Radioactivity

The process of emission of radiation from nucleus of atomic number greater than 𝟖𝟐 and
mass number greater than 𝟐𝟎𝟔 is called radioactivity.
238 232 226
𝐸. 𝑔. 𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑈92 , 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑇ℎ90 , 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑅𝑎88 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Also the element whose atomic number less than 𝟖𝟐 and mass number less than 𝟐𝟎𝟔 may
also emit the radiation.
48
𝐸. 𝑔. 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐶614 , 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝑎20 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Radioactivity is a spontaneous phenomena, it doesn't depends upon any external condition

such as, temperature, pressure, electric field etc. This process continues until the unstable
nuclei becomes stable nuclei.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 1

Types of Radioactivity:
1. Natural Radioactivity:

The radioactive elements which spontaneously transforms into another element

by emitting radiation is called natural radioactivity. 𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚, 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚, 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑡𝑐
2. Artificial Radioactivity:

The radioactive elements which are artificially made by man in the lab are called
artificial radioactivity. 𝑒. 𝑔. 𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 131, 𝐶𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑡 − 60, 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 − 24 𝑒𝑡𝑐

Radiation emitted during radioactivity:

There are three types of radiation emitted from radioactive nucleus during radioactivity.
1. 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 2. 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 3. 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 2

Determination of Radiation:

A radioactive substance like Uranium is placed inside the lead block. There is small
opening in lead block above which a fluorescence plate is placed where positive and
negative plate of battery is connected as shown in figure.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 3

𝜶 − Particle: The beam which deviates towards the negative plate of electric field and
produce fluorescence at point ‘𝐴’ are called 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒. From the spectrographic study
it is found that these are the positively charged helium (𝐻𝑒) nucleus.

𝜷 − Particle: The beam which deviates towards the positive plate of electric field and
produce fluorescence at point ‘𝐶’ are called 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒. It has been found that the ratio
of 𝑒/𝑚 for 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 is equal to the cathode rays. Hence 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 are fast moving
electrons emitted from radioactive nucleus.

𝜸 − Rays: The beam which do not deviates towards any plate and strikes the fluorescence
screen at point ‘𝐵’ are called 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠. So 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 are the electromagnetic radiation of
very short wavelength emitted from radioactive nucleus.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 4

Properties of 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 , 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 & 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔:
𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒:
1. They are positively charged Helium nucleus having charge 3.2 × 10−19 𝐶
2. Their rest mass is equal to 6.64 × 10 −27 𝑘𝑔
3. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒:
1. They are negatively charged particle having charge −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
2. Their rest mass is equal to 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
3. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠:
1. They are electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength moving with the speed of light.
2. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
3. They can affect the photographic plate.
4. Their rest mass is zero but have the dynamic mass.
10/26/2021 Annual Review 5
Difference between 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 & 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔:

𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏

• They are emitted from the radioactive • They are emitted during photoelectric
nucleus during radioactivity. or thermionic effect from surface of
0
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛10 → 𝐻11 + 𝑒−1 + 𝛾(𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)
ҧ metal.

• They have high velocity. • They have less velocity

1
( 𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐)
10

• K.E of 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 is high. • K.E of electron is less.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 6

Laws of Radioactive Disintegration:
The laws of radioactive disintegration are as follows,
1. Radioactivity is a spontaneous process and is not affected by external conditions such
as temperature, pressure, electric field etc.

2. In all known radioactive disintegration either 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 or 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 is emitted

by the atom but not both simultaneously at a time. 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 are emitted after each
emission of 𝛼 or 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 if atom is already in excited state.

a. When atom disintegrate by emitting an 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 its atomic number is reduced

by two and mass number by four.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑌𝑍−2
𝐴−4
+ 𝐻𝑒24 (𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
238 234
𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑈92 → 𝑇ℎ90 + 𝐻𝑒24
10/26/2021 Annual Review 7
b. When an atom disintegrate by emitting an 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 its atomic number
increases by one but mass number remains unchanged.
0
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑌𝑍+1
𝐴
+ 𝑒−1 (𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)

0
𝑒. 𝑔. 𝐶614 → 𝑁714 + 𝑒−1

c. When an atom disintegrate by emitting an 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 neither atomic number nor

mass number changes but atom jump form excited state to ground state.

𝐴 ∗
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑋𝑍 → 𝑋𝑍𝐴 + 𝛾

𝑒. 𝑔. 𝐶612 ∗ → 𝐶612 + 𝛾

10/26/2021 Annual Review 8

3. The rate of disintegration (𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡) i.e. the number of atom breaking up per unit time
of radioactive substance is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present at that time. This is called decay law.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 ∝ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑑𝑁
𝑜𝑟, ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
∴ = −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Let ‘𝑵𝟎 ’ be the number of radioactive atoms present at a time 𝒕 = 𝟎 and ‘𝑵’ be the
number of atoms left at time ‘𝒕’. If ‘𝑑𝑁’ be the small number of atoms disintegrated in
small time ‘𝑑𝑡’ then according to decay law, we can write
10/26/2021 Annual Review 9
 𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
𝑜𝑟, = −𝜆𝑁 … … … … … … … 1
𝑑𝑡

Where ‘𝜆’ is the decay constant and negative sign indicates that as the time increases
number of atom left (𝑁) decreases.
𝑑𝑁
𝑜𝑟, = −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating above equation from 𝑁0 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 and 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 we get,

𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
න = −𝜆 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁 0
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, [𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁]𝑁
𝑁0 = −𝜆[𝑡] 0
10/26/2021 Annual Review 10
 𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁0 = −𝜆 𝑡 − 0

𝑁
𝑜𝑟, log = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

∴ 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 … … … … . (2)

This is called decay equation & it shows that the number of radioactive substance
decreases exponentially with time.
If 𝑡 = ∞ then only 𝑁 = 0, which shows that radioactive elements never disintegrates
completely.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 11

Relation between decay constant and Half life:

We have from decay Law,

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
−
𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 = …… 1
𝑁

Thus decay constant is defined as the rate of disintegration of radioactive substance to

the number of atoms present at that time (no. of atoms undecayed).

Half Life (𝑻𝟏/𝟐 ): The time during which half of the radioactive atoms are disintegrated
(decayed) is called half life.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 12

We have the decay equation as,
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 … … … . 2

𝑁0
Also at half life, 𝑡 = 𝑇1/2 & 𝑁 =
2

Then eqn (2) becomes,

𝑁0
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
1 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝜆𝑇
2 𝑒 1/2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1/2 = 2
Taking ‘ln ’ on both side we get,
ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1/2 = ln(2)
10/26/2021 Annual Review 13
 𝜆𝑇1/2 = ln(2)
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆𝑇1/2 = 0.693

0.693
∴ 𝑇1/2 = … … . (3)
𝜆

Which gives the relationship between half life and the decay constant of radioactive
substance.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 14

Average life or Mean Life:

Average life or mean life of a radioactive substance is defined as the sum of lives of all
atoms to the to total number of atoms.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

∴ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Mathematically mean life of a radioactive substance is equal to the reciprocal of the

decay constant.

1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = … … (1)
𝜆

10/26/2021 Annual Review 15

Activity of Radioactive substance:

The rate of decay of a radioactive substance is called the activity of the substance. It is
represented by ‘𝐴’ or ‘𝑅’.
𝑑𝑁
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐴 = = −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
The activity equation is given as,
𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 16

Units of Radioactivity:

For radioactivity three different types of units are used. They are,

1. Becquerel (Bq): 1𝐵𝑞 = 1 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

2. Rutherford (rd): 1𝑟𝑑 = 106 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

3. Curie (Ci): 𝟏𝑪𝒊 = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅

𝑜𝑟, 1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 104 × 106
∴ 1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 104 rd

and
1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 1010 𝐵𝑞

10/26/2021 Annual Review 17

Geiger – Muller (G-M) tube: A G-M tube is a device used for the detection and measurement of all
types of radiation i.e., alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

It consists of a cylindrical metal tube filled with inert gas such as 𝑯𝒆, 𝑵𝒆, 𝑨𝒓 at low pressure
(~𝟎. 𝟏𝒂𝒕𝒎). The wall of the tube acts as a cathode while coaxial wire passing up the center of
tube acts as an anode as shown in figure. The tube has a thin window at one end, through which
ionizing radiation can be easily penetrate. The other end normally has the electrical connectors.
The potential difference of about 1000𝑉 is maintained between anode and cathode.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 18

When ionizing radiation enters the tube through the thin window, it ionizes a few atoms of
the gas, creating positively charged ions and electrons (ion-pair). The positively charged ions
are accelerated towards the cathode while the electrons towards the anode. During the
acceleration of these ion-pairs, they collide with gas atoms on its way and produces a large
number of additional ion-pairs. Due to the movement of these ion-pairs, the current flows
inside the tube. The small voltage pulse of about 1𝑉 is created across the resistance (R) which,
after being amplified by an amplifier, is sent to an electronic counter such as a scaler or rate
meter. This scaler counts the pulses.

In this way ionizing particle is detected by 𝐺 − 𝑀 counter.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 19

Medical Uses of nuclear radiations:

1. Some radioactive isotopes (𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 − 51 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 131) are used in determination
of the volume of a blood in a living animal.

2. Using the 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, the brain tumors can be detected.

3. Radioactive mercury (𝐻𝑔 − 203) is used to detect whether kidney and liver are normal or not.

4. The gamma rays emitted from radio cobalt (𝐶0 − 60) are used to destroy harmful cancer
cells with minimum damages to the surrounding healthy cells.

5. The radioiodine (𝐼 − 131) is used to destroy the overactive thyroid gland.

6. A disease called Leukemia (blood cancer) can be cured or controlled with the help of radio-
phosphorous, and radio-gold.
10/26/2021 Annual Review 20
Health Hazards of nuclear radiation:

The radioactive elements and radioisotopes continuously emit radiation in the form of 𝜶 −
𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔, 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔. The exposure to the radiation may get damaged
cells and tissues and hence leading to the death of living organisms. The adverse effect of
radiation on living organism is called radiation hazard.

1. The strong exposure of 𝒙 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔 and 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔 seriously affect the genetic mutation.

2. The 𝑼 − 𝑽 radiation can damage retina of our eye and cause skin cancer.

3. The strong exposure of 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 leading to the death of living organism.

4. The strong exposure of 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔, can cause lungs cancer.

5. The strong exposure to the radiation in bone marrow can cause leukemia.
10/26/2021 Annual Review 21
 NEB Numerical Discussion:

1. At certain instant a piece of radio active material contained 1012 atoms. The half life
of the material is 15 days. Calculate the rate of decay after 30 days have elapsed.
✓Given, Initial no. of atoms, 𝑁0 = 1012 atoms

Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 15𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 1.296 × 106 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Rate of decay, 𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 =?

Time, 𝑡 = 30𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2.592 × 106 𝑠𝑒𝑐

dN
We know, = 𝑁𝜆 … … . . (1)
dt

But, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
0.693
− 𝑇 𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 1/2

10/26/2021 Annual Review 22

 0.693
− 2.592×106
𝑜𝑟, 𝑁 = 1012 × 𝑒 1.296×10 6

∴ 𝑁 = 2.5 × 1011 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Then from eqn (1) we get,

dN 11
0.693
= 2.5 × 10 ×
dt 𝑇1/2

𝑑𝑁 11
0.693
𝑜𝑟, = 2.5 × 10 ×
𝑑𝑡 1.296 × 106
𝑑𝑁
∴ = 1.33 × 105 𝑑𝑖𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 23

2. If 4𝑔 of radioactive material of half life period of 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 disintegrates, find out
mean life of the give sample.
✓Given, Mass of radioactive material, 𝑚 = 4𝑔

Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 10𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 10 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 3.1536 × 108 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Mean life, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =?
1
We know, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝜆
1 𝑇1/2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = =
0.693 0.693
𝑇1/2
3.1536 × 108
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
0.693
∴ 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 4.55 × 108 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 14.43𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
10/26/2021 Annual Review 24
3. A radioactive source which has the half life of 130 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, contains initially 1 × 1020
radioactive atoms and the energy released per disintegration is 8 × 10−13 𝐽, calculate
the activity of the source after 260 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 have elapsed and total energy released during
this period.
✓Given, Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 130 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 1.123 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Initial no. of atoms, 𝑁0 = 1 × 1020 atoms
−13 𝑑𝑁
Energy released per disintegration, E = 8 × 10 𝐽 Activity, =?
𝑑𝑡
Time, 𝑡 = 260𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2.246 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Total energy released, 𝐸𝑡 =?
dN
We know, = 𝑁𝜆 … … . . (1)
dt

But, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
10/26/2021 Annual Review 25
 0.693
− 𝑇 𝑡
or, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 1/2

0.693
− 2.246×107
or, 𝑁 = 1 × 1020 × 𝑒 1.123×10 7

∴ 𝑁 = 2.5 × 1019 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Then from eqn (1) we get,

dN 19
0.693
= 2.5 × 10 ×
dt 𝑇1/2

𝑑𝑁 19
0.693
𝑜𝑟, = 2.5 × 10 ×
𝑑𝑡 1.123 × 107
𝑑𝑁
∴ = 1.54 × 1012 𝑑𝑖𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 26

Now Number of atom disintegrated,
𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 1 × 1020 − 2.5 × 1019
∴ 𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 7.5 × 1019 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

∴ Total energy released,

𝐸𝑡 = 𝑁0 − 𝑁 × 𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑡 = 7.5 × 1019 × 8 × 10−13
∴ 𝐸𝑡 = 6 × 107 𝐽

10/26/2021 Annual Review 27

4. The unstable isotope of potassium−40 has half life of 2.4 × 108 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. How many
decays occur per second in a sample containing 2 × 10−6 𝑔𝑚 of potassium−40?
✓Given, Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 2.4 × 108 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 7.57 × 1015 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑁
Rate of decay, =? Mass, 𝑚 = 2 × 10−6 𝑔𝑚
𝑑𝑡
We know,
dN
= 𝑁𝜆 … … . . (1)
dt
Since, 40𝑔𝑚 of potassium contains 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

6.023×1023
𝑜𝑟, 1𝑔𝑚 of potassium contains atoms
40

−6 6.023×1023
∴2× 10 𝑔𝑚 of potassium contains × 2 × 10−6 = 3.011 × 1016 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
40
10/26/2021 Annual Review 28
 ∴ 𝑁 = 3.011 × 1016 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
Then from eqn (1) we get,

dN 16
0.693
= 3.011 × 10 ×
dt 𝑇1/2

𝑑𝑁 16
0.693
𝑜𝑟, = 3.011 × 10 ×
𝑑𝑡 7.57 × 1015
𝑑𝑁
∴ = 2.76 𝑑𝑖𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 29

5. The sample of Ra −226 has half life of 1620 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. What is the mass of the sample
which undergoes 20000 disintegrations per second?

✓Given, Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 1620 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 5.108 × 1010 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Mass, 𝑚 =?

𝑑𝑁
Rate of decay, = 20000 𝑑𝑖𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

Since, 226𝑔𝑚 of Radium contains 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

6.023×1023
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 𝑔𝑚 of Radium contains × 𝑥 atoms
226

∴ 𝑁 = 2.66 × 1021 × 𝑥 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 30

 dN
But Rate of decay is given as, = N𝜆
dt

21
0.693
𝑜𝑟, 20000 = 2.66 × 10 ×𝑥×
𝑇1/2

21
0.693
𝑜𝑟, 20000 = 2.66 × 10 ×𝑥×
5.108 × 1010

20000 × 5.108 × 1010

𝑜𝑟, 𝑥=
2.66 × 1021 × 0.693
∴ 𝑥 = 5.54 × 10−7 𝑔𝑚
∴ 𝑥 = 5.54 × 10−10 𝑘𝑔

10/26/2021 Annual Review 31

 1
6. If the half life period of a radioactive substance is 2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, after how many days will 𝑡ℎ
64

part of the substance be left behind?

✓Given, Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 1.73 × 105 𝑠𝑒𝑐

1
Time, 𝑡 =? Number of atoms left, 𝑁 = 𝑜𝑓 𝑁0
64

Let 𝑁0 be the initial number of atoms. Then we have,

N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑜𝑓 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
64
1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
64
10/26/2021 Annual Review 32
 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝜆𝑡
64 𝑒
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 64
𝑜𝑟, ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = ln 64
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆𝑡 = 4.16

4.16
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =
𝜆

4.16
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡=
(0.693/𝑇1/2 )

4.16
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡=
(0.693/1.73 × 105 )
∴ 𝑡 = 1.04 × 106 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 12𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
10/26/2021 Annual Review 33
6. Measurement on certain isotope show that the decay rate decreases from
8318𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛. To 3091𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 in 4 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. What is the half life of this
isotope?
✓Given, Initial activity, 𝐴0 = 8318𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 138.633 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Final activity, 𝐴 = 3091𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 51.5166 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Time, 𝑡 = 4 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 345600𝑠𝑒𝑐 Half life, 𝑇1/2 =?
We have,
𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 51.5166 = 138.633𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 2.691
𝑜𝑟, ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = ln 2.691
10/26/2021 Annual Review 34
 𝑜𝑟, 𝜆𝑡 = 0.9899

0.9899
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆=
345600

0.693
𝑜𝑟, = 2.86 × 10−6
𝑇1/2

0.693
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇1/2 =
2.86 × 10−6
∴∴ 𝑇1/2 = 2.42 × 105 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 2.8𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 35

7. The initial number of atoms in a radioactive element is 6 × 1020 and its half life is 10
hours. Calculate the number of atoms which have decayed in 30 hours and the amount
of energy liberated if the energy liberated per atom decay is 4 × 10−13 𝐽.
✓Given, Initial no. of atoms, 𝑁0 = 6 × 1020 atoms
Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 3.6 × 104 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Number of atoms decayed, 𝑁0 − 𝑁 =? Time, 𝑡 = 30ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 1.08 × 105 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Energy released per disintegration, E = 4 × 10−13 𝐽 Total energy released, 𝐸𝑡 =?

We have the decay equation as, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

0.693
− 𝑇 𝑡
or, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 1/2
0.693
− 1.08×105
or, 𝑁 = 6 × 1020 × 𝑒 3.6×10 4

∴ 𝑁 = 7.5 × 1019 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 36
∴ Number of atoms decayed,
𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 6 × 1020 − 7.5 × 1019
∴ 𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 5.25 × 1020 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Again total energy liberated is given as,

𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸 × 𝑁0 − 𝑁
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑡 = 4 × 10−13 × 5.25 × 1020
∴ 𝐸𝑡 = 2.1 × 108 𝐽

10/26/2021 Annual Review 37

8. The mass of the radium is 226. It is observed that 3.67 × 1010 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 are
emitted per second from 1𝑔 of radium. Calculate the half life of radium.
𝑑𝑁 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
✓Given, Rate of decay, = 3.67 × 1010 𝛼 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Mass, 𝑚 = 1𝑔 Half life, 𝑇1/2 =?
Mass, 𝑚 = 2 × 10−6 𝑔𝑚

Since, 226 𝑔𝑚 of radium contains 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

6.023×1023
𝑜𝑟, 1𝑔𝑚 of radium contains = 2.74 × 1021 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
226

∴ N = 2.74 × 1021 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

𝑑𝑁
But, = 𝑁𝜆
𝑑𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 38

 𝑑𝑁
= 𝑁𝜆
𝑑𝑡

0.693
𝑜𝑟, 3.67 × 1010 = 2.74 × 1021 ×
𝑇1/2

2.74 × 1021 × 0.693

𝑜𝑟, 𝑇1/2 =
3.67 × 1010
∴ 𝑇1/2 = 5.18 × 1010 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1642.56𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 39

9. If 15% of the radioactive material decays in 5 days, what would be the percentage of
amount of original material left after 25 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠?

✓Given, Let 𝑁0 be the initial number of radioactive atoms

∴ Number of radioactive atoms decayed, 𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 15% 𝑜𝑓𝑁0 = 0.15𝑁0

∴ 𝑁 = 0.85𝑁0

𝑁0
Time, 𝑡 = 5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 4.32 × 105 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Percentage of original material left, × 100% =?
𝑁

Time, 𝑡 = 25 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2.16 × 106 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Now, we have from decay equation, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

or, 0.85𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 40
 −𝜆×4.32×105
or, 0.85 = 𝑒

1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 × 4.32 × 105 = ln
0.85

𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 = 3.76 × 10−7 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Again, From decay equation, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝑁 − 3.76×10−7 ×2.16×106
or, = 𝑒
𝑁0

𝑁
𝑜𝑟, = 0.443
𝑁0

𝑁
∴ × 100% = 44.3%
𝑁0
10/26/2021 Annual Review 41
10. After a certain lapse of time, the fraction of radioactive polonium undecayed is found to
be 12.5% of the initial quantity. What is the duration of this time lapse if half life of
polonium is 139 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠.
✓Given, Let 𝑁0 be the initial number of radioactive atoms

∴ Number of radioactive atoms undecayed, 𝑁 = 12.5% 𝑜𝑓𝑁0 = 0.125𝑁0

Time, 𝑡 =? Half life,𝑇1/2 = 139 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 1.20 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Now, we have from decay equation, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

0.693
− 𝑡
𝑇1/2
or, 0.125𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒

0.693 1
𝑜𝑟, 7
𝑡 = ln
1.20 × 10 0.125
10/26/2021 Annual Review 42
 1 1.20 × 107
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = ln ×
0.125 0.693

∴ 𝑡 = 3.6 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 417.2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 43

11. Half life of 𝑅𝑎 − 226 is 1620 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. Estimate its mass when its activity is 0.5 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒.

✓Given, Half life, 𝑇1/2 = 1620 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 5.11 × 1010 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑑𝑁
Mass, 𝑚 =? Activity, = 0.5 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 0.5 × 3.7 × 1010 𝑑𝑖𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

Since, 226 𝑔𝑚 of radium contains 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

6.023×1023
𝑜𝑟, 1𝑔𝑚 of radium contains 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
226

6.023×1023
∴ ′𝑥′ 𝑔𝑚 of radium contains × 𝑥 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
226

∴ N = 2.74 × 1021 × 𝑥 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 44

 𝑑𝑁
But activity is given as , = 𝑁𝜆
𝑑𝑡

0.693
𝑜𝑟, 0.5 × 3.7 × 1010 = 2.74 × 1021 ×𝑥×
𝑇1/2

0.5 × 3.7 × 1010 × 5.11 × 1010

𝑜𝑟, 𝑥=
2.74 × 1021 × 0.693

∴ 𝑥 = 0.498𝑔𝑚 = 4.98 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔

10/26/2021 Annual Review 45

12. A radioactive source has decayed to one tenth of one percent of its initial activity in one
hundred days. What is its half life period?

✓Given, Let 𝑁0 be the initial number of radioactive atoms.

1
∴ Number of atoms left, 𝑁 = 𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑁0
10

1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑁= × × 𝑁0
10 100
∴ 𝑁 = 0.001𝑁0

Time, 𝑡 = 100 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 8.64 × 106 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Half life, 𝑇1/2 =?

We have the decay equation as, N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

10/26/2021 Annual Review 46

 0.693
− 𝑇 8.64×106
1/2
or, 0.001𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒

0.693 6
1
𝑜𝑟, 8.64 × 10 = ln
𝑇1/2 0.001

0.693 × 8.64 × 106

𝑜𝑟, 𝑇1/2 =
6.907
∴ 𝑇1/2 = 8.66 × 105 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 10.03 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

10/26/2021 Annual Review 47

 NEB Short question Discussion:

1. All the radioactive series terminate at lead as their final product. Why?

2. How does a daughter nucleus differ from its parent nucleus when it emits and 𝛼 −
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒?

3. How does a daughter nucleus differ from its parent nucleus when it emist.

4. If a radioactive nucleus has a half life of one year, will it be completely decayed at the
end of two year? Explain.

5. Write two important features that explain the differences between 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 & 𝛾 −
𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠.

6. A nucleus contains no electrons, yet it ejects them. Explain.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 48
1. Beta particle penetrate through a matter easily than that of alpha-particle of the same
energy. Why?

2. What do you mean be curie?

3. Heavy unstable nuclei usually decay by emitting an 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle. Why do they not
usually emit a single proton or neutron?

4. Explain the term “decay constant”.

5. How 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 differ from electrons?

6. Explain the term artificial radio isotopes.

10/26/2021 Annual Review 49

Radio Carbon Dating:

1/30/2022 Annual Review 23

The process to estimate the age of fossil by using 𝐶614 as radioactive isotope is called radio
carbon dating.

Since our atmosphere contains carbon 𝐶612 about 99% and remaining 1% is carbon 𝐶613
which are stable. When the neutron from the cosmic radiation strikes the nitrogen 𝑁714 in
atmosphere then it get converted into 𝐶614 as,

𝑁714 + 𝑛10 → 𝐶614 + 𝐻11

This radioactive carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas as,

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2

1/30/2022 Annual Review 24

The carbon dioxide gas with radioactive isotope is absorbed by plant during
photosynthesis process and we eat that plant or food, hence carbon 𝐶614 enters into our
body. This process continues until the body or plant is dead.

From the time of death again carbon 𝐶614 starts disintegrating back to nitrogen
𝑁714 by emitting 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 as,
0
𝐶614 → 𝑁714 + 𝑒−1 (𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
Hence if scientist found that dead body then they count the number of 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
emitted from the body using the instrument G.M counter and calculate the age of that
body.

1/30/2022 Annual Review 25

Suppose the activity of some dead body at the time of death i. e. 𝑡 = 0 was ‘𝐴0 ’. Now
after some time ‘𝑡’ let its activity be ‘𝐴’.

Then from Law of Radioactive decay we have,

𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝐴0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝜆𝑡
𝑒
𝐴0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 =
𝐴
Taking ‘ln’ on both side we get,

𝐴0
ln 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = ln
𝐴

1/30/2022 Annual Review 26

 𝜆𝑡
𝐴0
𝑜𝑟, ln 𝑒 = ln
𝐴

𝐴0
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆𝑡 = ln
𝐴

1 𝐴0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = ln
𝜆 𝐴
0.693
But, 𝜆= Where 𝑇1/2 = 5730 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 is the half life for carbon.
𝑇1/2

𝑇1/2 𝐴0
∴𝑡= ln
0.693 𝐴

Hence by using this equation we can estimate the age of fossil.

1/30/2022 Annual Review 27