COURSE CODE: AGE 412

COURSE TITLE: WORKSHOP PRACTICE

NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, students are expected to:

1. Observe sources of accidents and safety precautions in the workshop.
2. Understand the types and use of personal protective equipment.
3. Observe all safety rules and regulations.
4. Identify and understand the use of various measurement and marking out tools.
5. Familiarize with the application of floor-mounted bench and hand tools.

COURSE DETAILS:
Unit 1: Workshop Safety
Unit 2: Classification of Workshop Materials
Unit 3: Measurement and Marking Out
Unit 4: Hand and Power Tools
Unit 5: Fitting Tools
Unit 6: Carpentry
Unit 7: Metal and Wood Joining in the Workshop
Unit 8: Machining Process

RESOURCES
• Books:

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• Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology, 2nd Edition by Rajender
Singh. New Delhi, 2006. ISBN: 978-81-224-2316-7.

Students’ Projects:

• Fabrication of 57 mm diameter and 40 mm high cores using galvanized iron pipes

• Fabrication of 1 and ½ inch diameter and 30 cm long cores using thick plastic pipe
• Continuation of fabrication of mariotte tubes for Infiltrometer
• Construction of 5 m high metallic water tank stand
• Fabrication of 20 and 40 cm diameter Infiltrometers

• Test + Project: ~ 30% of final grade.

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UNIT 1: WORKSHOP SAFETY
All tools are dangerous if used improperly or carelessly. Working safely is the first thing the student
should learn because the safe way is the correct way.
Most of the safety practices mentioned in this section are general in nature. Safety precautions for
specific tools and machines are explained in this chapter including the analysis of the equipment.

Sources of accidents in the workshop

Lifting

It is so easy to injure yourself while lifting heavy objects. Eliminate back injuries and muscle strains
by ensuring that everyone practices safe lifting procedures. It’s always best to recruit a helping hand
or to use machinery to move large objects.

Lighting

Poor lighting can be a major cause of trips, falls, and other workplace injuries. If you can’t see the
hazards, they’re much more likely to become serious problems. Every area in the workplace should
be well lit, including offices, warehouses, parking areas, and outside entryways.

Violence

Hundreds of people die each year from workplace violence. Employees in conflict with one another
tend to be especially unsafe when working together.

Trips/Falls

Consistently one of the leading causes of workplace injuries, trips and falls continue to be a major
problem. Slippery floors, improper footwear, rushing employees, and weather conditions all
contribute to trip and fall hazards.

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Another huge cause to trips and falls is a messy workspace. Good housekeeping is vital to making
sure that each and every employee is safe from unexpected hazards on the floor and/or around the
workspace.

Stress

Physical and mental stress are less commonly recognized workplace hazards, but they can cause
serious or even fatal accidents. Employees must be in the right mindset and physically sound for the
job. Communicate the importance of mental and physical health to all employees. It’s important to
take breaks and seek help with managing stressful situations.

Fatigue

As mentioned before, it is imperative that employees show up to work physically prepared. A lack of
adequate sleep can cause exhaustion, inattention, and accidents. Even a well-rested employee can
grow fatigued while on the job, so it’s necessary to take breaks at regular intervals or when needed.

Shortcuts

Employees should never take shortcuts on the jobs, especially when dealing with dangerous
machinery or circumventing safety procedures. The regulations are in place to protect
employees and to make sure everything is done correctly.

Overconfidence

Employees should be confident about what they’re doing, but overconfidence may diminish
carefulness or attention. Overconfident employees are likely to ignore safety precautions and forego
double checking their work. It’s important for them to understand that accidents can occur any time
to anyone, no matter how skilled or experienced.

Poor Housekeeping

A messy workplace is a dangerous workplace. Objects and debris on the floors pose tripping hazards,
wet or dirty floors can cause slips, cluttered surfaces can conceal sharp objects, poorly contained
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chemicals are an obvious hazard. Besides the dangers, good housekeeping sets a good example for
other safety precautions as well.

Lack of Preparation

No one should ever be on the job without the proper knowledge, training, certifications, tools, or PPE.
Preparedness on the job is one of the absolute best ways for employees to stay safe.

Mental Distractions

It’s easier said than done, but employees must try to leave personal matters at the door. Being
distracted on the job is similar to being fatigued, stressed, or overconfident. Workers simply cannot
perform their jobs to their full potential if their mind is elsewhere.

Basic precautions

• Always listen carefully to the teacher and follow instructions.

• Do not run in the workshop, you could cause an accident.
• Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned in the workshop.
• Always wear a laboratory coat or coverall as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such
as ties in place.
• Wear good strong shoes. Training shoes are not suitable.
• When attempting practical work all stools should be put away.
• Bags should not be brought into a workshop as people can trip over them.
• When learning the use any machine in the workshop, carefully listen to all the instructions given by
the instructor. Ask questions, if you do not understand.
• Do not use a machine if you have not been shown how to operate it safely.
• Always be patient, never rush in the workshop.
• Always use a protective guard when working on a machine.
• Keep hands away from moving/rotating machinery.
• Use hand tools carefully, keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.

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• Report any damage to machines/equipment as this could cause an accident.

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes all types of equipment used to increase individual
safety while performing potentially hazardous tasks. This includes safety glasses, hard hats, gloves,
laboratory coats or coverall, respirators, or any equipment used to protect against injury.

Fig. 1 Personal Protective Equipment

Eye Protection
Eye protection is needed when there is a chance of injury from chemicals and flying particles.
Operations requiring the use of eye protection include, but not limited to:

• Chipping, grinding, and impact drilling.

• Welding or helping in welding of any type.

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• Riveting, grinding, or burning metals.
Fig. 2
Foot Protection
Non-skid shoes shall be worn where floors may be wet or greasy. Where there is obvious probability
of foot or toe injury from impact and compression forces, safety footwear shall be worn.

Fig. 3

Body Protection
Loose fitting clothing, neckties, rings, bracelets, or other apparel that may be entangled in moving
machinery should not be worn by machine operators or their helpers. Laboratory coat or coverall
should be worn.

Fig. 4

Hand Protection
Gloves for multiple functions shall be worn to protect the hands from injuries caused by handling
sharp or jagged objects, wood, or similar hazard-producing materials. See Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Head Protection
Helmets or hard hats should be worn by all personnel working below other workers and in areas
where sharp projections or other head hazards exist.

Fig. 6

Hearing Protection
Recommended hearing protection should be used when working in designated hazardous noise
workshops and laboratories with operating noise sources, or using tools or equipment which are
labeled as hazardous noise producers.

Fig. 7

Proper Lifting Techniques

Before lifting any object in the workshop, take a moment to think about what you are about to do.
Examine the object for sharp corners, slippery spots or other potential hazards. Know your limit and
don't try to exceed it. Ask for help if needed, or if possible, divide the load to make it lighter. Know
where you are going to set the item down and make sure that the item and your path are free of
obstructions.

Guards
Moving machine parts must be safeguarded to protect operators from serious injury. Belts, gears,
shafts, pulleys, fly wheels, chains, and other moving parts must be guarded if there is the chance they
could contact an employee.
As mentioned before, the hazards associated with moving machinery can be deadly.
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There are three types of barrier guards that protect people from moving machinery.
They consist of the following:
• Fixed guards
• Interlocked guards
• Adjustable guards

Safety guards must never be removed when a tool is being used. For example, portable circular saws
must be equipped with guards. An upper guard must cover the entire blade of the saw. A retractable
lower guard must cover the teeth of the saw, except when it makes contact with the work material.
The lower guard must automatically return to the covering position when the tool is withdrawn from
the
work.

Fig. 8 Guards

Good Housekeeping
Good housekeeping shall be maintained in all shops, yards, buildings, and mobile equipment.
Supervisors are responsible for good housekeeping in or around the work they are supervising. As a
minimum, the following requirements shall be adhered to:
• Material shall not be placed where anyone might stumble over it, where it might fall on someone, or
on or against any support unless the support can withstand the additional weight.
• Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear of tripping hazards.
• Nails shall be removed from loose lumber or the points turned down.

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• Ice shall be removed from all walkways and work areas where it may create a hazard or interfere
with work to be done. If ice cannot be removed readily, sand or other approved materials shall be
applied.
• Trash and other waste materials shall be kept in approved receptacles. Trash shall not be allowed
to accumulate and shall be removed and disposed of as soon as practicable, at least once per shift (or
more often if needed).
• Disconnect switches, distribution panels, or alarm supply boxes shall not be blocked by any
obstruction which may prevent ready access.
• Machinery and equipment shall be kept clean of excess grease and oil and (operating conditions
permitting) free of excessive dust. Pressure gauges and visual displays shall be kept clean, visible, and
serviceable at all times. Drip pans and wheeled or stationary containers should be cleaned and
emptied at the end of each shift.
Tutorial
(1) Look at Figure below and write the correct number beside each statement:
( ) Loose tools carried while mounting a ladder.
( ) Badly arranged tools.
( ) Climbing up on unstable supports.
( ) Carrying things that limit the vision ahead.
( ) Throwing tools.
( ) Lift wood pieces with nails.
( ) Uncleaned workshop floor.
( ) Pointing compressed air on others.
( ) Broken bottles on the ground.
( ) Lift pipes in the middle of the workshop.
( ) Standing bellow lifted materials.
( ) Carrying long bars.
( ) Carrying heavy loads.
( ) Uncovered pits.

(2) What special precautions should be taken with regard to the storage of flammable substances?

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Fig. 9

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Unit 2: CLASSIFICATION OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS
The equipment available in the farm for various operations will determine the workshop on the repair
and maintenance of farm equipment for their storage.
An ideal farm workshop has various sections such as service area including mechanical and welding
units, electrical unit, battery charging unit and store for keeping tools and spare parts.
Farm workshop and building materials are classified as metals and non-metals:
Metals
Building materials that are metallic are mainly categorized into two groups
namely ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
❖ Examples of ferrous metals are cast iron, malleable cast iron, wrought iron and steel including
alloy steel.
Ferrous metals are useful in building and workshop as frames for doors, windows. Structural steel
are useful in the construction of roof.
❖ Examples of non-ferrous metals are:
Copper is useful in electrical installation in workshop and farm buildings. Brass is used for making
pipes, instrument parts and fittings.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which is useful in bearings, springs and pipe fittings.
Aluminum or white metal is useful for coating chemical tank and for light
castings. It is also found useful in high-speed bearings.
Zinc is used mostly as a coating on sheet iron and die castings as a protection against corrosion.
Non-Metals.
Examples of non-metals are:
Wood is particularly useful in building construction as frame for doors, windows and roofing planks.
Wood used for structural purposes is called lumber.
Rubber is useful in V belts and insulation of wires. V belts are useful in power transmission of electric
motors mounted in workshop buildings for various purposes.
Leather is largely a belting material. Vegetable fibres are useful as upholstery padding.
Plastics are used for seed hoppers, chemical tanks and water storage tanks in farm buildings.
Other Materials
Some other workshop and building materials are concrete, reinforced concrete, mortar and paints.
(i) Concrete is a mixture of cement with a quantity of inert materials which, when mixed with water,
will harden to form an artificial stone. Concrete is useful in the floor construction of a building.
Concrete can be shaped into blocks used in the construction of walls.
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(ii) Cement is a pulverized material made up of silica, aluminum and lime.
(iii) Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water. It is used as a plaster to make rough surfaces
smooth. In making concrete, the inert materials may be sand, pebbles or broken stone. Aggregate is
the general term applied to these materials.
(iv) Paints: Paint is a form of liquid material such that when it is applied, it dries thereafter to form a
hard thin film. Paint is used as finishing to a building, to beautify it. Paint is also useful for coating
metal surfaces.

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Unit 3: MEASUREMENT AND MARKING OUT IN THE WORKSHOP
1. Marking Tools
Marking out is a task done to indicate where the material is to be scribed, punched, cut or machined.
Marking out tools are classified as steel rule, circumference rule, straight edge, flat steel square,
scriber, semi-circular protractor, divider, trammel, centre punch, try square, bevel square, vernier
protractor, and surface gauge.
2. Measuring Instruments
The main measuring instruments are listed as under.
(i) Linear measurements such as measuring length, diameter, width, depth, height etc.
(A) Non-precision instruments
1. Steel rule
2. Calipers
3. Dividers
4. Telescopic gauge
5. Depth gauge
(B) Precision instruments
1. Micrometers
2. Vernier calipers
3. Vernier depth gauges
4. Vernier height gauges
5. Slip gauges

(ii) Angular measurements involving measurement of angles, radius and arcs

(A) Non-precision instruments
1. Protactor
2. Engineers square
3. Adjustable bevel
(B) Precision instruments
1. Bevel protector
2. Angle gauges

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3. Sine bar
4. Clinometers
5. Autocollimators
6. Spirit level

(iii) Surface measurement

1. Straight edge
2. Surface gauge or Scribing block
3. Surface table
4. Optical flat
5. Profilo-meter

Some measuring tools

Odd leg Caliper
This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel liners from a
finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed like a divider and
the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the hinge point.
Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the measuring
edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting lines. It is made
of case-hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size is specified by the
length of the leg.

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 Figure 10. Odd leg caliper Figure 11. Divider

Trammel
Trammel is used for drawing large circles or arcs.

Calipers
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are used with
the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of case-hardened
mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the legs of the caliper are set
against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance between the legs is
measured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another desired place. These are
specified by the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper, the legs are bent inwards and in the
case of inside caliper, the legs bent outwards.

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Fig. 12. Calipers

Vernier Calipers
These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be used as
a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the other jaw is
made part of a vernier scale.

Fig. 13. Vernier Caliper

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Some marking out tools
Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly. These are
made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as 150’ 12.5mm). It
consists of a cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the top of it. At the other end,
it is ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened over a length of 20 to 30mm.
Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to provide a
small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conical point having
60° included angle.
Center punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having 90° included
angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

Fig. 14. Punches

Surface plate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work piece. It is
also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking table. The degree of the
finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop or for using in an
inspection room; the surface
plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or Granite stone. It is specified by length, width, height and
grade. Handles are provided on two opposite sides, to carry it while shifting from one place to another.

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Fig. 15. Surface Plate

Fig. 16 Angle Plate

Try square
It is measuring and marking tool for 90o angle. In practice, it is used for checking the squareness of
many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required. The blade of the Try square is
made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is specified by
the length of the blade.

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 Scriber
A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally ground at 120 to 150.
It is generally available in lengths, ranging from 125mm to 250mm. It has two pointed ends the bent
end is used for marking lines where the straight end cannot reach.

Figure 17. Try-square

Figure 18. Scriber

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Unit 4: Hand and Power Tools
Tools are such a common part of our lives that it is difficult to remember that they may pose hazards.
All tools are manufactured with safety in mind but, tragically, a serious accident often occurs before
steps are taken to search out and avoid or eliminate tool-related hazards.
4.1 Hand Tools
Hand tools are non-powered. They include anything from axes to wrenches. The greatest hazards
posed by hand tools result from misuse and improper maintenance.
Basic Rules for Hand tool Safety
. Safety is a state of mind. Always think when using a tool:
. Is it in good condition?
. Is it sized right for the job?
. Is it in the proper working condition?
• Every tool was designed to do a certain job. Use it for its intended purpose.
• Tools subject to impact (chisels, star drill, punches, etc.) tend to "mushroom". Keep them dressed
(sharpened) to avoid flying spalls. Use tool holders.
• Secure your work in a vise whenever possible. Never hold small work in your hand when using a
screwdriver.
• Hammers should have heads ground properly. Should not have broken claws or handles.
• Cutting tools should be kept sharp to ensure good smooth cutting. Always use proper handles.
• Screwdriver points should not be badly worn and handles should be in good condition. Use the
proper size and type of screwdriver for the job.
Appropriate personal protective equipment, e.g., safety goggles, gloves, etc., should be worn due to
hazards that may be encountered while using portable power tools and hand tools.

4.2 Power Tools

Power tools can be extremely dangerous if they are used improperly. Each year, thousands of people
are injured or killed by power tool accidents. Common accidents associated with power tools include
abrasions, cuts, lacerations, amputations, burns, electrocution, and broken bones. These accidents are
often caused by the following:
• Touching the cutting, drilling, or grinding components
• Getting caught in moving parts
• Suffering electrical shock due to improper grounding, equipment defects, or operator misuse

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• Being struck by particles that normally eject during operation
• Touching hot tools or work pieces
• Falling in the work area
• Being struck by falling tools

When working around power tools, you must wear personal protective equipment and avoid wearing
loose clothing or jewelry that could catch in moving machinery.

In additional to general shop guidelines, follow these guidelines for working with power tools:
• Use the correct tool for the job. Do not use a tool or attachment for something it was not designed
to do.
• Select the correct bit, blade, cutter, or grinder wheel for the material at hand. This precaution will
reduce the chance for an accident and improve the quality of your work.
• Always operate tools at the correct speed for the job at hand. Working too slowly can cause an
accident just as easily as working too fast.
• Watch your work when operating power tools. Stop working if something distracts you.
• Before clearing jams or blockages on power tools, disconnect from power source. Do not use your
hand to clear jams or blockages, use an appropriate tool.
• Never reach over equipment while it is running.
• When the chance for operator injury is great, use a push stick to move material through a machine.
• Disconnect power tools before performing maintenance or changing components.
• Remove chuck keys or adjusting tools prior to operation.
• Keep all guards in place. Cover exposed belts, pulleys, gears, and shafts that could cause injury.

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Unit 5: FITTING TOOLS
These days small, medium and heavy industries are using automatic machines. But bench and fitting
work also plays a significant role for completing and finishing a job to the desired accuracy. Most of
semi-finished works can be accomplished with fairly good degree of accuracy in a reasonable time
through various kinds of quick machining operations. They still require some minor operations to be
performed to finish the job by hand.
The term bench work denotes the production of an article by hand on the bench. Whereas fitting is
the assembling of parts together and removing metals to secure the necessary fit, and may or may not
be carried out at the bench. These two types of work require the use of a large number of hand tools
and other devices or equipment that involve a number of operations for accomplishing the work to
the desired shape and size. Some of the commonly used tools are discussed as under.

TOOLS USED IN FITTING SHOP

Examples of tools commonly used in bench and fitting works include the following.
1. Marking tools
2. Measuring instruments
3. Supporting tools
4. Holding tools
5. Striking tools
6. Cutting tools
7. Tightening tools, and
8. Miscellaneous tools

Items 1 and 2 are already discussed under Measurement and Marking out.
1. Supporting Tools: These include vee-block, marking table, surface plate, and angle plate.

2. Holding Tools: These include vices and clamps. Vices are used for different purposes and they
include hand vice, bench vice, leg vice, pipe vice, and pin vice. Clamps on the other hand are also of
different types such as c- or g-clamp, plane slot, goose neck, double end finger, u-clamp, parallel jaw,
and clamping block.

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3. Striking Tools
These are various types of hammers such as ball peen hammer; straight-pein hammer; cross-pein
hammer; double face hammer; soft face hammer.

4. Cutting Tools
These involve various types of files, scrapers, chisels, drills, reamers, taps, snip or shear and hacksaws.
Files: Here are different types of files such as flat, square, round, triangular, knife, pillar, needle and
mill.
Scrapers: These are flat, hook, triangular, half round types.
Chisels. There are two different types of chisels used in fitting work namely cold and hot chisel. The
different shapes include flat chisel, cross cut chisel, diamond point chisel, half round chisel, cow
mouth chisel and side cutting chisel. Cold chisels are used in wood workshop while hot chisels are
employed in metal workshop.
Other cutting tools are drills, reamers, taps, snips, hacksaws (hand hacksaw and power hacksaw) etc.

5. Tightening Tools
These are pliers and wrenches, which are sub classified as under.
Pliers. These are namely ordinary, needle nose, and special type.
Wrench. These are open single ended, open double ended, closed ended adjustable, ring spanner,
offset socket, t- socket, box wrench, pipe wrench and allen wrench.

6. Miscellaneous Tools
These are die, drifts, counter sink tools, counter boring tools, spot facing bit and drill press.

Bench vice
The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most commonly used vice in a fitting shop. The bench
vice is shown in Figure 19.

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Figure 19. Bench vice

It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw and
movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces the work
against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel. Serrations on the jaws ensure a good
grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect finished surfaces, gripped in the vice. The size
of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws.

V-block
V-block is rectangular or square block with a V-groove on one or both sides opposite to each other.
The angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V-block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical work securely,
during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling. The bar is faced longitudinally
in the V-Groove and the screw of the C-clamp is tightened. This grip the rod is firm with its axis parallel
to the axis of the v-groove.

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Figure 20. V-block
C-Clamp
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v-block or any other surface, when gripping is
required. Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round in shape and
directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end. The working principle of this clamp is the same as
that of the bench vice.

Fig. 21 C-Clamp

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Hack Saw
The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin blade, firmly
in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter. Hacksaw blades have a
number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having lesser number of teeth per
cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze. Blades having larger number
of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel and cast Iron.
Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all-hard blades are made of
H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used to cut
hard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting and forcing them into
the work while sawing.
Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only the teeth are hardened and the rest of the
blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by un-skilled or semi-skilled persons.

Fig. 22 Fixed Hacksaw Frame with Blade

Fig. 23 Adjustable Hacksaw Frame with Blade

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The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure 31 and known as a ‘set of teeth’.
These make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.

Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from
0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened and
tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internal stresses in
a metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.

Fig. 24 Flat Chisel

Twist Drill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of high-speed steel. Both straight and taper
shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary self – centering
drill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore provided in the drilling
machine spindle.

Bench Drilling Machine

Holes are drilled for fastening parts with rivets, bolts or for producing internal thread. Bench drilling
machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose. Twist drills, made of tool
steel or high-speed steel are used with the drilling machine for drilling holes.

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Fig. 25 Twist Drills

Fig. 26 Bench Drilling Machine

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Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a metal part.
A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surfaces.
On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to fit into a
wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file.
The hand file is parallel in width and tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with
double cut teeth. On the faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known
as a safe edge.

Fig. 27 Parts of a Hand File

Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth. Figure 28
shows the various types of files based on their shape.

Fig. 28 Single and Double Cut Files

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Fig. 29 Types of Files

File card
It is a metal brush, used for cleaning the files, to free them from filings, clogged in-between the teeth.

Fig. 30 File Card

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SAFE PRACTICE
The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in bench work and fitting shop, with
respect to the tools used

1. Keep hands and tools wiped clean and free of dirt, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer to use than
slippery tools.
2. Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.
3. Wear leather shoes and not sandals.
4. Don’t wear loose clothes.
5. Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.
6. Position the work piece such that the cut to be made is close to the vice. This practice prevents
springing, saw breakage and personal injury.
7. Apply force only on the forward (cutting) stroke and relieve the force on the return stroke while
sawing and filing.
8. Use the file with a properly fitted tight handle.
9. After filing, remove the burrs from the edges of the work, to prevent cuts to the fingers.

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Unit 6: CARPENTRY
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a marketable
form of wood and ends with finished products. It deals with the building work, furniture, cabinet
making. Etc. joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all woodworks.
It deals with the specific work of carpenter like making different types of joints to form a finished
product.

TIMBER
Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn into
various sizes to suit building purposes.
The word, ‘grain’, as applied to wood, refers to the appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut
surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and to make it strong, the timber must be so cut,
that the grains run parallel to the length.

Timber sizes
Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the common shapes and
sizes.
a. Log - the trunk of the tree which is free from branches.
b. Balk - the log, sawn to have roughly square cross section.
c. Post - a timber piece, round or square in cross section, having its diameter or side from 175 to
300mm.
d. Plank - A sawn timber piece, with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150 mm in thickness and 2.5
to 6.5 meters in length.
e. Board - A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in thickness.
f. Reapers - Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non-standard sizes, which do not confirm to the above
shapes and sizes.

Classification of Timber
Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in general
are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and Hard woods.
Soft woods are obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal. Woods obtained from
teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are known as hard wood, but it is highly
durable.

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Seasoning of Wood
A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed, the timber is likely
to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content under
controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned wood should
be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter. Further, it ensures
that the wood will not distort after it is made into an object.

Characteristics of Good Timber

A good timber must possess the following characteristics:
a. It should have minimum moisture content, i.e., the timber should be well seasoned.
b. The grains of wood should be straight and long.
c. It must retain its straightness after seasoning.
d. It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
e. It should be free from knots or cracks.
f. It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g. It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h. During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.

CARPENTER’S MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to exact
size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring tools that
are required in a carpentry shop.

Steel rule and Steel tape

Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked scale
of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large
measurements, such as marking on boards and checking the overall dimensions of the work.

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Fig. 31 Steel rule and Steel tape

Marking gauge
It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a square wooden
stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted a marking pin, made of steel. The
stock is set at any desired distance from the marking point and fixed in position by a screw. It must
be ensured that the marking pin projects through the stem, about 3 mm and the end are sharp enough
to make a very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In this, it is possible to adjust the
distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.

Fig. 32 Marking Gauge

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Fig. 33 Mortise Gauge

Try-square
It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of planed surfaces. It consists of a
steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for checking the planed surfaces for flatness. Its
size varies from 150 to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less accurate when
compared to the try-square used in the fitting shop.

Fig. 34 Try-Square

Compass and divider

Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces of the wood.

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Fig. 35 Compass and Divider

Scriber or marking knife

It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel having one end pointed and the other end formed
into a sharp cutting edge.

Bevel
It is used for laying-out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is adjustable and may be held in
place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it can be used in much the same way as a
try-square. A good way to set it to the required angle is to mark the angle on a surface and then adjust
the blade to fit the angle.

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Fig. 36 Scriber and Bevel

HOLDING TOOLS
Carpenter's vice
Figure 37 shows the carpenter's bench vice, used as a work holding device in a carpenter shop. Its
one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other is movable by means of a screw and a handle.
The Carpenter's vice jaws are lined with hard wooden' faces.

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Fig. 37 Carpenter’s Vice

C-clamp
Figure 38 shows a C-clamp, which is used for holding small works.

Fig. 38 C-Clamp

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Bar cramp
Figure 39 shows a bar cramp. It is made of steel bar of T-section, with malleable iron fittings and a
steel screw. It is used for holding wide works such as frames or tops.

Fig. 39 Bar Cramp

Fig. 40 Types of Planes

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Fig. 41 Types of Saws

WOOD JOINTS
There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite use and requires
lay in-out, cutting them together. The strength of the joint depends upon amount of contact area. If a
particular joint does not have much contact area, then it must be reinforced with nails, screws or
dowels.

SAFE PRACTICE
The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in carpentry shop, with respect to the
tools used
1. Tools that are not being used should always be kept at their proper places.
2. Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp-edged tools while you are using them.
3. Use only sharp tools. A dull tool requires excessive pressure, causing the tool to slip.
4. Wooden pieces with nails, should never be allowed to remain on the floor.
5. Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in cross-cutting and ripping.

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6. Test the sharpness of the cutting edge of chisel on wood or paper, but not on your hand.
7. Never chisel towards any part of the body.
8. Do not use chisels where nails are present. Do not use chisel as a screwdriver.
9. Do not use a saw with a loose handle.
10. Always use triangular file for sharpening the teeth.
11. Do not use a saw on metallic substances.
12. Do not use mallet to strike nails.
13. Do not use plane at the places, where a nail is driven in the wood.

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Unit 7: METAL AND WOOD JOINING OPERATION
7.1 Temporary jointing or Mechanical fasterners
This is done to join metals which can be dismantled at a later date for repair or replacement.
Mechanical fasteners include bolts and nuts, screws, studs, pins and locks.

7.2. Permanent jointing

Here, metals are joined permanently, they cant be dismantled for any purpose any more.
Examples of permanent jointing are soldering, riveting and welding.

7.2.1 Welding
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without application
of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and characteristics
of the metals joined. In the beginning, welding was mainly used for repairing all kinds of worn or
damaged parts. Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction of ships, tanks,
locomotives and automobiles and maintenance work, replacing riveting and bolting, to a greater
extent.
The various welding processes are:
1. Electric arc welding,
2. Gas welding
3. Thermal welding
4. Electrical Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding

However, only electric arc and gas welding processes are discussed here.

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an
electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes
through ionized gas.

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Fig.42 Arc welding set up

Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC);
b. Welding electrode;
c. Work piece;
d. Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.

Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature
may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining them.
When a long joint is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool
melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.

Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding machines. These
machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the
necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surface so that, the metals
to be joined are actually fixed together.

Electrodes
Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire called core
wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are coated
uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While fluxing an electrode; about 20mm of length is

44
left at one end for holding it with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current from
electrode holder to the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator of electricity.

Fig. 43 Parts of an electrode

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Storage and Handling of Cylinders
. Keep cylinders away from physical damage, heat, and tampering.
. Securely chain equipment to prevent falling.
. Store away from flammable and combustible materials.
. Store extra gas and oxygen cylinders separately.
. Store in an upright position.
. Close cylinder valves before moving.
. Protective caps or regulators should be kept in place.
. Roll cylinders on bottom edges to move--Do not drag.
. Allow very little movement when transporting.

General Gas Welding Safety Tips

. Inspect equipment for leaks at all connections using approved leak-test solution.
. Inspect hoses for leaks and worn places.
. Replace bad hoses.

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. Protect hoses and cylinders from sparks, flames and hot metal.
. Use a flint lighter to ignite the flame.
. Stand to the side (away from the regulators) when opening cylinder valves.
. Open cylinder valves very slowly to keep sudden high pressures from exploding the regulators.
. Only open the acetylene cylinder valve 1/4 - 3/4 turn; leave wrench in place so the cylinder can be
quickly closed in an emergency.
. Open and light acetylene first, then open and adjust oxygen to a neutral flame.
. Close the acetylene torch valve first when shutting off the torch (a "pop" might occur as the oxygen
"blows out" the flame, but this eliminates the possibility of the flame burning up the acetylene line).
. When finished, close cylinder valves, bleed the lines to take pressure off regulators, neatly coil hoses
and replace equipment.
. Have a fire extinguisher easily accessible at the welding site.
. Infrared radiation is a cause of retinal burning and cataracts. Protect your eyes with safety glasses.
. Protect your body from welding with protective clothing such as:
o Woolen clothing
o Flame-proof apron
o Gloves
o Properly fitted clothing that is not frayed or worn.
o Shirts should have long sleeves.
o Trousers should be straight-legged and covering shoes when arc welding.
o Fire resistant cape or shoulder covers are needed for overhead work.

. Check protective clothing equipment before each use to make sure it is in

good condition.
. Keep clothes free of grease and oil.

Proper Ventilation
Be sure there is adequate ventilation available when welding in confined areas or where there are
barriers to air movement. Natural drafts, fans and positioning of the head can help keep fumes away
from the welder's face.

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Unit 8: METAL MACHINING PROCESS (TURNING)
In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. A lathe is used to cut and shape
the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a chuck, fitted
on to the lathe spindle or in-between the centers. The cutting tool is fixed in a tool post, mounted on
a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The cutting tool can be fed on to the work,
either lengthwise or cross-wise. While turning, the chuck rotates in counter-clockwise direction,
when viewed from the tail stock end.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A LATHE

Fig. 44 shows a center lathe, indicating the main parts. The name is due to the fact that work pieces
are held by the centers.

Fig. 44 Parts of a center lathe

Bed
It is an essential part of a lathe, which must be strong and rigid. It carries all parts of the machine and
resists the cutting forces. The carriage and the tail stock move along the guide ways provided on the
bed. It is usually made of cast iron.
Head stock
It contains either a cone pulley or gearings to provide the necessary range of
speeds and feeds. It contains the main spindle, to which the work is held and rotated.

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Tail stock
It is used to support the right-hand end of a long work piece. It may be clamped in any position along
the lathe bed. The tail stock spindle has an internal Morse taper to receive the dead center that
supports the work. Drills, reamers, taps may also be fitted into the spindle, for performing operations
such as drilling, reaming and tapping.

Carriage or Saddle
It is used to control the movement of the cutting tool. The carriage assembly consists of the
longitudinal slide, cross slide and the compound slide and apron. The cross slide moves across the
length of the bed and perpendicular to the axis of the spindle. This movement is used for facing and
to provide the necessary depth of cut while turning. The apron, which is bolted to the saddle, is on the
front of the lathe and contains the longitudinal and cross slide controls.

Compound Rest
It supports the tool post. By swiveling the compound rest on the cross slide, short tapers may be
turned to any desired angles.

Tool Post
The tool post, holds the tool holder or the tool, which may be adjusted to any working position.

Lead Screw
It is a long-threaded shaft, located in front of the carriage, running from the head-stock to the tailstock.
It is geared to the spindle and controls the movement of the tool, either for automatic feeding or for
cutting threads.

Centers
There are two centers known as dead center and live center. The dead center is positioned in the tail
stock spindle and the live center, in the head-stock spindle. While turning between centers, the dead
center does not revolve with the work while the live center revolves with the work.

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