 5 & 2) and
matrix size is 5 X 6. We represent this matrix as shown in the above image. Here the
first row in the right side table is filled with values 5, 6 & 6 which indicate that it is a
sparse matrix with 5 rows, 6 columns & 6 non-zero values. Second row is filled with
0, 4, & 9 which indicates the value in the matrix at 0th row, 4th column is 9. In the
same way the remaining non-zero values also follows the similar pattern.

∙ To transpose a matrix we just interchange the rows and columns. This means that
each element a[i][j] in the original matrix becomes b[j][i] in the transpose matrix
(Fig 2.11).

We can write the algorithm as:

For each row i
Take element <i, j, val>

32
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

transpose it as element <j, i, val>

∙ The product of 2 sparsematrixes may no longer be sparse. For example see the Fi

Algorithm to find transpose of sparse matrix:

Fast Transpose:
Create a much better algorithm by using a little more storage.
Transpose of a matrix can be represented as a sequence of triples in O{columns +
elements) time.
Fast-transpose proceeds by first determining the number of elements in each column
of the original matrix.
This gives us the number of elements in each row of the transpose matrix. From this
information, we can determine the starting
position of each row in the transpose matrix. We now can move the elements in the
origi
nal matrix one by one into their correct position in the transpose matrix.

33
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
∙ In linked representation, we use linked list data structure to represent a sparse
matrix. In this linked list, we use two different nodes namely header node and
element node. Header node consists of three fields and element node consists of
five fields as shown in the fig.

Fig.Header and element node representation

 Linked list representation of sparse matrix

34
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

∙ Consider the sparse matrix used in the Triplet representation. This sparse matrix can
be represented using linked representation as shown in the below image. In this
representation, H0, H1..., H5 indicates the header nodes which are used to
represent indexes. Remaining nodes are used to represent non-zero elements in the
matrix, except the very first node which is used to represent abstract information
of the sparse matrix (i.e., It is a matrix of 5 X 6 with 6 non-zero elements). In this
representation, in each row and column, the last node right field points to its
respective header node in the above figure.

Review Questions:

1. What is a polynomial?
2. When do we add two polynomials?
3. What is the condition to be checked before we perform polynomial
addition?
4. What is sparse matrix?
5. What are the two representations of sparse matrices?
6. What is fast transpose?

Handouts for Session 6: Representation of Multidimensional Arrays,

Strings
1.13Representation of Multi-Dimensional Arrays
∙ A multi-dimensional array can be termed as an array of arrays that stores
homogeneous data in tabular form. Data in multidimensional arrays are stored in
row-major order. A three-dimensional (3D) array is an array of arrays of arrays. In
C programming an array can have two, three, or even ten or more dimensions. The
maximum dimensions a C program can have depend on which compiler is being
used. More dimensions in an array means more data is held, but also means
greater difficulty in managing and understanding arrays.
Syntax: data_type array_name[size1][size2]....[sizeN];
∙ Ex: Two dimensional array: int two_d[10][20];
∙ Three dimensional array: int three_d[10][20][30];
Example: 2-Dimensional Program to print the array contents
#include <stdio.h>
void main() {
35
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

int arr[3][3], i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("Enter a[%d][%d]: ", i, j);
scanf("%d", &arr[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\n printing the elements ....\n");
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d\t", arr[i][j]);
}
}
 }
1.14 Strings

∙ A C string is a null-terminated character array.

∙ This means that a null character ('\0') is stored afterthe last character to signify the
end of the string.
∙ For example, the string "HELLO" is stored in memory as HELLO'\0'. ∙ The name of
the character array (or the string) is a pointer to the beginning of the string.
∙ If you declare a string as char str[5] = "HELLO";, the null character will not be
appended automatically to the character array. This is because str can hold only 5
characters and the characters in HELLO have already filled the space allocated to
it.

36
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Difference between character storage and string storage

Memory representation of character array
 ∙ To access elements of a string, subscripts are used, starting from 0. ∙
Strings are stored in successive memory locations.
∙ To declare a constant string, initialize it with a value while declaring it. ∙ To declare
a non-constant string, use the general form char str[size];. ∙ allocate enough
space for the null character when allocating memory for a string. ∙ We can also
initialize a string as an array of characters.
∙ If we declare a string with size much larger than the number of elements that are
initialized, the compiler will automatically calculate the size based on the number
of characters.
∙ The compiler creates an array of size 10; stores "HELLO" in it and finally
terminatesthe string with a null character.

Pattern Matching:

Knuth, Morris, and Pratt have developed a pattern matching algorithm that has linear
complexity. Using the example, suppose

pat = 'abcabcacab’

Let s = so s2 • • • sm-1 be the string and assume that we are currently determining

whether or not there is a match beginning at si. If s≠a then, clearly, we may proceed by

comparing si+1 and a. Similarly if si= a and si+1≠b then we may proceed by compar

37
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

ing si+1 and a. If sisi+1 = ab and Si+2≠cthen we have the situation:

The ? implies that we do not know what the character in s is.

The first ? in s represents Si+2 and Si+2≠c.

we may continue the search for a match by comparing the first character in pat with Si+2
 We observe that the search for a match can proceed by comparing Si+4 and the second
character in pat, b. This is the first place a partial match can occur by sliding the
patternpat towards the right. Thus, by knowing the characters in the patterm and the
position in the pattern where a mismatch occurs with a character in 5 we can determine
where in thepattern to continue the search for a match without moving backwards in 5. To
formalizethis, we define a failure function for a pattern.

KMP (
Knuth Morris Pratt) Algorithm:

38
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Computing Failure function:
 39
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Review Questions:

1. How many loops are used in traditional pattern matching?

2. What is the termination condition for pattern matching? 3.
What is failure function?
4. How failure function is useful in pattern matching? 5. Which
pattern matching technique is better – KMP or trivial?

Handouts for Session 7: Stacks

1.15 STACK
∙ Stack is a linear data structure which follows a
particular order in which the operations are
performed. The order may be LIFO(Last In First
Out) or FILO(First In Last Out).
add and remove an element (i.e., a
plate) only at/from one position
∙ A stack is an ordered list in which all
which is the topmost position.
insertions and deletions are made at
one end, called the top. Hence, a
stack is called a LIFO (Last-In-First
Out) data structure, as the element
that was inserted last is the first one
to be taken out.
∙ For example, a pile of plates where one
plate is placed on top of another (Fig
1). Now, when you want to remove a
plate, you remove the

Fig. 1: Example for Stack of Plate

Array Representation of Stacks

topmost plate first. Hence, you can
 ∙ Every stack has a variable called TOP associated with it, which is used to store the
address of the topmost element of the stack. It is this position where the element
will be added to or deleted from.
∙ There is another variable called MAX, which is used to store the maximum number
of elements that the stack can hold.

40
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

∙ If TOP = NULL, then it indicates that the stack is empty and if TOP = MAX–1, then
the stack is full. (Since array indices start from 0, it is MAX-1, instead of MAX).

Fig. 2: Array Representation of Stack

Stack Operations
Various operations in stack are:
1. Push: Element is inserted into the top of stack using push operation.
2. Pop: Element is deleted from the top of stack using pop operation. 3.
Overflow: checks if the stack is full or not.
4. Underflow: checks if the stack is empty or not.
 Fig. 3: Stack operations
a. Stack Create
It creates stack stack[] with size MAX (here defined as 5)
#define MAX 5

Stack can be declared as:

int stack[max];

top is a variable which points to stack.

Initially it is pointing to -1 (Fig 4).
∙ Inserting an element to stack is called
int top=-1; push operation.
Fig. 4: Empty Stack

b. Push and Stack Overflow

∙ The element can be inserted only from one end of the stack called top of stack.
Initially as we know that top will be pointing to -1. This is called empty stack.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

∙ Suppose we want to insert 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 into a stack. Element 1 needs to be

 inserted to stack[0]. So we need to increment stack[top] by 1.

top = top+1;

Now insert the item 10 into that position.

stack[top]=item;

∙ To insert next element, top needs to be incremented once again and insert the
element.
∙ We can repeat the same operation until stack is full. Now if we try to push one
more element say 6, it is not possible, since stack is full.
∙ This situation is called stack overflow. i.e. when the stack is full and if we try to
insert one more new element into stack, then it becomes stack overflow (fig.5).

Fig. 5: Push and Overflow

Algorithm for push operation
1. Start
2. Initialize top=-1, set max as maximum no. of elements that can be inserted into stack,
3. If top=max-1, Display Stack overflow
4. Else (perform push operation)
Read the element to be pushed (item)
Increment top by 1.
 Copy num to stack[top].
5. To push more elements, go to step 3 else go to step 6
6. Stop
Program code for push operation
void push(int stack[], int item)
{
if (top == (MAX-1))
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

printf("\n\nStack is Overflow");
}
else
{ top=top+1;
stack[top] = item;
}
c. Pop and Stack Underflow
∙ Deleting an element from the stack is called pop operation. Only one
element can be deleted at a time and it is from the top of the stack. ∙
Element 5 is at top most position and needs to be deleted first. Then the
pointer top needs to be pointed to previous position. When the top points
to -1, which means there is no element in the stack. When we try to delete

element when stack is empty, underflow occurs(Fig 6).

DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
 Fig. 6: Pop and Underflow
Algorithm for pop operation:
1. Start
2. if top = - 1, Display Stack underflow
3. else (perform pop operation)
Copy stack[top] to num
Decrement top by 1
4. To pop more elements, go to step 2 else go to step 5
5. Stop
Program code for pop operation
int pop(int stack[]) {
int num;
if (top == -1)
printf("\n\nStack is Underflow");
else {
num = stack[top];
top--;
printf("\nPopped element is %d", num); }
return num;
}
Stack Display (Traverse)
Algorithm for display operation:
1. Start
2. If top= - 1, stack is empty
3. Else display the Elements of the stack[] from top to 0.
4. Stop
Program code for display operation
void display() {
int i;
 DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

if (top == -1)
printf("\n Sorry Empty Stack");
else {
printf("\nThe elements of the stack are\n"); for (i = top; i >=
0; i--) printf("stack[%d] = %d\n", i, stack[i]);
}
}
}
1.15.1 Stacks using Dynamic Arrays.
∙ The array is used to implement stack, but the bound (MAX_STACK_ SIZE) should
be known during compile time.
∙ The size of bound is impossible to alter during compilation hence this can be
overcome by using dynamically allocated array for the elements and then
increasing the size of array as needed.

a. Stack Operations using dynamic array

1. Stack CreateS( )::= typedef struct
{
int key; /* other fields */
} element;
element *stack;
MALLOC(stack, sizeof(*stack));
int capacity= 1;
int top= -1;
2. Boolean IsEmpty(Stack)::= top < 0;
3. Boolean IsFull(Stack)::= top >= capacity-1;
4. push() :Here the MAX_STACK_SIZE is replaced with capacity
void push(element item)
{ /* add an item to the global stack */
if (top >= capacity-1)
stackFull();
stack[++top] = item;
 }
5. pop( ): In this function, no changes are made.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

element pop ( ){ /* delete and return the top element from the stack */ if
(top == -1)
return stackEmpty(); /* returns an error key */
return stack[top--];
}
6. stackFull( ): The new code shown below, attempts to increase the capacity of the array
stack so that new element can be added into the stack. Before increasing the capacity
of an array, decide what the new capacity should be. In array doubling, array capacity
is doubled whenever it becomes necessary to increase the capacity of an array.
void stackFull()
{
REALLOC (stack, 2*capacity*sizeof(*stack));
capacity *= 2;
}

Review Questions:

1. What is a stack?
2. Where is top initially pointing to?
3. What is stack overflow?
4. What is stack underflow?
5. Which data structure is used to implement stack?

Handouts for Session 8:Evaluation and conversion of Expressions

1.15.3 Evaluation and conversion of Expressions
∙ An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand
is the quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be a
variable like x,y, z or a constant like 5, 4, 6 etc.
∙ Operator is a symbol which signifies a mathematical or logical operation between the
operands.Examples of familiar operators include +, -, *, /, ^ etc.An algebraic
expression can be represented using three different notations. They are
1. Infix Expression:In this expression, the binary operator is placed in-between the
operand. Example is shown in Fig 6(a).
2. Prefix notations (Polish notation): In this expression, the operator appears before its
operand.Example is shown in Fig 6(b).
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

3. Postfix (Reverse Polish notation): In this expression, the operator appears after its
operand.Example is shown in Fig 6(c).

Fig. 6: Different Types of Expression.

4. Precedence and Associativity: In C, there is a precedence hierarchy that determines
the order in which operators are evaluated. The table 4.1 contains the precedence
hierarchy for C. The operators are arranged from highest precedence to lowest.
Operators with highest precedence are evaluated first.The associativity column
indicates how to evaluate operators with the same precedence. For example, the
multiplicative operators have left -to-right associativity. This meansthat the expression
a * b / c % d / e is equivalent to ( ( ( ( a * b ) / c ) % d ) / e ). Parentheses are used to
override precedence, and expressions are always evaluated from the innermost
parenthesized expression first.
b. Infix to Postfix Conversion
∙ To evaluate infix expression we need to concentrate on precedence and associativity.
But not for postfix or prefix expression. Hence it is easy and compiler converts
infix to postfix or prefix and evaluates the expression.The algorithm given in fig.7
transforms an infix expression into postfix expression.
Table 4.1: Precedence and Associativity of Operators
Operator Description Precedence Associativity
() Parenthesis 18 L🡪R
[] Square bracket
🡪 Pointer
. Dot operator

^ Power 17 R🡪L
$ Dollar

--, ++ Post decrement and post increment 16 L🡪R

++, -- Pre decrement and pre 15 R🡪L

! increment Logical not
~ One’s complement
+, - Unary plus and minus
& Address
* Pointer
sizeof() Size in bytes

(type) Type cast 14 R🡪L

*, /, % Multiplicative operators 13 L🡪R

+, - Binary add and subtract 12 L🡪R

<<, >> Right and left shift 11 L🡪R

DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

<, <=, Relational operators 10 L🡪R
>, >=

==, != Equality operators 9 L🡪R

& Bitwise AND 8 L🡪R

^ Bitwise XOR 7 L🡪R

| Bitwise OR 6 L🡪R

&& Logical AND 5 L🡪R

|| Logical OR 4 L🡪R

?: Conditional operator 3 R🡪L

=, +=, Assignment operator 2 R🡪L

- =, *=,
/=, %=

, Comma operator 1 L🡪R

Algorithm:

Fig. 7: Algorithm which Converts Infix to Postfix.

Steps to implement the above algorithm:

1. Scan the infix expression from left to right.

2. If the scanned character is an operand, put it in the postfix expression.

3. Otherwise, do the following

o If the precedence and associativity of the scanned operator are greater than
the precedence and associativity of the operator in the stack, then push it in
the stack.

▪ Check for a condition when the operator at the top of the stack and
the scanned operator both are ‘^‘. In this condition, the precedence
of the scanned operator is higher due to its right associativity. So it
will be pushed into the operator stack.
 DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

▪ Inall the other cases when the top of the operator stack is the same
as the scanned operator, then pop the operator from the stack
because of left associativity due to which the scanned operator has
less precedence.

o Else, Pop all the operators from the stack which are greater than or equal
to in precedence than that of the scanned operator.

4. After doing that, Push the scanned operator to the stack.

5. If the scanned character is a ‘(‘, push it to the stack.

5. If the scanned character is a ‘)’, pop the stack and output it until a ‘(‘ is
encountered, and discard both the parenthesis.

6. Repeat steps 2-5 until the infix expression is scanned.

7. Once the scanning is over, Pop the stack and add the operators in the postfix
expression until it is not empty.

8. Finally, print the postfix expression.

Example:

Consider the infix expression exp = a+b*c+d

and the infix expression is scanned using the iterator i, which is initialized as i = 0.

1st Step: Here i = 0 and exp[i] = ‘a’ i.e., an operand. So add this in the postfix
expression. Therefore, postfix = “a”.

2nd Step: Here i = 1 and exp[i] = ‘+’ i.e., an operator. Push this into the stack. postfix =
“a” and stack = {+}.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Push ‘+’ in the stack

3rd Step: Now i = 2 and exp[i] = ‘b’ i.e., an operand. So add this in the postfix
expression. postfix = “ab” and stack = {+}.

Add ‘b’ in the postfix

4th Step: Now i = 3 and exp[i] = ‘*’ i.e., an operator. Push this into the stack. postfix =
“ab” and stack = {+, *}.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Push ‘*’ in the stack
5th Step: Now i = 4 and exp[i] = ‘c’ i.e., an operand. Add this in the postfix expression.
postfix = “abc” and stack = {+, *}.

Add ‘c’ in the postfix

6th Step: Now i = 5 and exp[i] = ‘+’ i.e., an operator. The topmost element of the stack
has higher precedence. So pop until the stack becomes empty or the top element has less
precedence. ‘*’ is popped and added in postfix. So postfix = “abc*” and stack = {+}.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Pop ‘*’ and add in postfix
Now top element is ‘+‘ that also doesn’t have less precedence. Pop it. postfix =
“abc*+”.

Pop ‘+’ and add it in postfix

Now stack is empty. So push ‘+’ in the stack. stack = {+}.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Push ‘+’ in the stack
7th Step: Now i = 6 and exp[i] = ‘d’ i.e., an operand. Add this in the postfix expression.
postfix = “abc*+d”.

Add ‘d’ in the postfix

Final Step: Now no element is left. So empty the stack and add it in the postfix
expression. postfix = “abc*+d+”.
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
Pop ‘+’ and add it in postfix

Problem.1: Convert the following infix expression into postfix expression:

A – (B / C + (D % E * F) / G)* H
Solution:given in Table 1.(A – (B / C + (D % E * F) / G)* H )
Table 1: Solution for Problem 1
Infix CharacterScanned Stack Postfix Expression

( (

A ( A

- (- A

( (-( A

B (-( AB

/ (-(/ AB

C (-(/ ABC

+ (-(+ ABC/

( (-(+( ABC/

D (-(+( ABC/D

% (-(+(% ABC/D
 E (-(+(% ABC/DE

* (-(+(* ABC/DE%

F (-(+(* ABC/DE%F

) (-(+ ABC/DE%F*

/ (-(+/ ABC/DE%F*

G (-(+/ ABC/DE%F*G

) (- ABC/DE%F*G/+

* (-* ABC/DE%F*G/+

H (-* ABC/DE%F*G/+H

) ABC/DE%F*G/+H*-

DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

Problem 2: Convert the following infix expression into postfix expression:

(((A+(B-C)*D)^E+F)
Solution:given in Table 2.
Table 2: Solution for Problem 2

Infix Character Scanned Stack Postfix Expression

( (

( ((

( (((

A ((( A

+ (((+ A

( (((+( A

B (((+( AB

- (((+(- AB

C (((+(- ABC

) (((+ ABC-

* (((+* ABC
 D (((+* ABC-D

) (( ABC-D*+

^ ((^ ABC-D*+

E ((^ ABC-D*+E

) ( ABC-D*+E^

+ (+ ABC-D*+E^

F (+ ABC-D*+E^F

) ABC-D*+E^F+

Example: Write a program for Converting Infix to Postfix Expression.

#include <stdio.h>
void infix_to_postfix();
void push(char);
char pop();
int priority(char);
char infix[30], postfix[30], stack[30];
int top = -1;

void main() {
printf("Enter the valid Infix expression \n");
scanf("%s", infix);
infix_to_postfix();
printf("\n Infix expression : %s", infix);
printf("\n Postfix expression : %s\n", postfix); }
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)

// push symbol to stack

void push(char item) { stack[++top] = item; } // end of function
push
// pop symbol from stack
char pop() { return stack[top--]; } // end of function pop

// check the priority of operator

int priority(char symb) {
int p;
switch (symb) {
case '+':
case '-':
p = 1;
break;
case '*':
case '/':
case '%':
p = 2;
break;
case '^':
case '$':
p = 3;
break;
case '(':
case ')':
p = 0;
break;
case '#':
p = -1;
break;
} // end of switch
return p;
} // end of function priority
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
// converting an Infix Expression to Postfix Expression
void infix_to_postfix() {
int i = 0, j = 0;
char symb, temp;
push('#');
for (i = 0; infix[i] != '\0'; i++) {
symb = infix[i];
switch (symb) {
case '(':
push(symb); // push all symbols inside the ( to top of stack
break;
case ')':
temp = pop(); // pop symbol from top of stack
while (temp != '(') // pop all symbols from top of stack and
// store in postfix until ( {
postfix[j++] = temp;
temp = pop();
} // end of while
break;
case '+':
case '-':
case '*':
case '/':
case '%':
case '^':
case '$':
while (priority(stack[top]) >=
priority(symb)) // check for priority of operator
{
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (BCS304)
 temp = pop();
postfix[j++] = temp;
}
push(symb);
break;
default:
postfix[j++] = symb;
} // end of switch
} // end of for
while (
top >
0) // pop remaining all symbols form top of stack and store
to postfix
{
temp = pop();
postfix[j++] = temp;
} // end of while
postfix[j] = '\0'; // end string postfix
} // end of function infix_to_postfix
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

c. Evaluation of Postfix Expression

∙ The ease of evaluation acts as the driving force for computers to translate an infix notation into
a postfix notation. That is, given an algebraic expression written in infix notation, the
computer first converts the expression into the equivalent postfix notation and then evaluates
the postfix expression.
∙ Both these tasks make extensive use of stacks as the primary tool. Using stacks, any postfix
expression can be evaluated very easily. Every character of the postfix expression is scanned
from left to right.
∙ If the character encountered is an operand, it is pushed on to the stack. However, if an operator
is encountered, then the top two values are popped from the stack and the operator is applied
on these values.
 ∙ The result is then pushed on to the stack. Let us look at Fig.8 which shows the algorithm to
evaluate a postfix expression.

Fig. 8: Algorithm for Evaluation of Postfix Expression.

Problem 1: Evaluate the following postfix expression FOR A=1, B=2 and C=3:
ABC+*CBA-+*
Solution:given in Table 1.The above expression can be written as 123+*321-+*
Table 1: Solution for Problem 1.

Postfix Expression Symbol Scanned Op2 Op1 Res = Op1 Op Op2 Stack

123+*321-+* 1 1

23+*321-+* 2 1,2

3+*321-+* 3 1,2,3

+*321-+* + 3 2 2+3=5 1,5

*321-+* * 5 1 1*5=5 5

321-+* 3 5,3

21-+* 2 5,3,2

1-+* 1 5,3,2,1

-+* - 1 2 2-1=1 5,3,1

+* + 1 3 3+1=4 5,4
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DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)
* * 4 5 5*4=20 20

Problem 2: Evaluate the following postfix expression FOR A=1, B=2 and C=3:
AB+C-BA+C^-
Solution:given in Table 2.The above expression can be written as 12+3-21+3^-
Table 2: Solution for Problem 2.

Postfix Expression Symbol Scanned Op2 Op1 Res = Op1 Op Op2 Stack

12+3-21+3^- 1 1

2+3-21+3^- 2 1,2

+3-21+3^- + 2 1 1+2=3 3

3-21+3^- 3 3,3

-21+3^- - 3 3 3-3=0 0

21+3^- 2 0,2

1+3^- 1 0,2,1

+3^- + 1 2 2+1=3 0,3

3^- 3 0,3,3

^- ^ 3 3 3^3=27 0,27

- - 27 0 0-27=-27 -27

Problem 3: Convert the following infix expression to postfix expression and evaluate the
postfix expression FOR A=6, B=3, C=1,D=2, E=4: A/B-C+D*E-A*C Solution:Fully
parenthesized expression is: ((((A/B)-C)+(D*E))-(A*C)). Refer table 3 for conversion of infix to
postfix expression. We get AB/C-DE*+AC*- as postfix expression. Now to evaluate this postfix
expression, refer table 4.10. When we assign the given values to the postfix expression, we get:
63/1-24*+61*-.
Table 3: Solution for Problem 3.
Postfix Expression Symbol Scanned Op2 Op1 Res = Op1 Op Op2 Stack
 63/1-24*+61*- 6 6

3/1-24*+61*- 3 6,3

/1-24*+61*- / 3 6 6/3=2 2

1-24*+61*- 1 2,1

-24*+61*- - 1 2 2-1=1 1

24*+61*- 2 1,2

4*+61*- 4 1,2,4

*+61*- * 4 2 2*4=8 1,8

+61*- + 8 1 1+8=9 9

61*- 6 9,6

1*- 1 9,6,1

*- * 1 6 6*1=6 9,6

- - 6 9 9-6=3 3

Example program to evaluate that postfix expression.

60
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

/* .Design, Develop and Implement a Program in C for the following Stack Applications To
Evaluate the postfix expression with single digit operands and operators: +, -, *, /, %, ^*/

#include <math.h>

#include <stdio.h>

void push(float);

float pop();

void evaluate(char[]);

float stack[20];

int top = -1;

void main() {

int choice, n;

char postfix[100];

while (1) // infinate loop for menu

printf("\n STACK APPLICATIONS");

printf("\n Enter your Choice: ");

printf(

"\n 1. Evaluation of postfix expression with single digit operands "

"and operators");

printf("\n 2. Exit \n");

scanf("%d", &choice);

switch (choice) {

case 1:

printf("Enter a valid postfix expression\n");

61
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

scanf("%s", postfix);

evaluate(postfix);

break;

case 2:

return;

default:

printf("\n Invalid Choice");

} // end of switch

} // end of menu

} // end of main

// push item to stack

void push(float item) { stack[++top] = item; } // end of push

// pop item from stack

float pop() { return stack[top--]; } // end of pop

// function to postfix expression with single digit operands and

operators: +,

// -, *, /, %, ^

void evaluate(char postfix[100]) {

int i;

float op1, op2, res;

char symb;

for (i = 0; postfix[i] != '\0'; i++) // repeate until end of string

62
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

symb = postfix[i];

if (isdigit(symb)) // check for digit or not

push(symb - '0'); // if digit push to top of stack -'0' is for

// ascii to number conversion switch (symb) {

case '+':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();

res = op1 + op2;

push(res);

break;

case '-':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();

res = op1 - op2;

push(res);

break;

case '*':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();

res = op1 * op2;

push(res);

break;

63
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

case '/':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();
if (op2 == 0) {

printf("Division by zero Error\n"); return;

res = op1 / op2;

push(res);

break;

case '%':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();

if (op2 == 0) {

printf("Division by zero Error\n"); return;

res = (int)op1 % (int)op2; push(res);

break;

case '^':

op2 = pop();

op1 = pop();

res = pow(op1, op2);

push(res);

64
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

break;

} // end of switch

} // end of for
 res = pop(); // pop the final answer from top of stack

if (top == -1)

printf("\n Result: %f\n ", res); // Display the final answer else

printf("\nINVALID POSTFIX EXPRESSION\n");

top = -1;

} // end of evaluate function

Review Questions:

1. What is postfix expression?

2. Why the infix expression to be converted into postfix expression?
3. Which data structure is used in the conversion process?
4. Which associativity rule is followed for ^ / $ operator?

65
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

Question Bank
1. Define data structures
2. Explain classifications of data structures
3. Explain the different operations of data structures
4. Define structures. Explain different types of structure declaration and initialization
5. Write the difference between structures and union
6. Explain pointers with an example
7. What are pointer variables? How to declare a pointer variable?
8. Define a pointer. Write a C function to swap two numbers using pointers.
9. Explain self-referential structures
10. Define array and explain with an example
11. What are the different operations of array? Explain
12. Explain multi-dimensional array
13. Explain sparse matrix and its representation
14. Explain with example the functions supported by C to carryout dynamic memory allocation 15.
What are the various memory allocation techniques? Explain how memory can be dynamically
allocated using malloc().
16. Write the difference between malloc and calloc
17. Explain how the 2-D array can be created dynamically
18. Develop a structure to represent a solar system. Each planet has 3 fields - name, distance from
sun, no of moons. Write a program to read the data for each planet and store. Also print the
name of the planets that has the highest number of moons.
19. What is a polynomial? What is the degree of a polynomial? Write a function to add two
polynomials.
20. Define structure and unions with example.
21. Write a C program with suitable structure definition and variable declaration to store
information about employee. Consider the following fields: Ename, EID, DOJ(Date, month,
year), and salary (basic, DA, HRA).
22. Write a C program for demonstrating all array operations.
23. For the given sparse matrix and its transpose, give the triplet representation using one
dimensional array.
 66
DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS (21CS32)

24. Consider two polynomials A(x)=2x1000+1 and B(x)=x4+10x3+3x2+1 with a diagram show how
these two polynomials are stored using 1D array and also give its C representation. 25. Define stack.
Give the C implementation of push, pop, overflow and underflow functions for stack using arrays.
26. Define stack. List the operation on stack.
27. Obtain postfix expression for ((( A+(B-C)*D)^E)+F).
28. Write the postfix form of the following expression.
i.(a+b)*d+e/(f+a*d)+c
ii.((a/(b-c+d))*(e-a)*c)
iii.a/b-c+d*e-a*c
29. Write an algorithm to convert infix to postfix expression and apply the same to convert the
following expression from infix to postfix :
i)(a * b) +c/d
ii) (((a/b)-c) + (d * e)) – (a * c).
30. Convert the infix expression (((a/b)-c) + (d * e)) – (a * c) into postfix expression. Write a
function to evaluate that postfix expression and trace for the data: a=6, b=3, c=1, d=2, e=4 31. Write
an algorithm to convert infix to postfix expression and trace it for the expression a * (b +c)*d
67