Section 1.

4: data hierarchy:

The concept of data hierarchy refers to the organization and structure of data in a system or database. It
involves arranging data elements in a hierarchical order based on their level of abstraction and
relationship to other data elements. The data hierarchy typically consists of multiple levels, with each
level representing a different level of detail or granularity.

The most commonly used data hierarchy model is the hierarchical model, which organizes data in a tree-
like structure with a top-down approach. In this model, data is organized into records, which are further
grouped into parent-child relationships. Each record can have multiple child records but only one parent
record, creating a hierarchical relationship.

Here is a breakdown of the different levels in a typical data hierarchy:

1. Bit: The smallest unit of data, representing the binary value of either 0 or 1.

2. Field: A named data item that represents an attribute or characteristic of an entity. Fields are grouped
together to form a record.

3. Record: Also known as a tuple or entity, a record is a collection of related fields that represent a single
instance or occurrence of an entity. For example, a record in an employee database might include fields
such as name, employee ID, and department.

4. File: A collection of related records. Files serve as containers for organizing and storing data records of
the same type or category. For instance, an employee database might have separate files for employees,
departments, and salaries.

5. Database: A collection of related files that are logically connected and share some commonality.
Databases provide a structured framework for managing and organizing large volumes of data.

The data hierarchy allows for efficient storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data within a system by
establishing relationships between different data elements. It forms the basis for various database
management systems and helps ensure data integrity and consistency.

Data hierarchy comprises bits, bytes, fields, records, files and databases.
Bits, the smallest piece of information, are represented by either 0 (off) or a
1 (on).
Bits can be grouped to form a byte. 1 byte = 8 bits. A byte represents one
character, number or a symbol, while field, records and files essentially form
a database, which is where all data is stored.

Bits:

- The smallest data item in a computer is called a bit.

- A bit can have a value of 0 or 1.

- Computers perform complex functions using simple manipulations of 0s

and 1s.
- These manipulations include examining a bit's value, setting a bit's value,
and reversing a bit's value from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.

Characters(bytes ):

- Working with bits is tedious for people, so they prefer to work with
characters.

- Characters include decimal digits (0-9), letters (A-Z and a-z), and special
symbols ($, @, %, &, *, (, ), -, +, ", :, ?, and /).

- The computer's character set is the collection of characters used for

programming and representing data.

- Computers process data using 1s and 0s, so each character in the character
set is represented as a pattern of 1s and 0s.

- C++ supports various character sets, including Unicode, which can require
more than one byte per character.

- Unicode is a character set that supports many languages worldwide.

- The ASCII character set, a popular subset of Unicode, represents uppercase

and lowercase letters, digits, and common special characters.
- For more information on the ASCII character set, refer to Appendix B.

Fields:
- Fields are composed of characters or bytes.

- A field is a group of characters or bytes that carries meaning.

- Characters or bytes within a field can represent specific information.

- For example, a field can represent a person's name using uppercase and
lowercase letters.
- Another field can represent a person's age using decimal digits.
Record:
- Records are composed of several related fields.
- A record represents a collection of fields that are associated with a particular
entity or object.
- In a payroll system, an employee record might consist of various fields, including
employee identification number, name, address, hourly pay rate, year-to-date
earnings, and amount of taxes withheld.
- Each field within a record has a specific data type, such as whole numbers, strings
of characters, or numbers with decimal points.
- Records group together fields that belong to the same entity or object.
- In a company, there can be multiple employees, and each employee has their own
payroll record.
Files:
- A file is a collection of related records.
- Files can contain arbitrary data in arbitrary formats.
- From an application programmer's perspective, a file can be organized into
records, but some operating systems view a file simply as a sequence of bytes.
- An organization can have many files, each containing a significant amount of
information.
- Files can vary greatly in size, ranging from small files to those containing billions
or even trillions of characters of data.
Database:
- A database is a collection of data organized for easy access and manipulation.
- The relational database model is the most popular, where data is stored in tables.
- A table consists of records (rows) and fields (columns).
- Records represent individual instances or entities, while fields represent specific
attributes or data elements.
- For example, a student table may have fields such as first name, last name, major,
year, student ID number, and grade-point-average.
- Data can be searched, sorted, and manipulated based on relationships between
multiple tables or databases.
- Relational databases allow for combining data from different tables or databases
using relationships.
- For instance, a university may use student data from the student database along
with data from other databases like courses, on-campus housing, meal plans, etc.
Big data:
- The amount of data being generated worldwide is immense and expanding rapidly.
- According to IBM, approximately 2.5 quintillion bytes (2.5 exabytes) of data are
created daily.
- Salesforce.com states that 90% of the world's data was generated in the past 12
months alone.
- By 2020, according to an IDC study, the global data supply is projected to reach 40
zettabytes (40 trillion gigabytes) annually.
- Big data applications involve handling massive volumes of data, presenting
significant opportunities for software developers.
- A study by Gartner Group estimated that over 4 million IT jobs globally were
expected to support big data in 2015.

Programming languages:

- Machine Languages:
- Computers can directly understand their own machine language (1s and 0s).
- Machine languages are cumbersome for humans to work with.

- Assembly Languages:
- Programmers started using English-like abbreviations to represent operations.
- Assembly languages are translated to machine language using assemblers.
- Assembly-language code is clearer to humans but requires translation to be
understood by computers.
- High-Level Languages:
- High-level languages were developed to speed up the programming process.
- Instructions in high-level languages resemble everyday English and use
mathematical notations.
- Examples of high-level languages include C, C++, Java, C#, Swift, and Visual
Basic.
- Compilers translate high-level language programs into machine language.
- Compiling a large high-level language program can take significant computer
time.
- Interpreter programs execute high-level language programs directly, without
compilation.
- Scripting languages like JavaScript and PHP are processed by interpreters.

- Interpreters:
- Interpreters allow programs to begin executing immediately after being
downloaded to the client's machine.
- There is no need for a separate compilation step before execution.

- Advantages of interpreters in Internet scripting:

- Immediate execution: Interpreted programs can start running right away,
providing faster execution compared to waiting for compilation.

- Disadvantages of interpreters in Internet scripting:

- Slower execution: Interpreted scripts generally run slower compared to compiled
code. This is because the interpreter needs to analyze and execute the code line by
line.
- Increased memory consumption: Interpreted scripts often require more memory
to run compared to compiled code. This is because the interpreter needs to keep
track of the code and its execution in real-time.
In summary, while interpreters in Internet scripting offer the advantage of
immediate execution, they tend to have slower performance and consume more
memory compared to compiled code.

Certainly! Here's a summary of the text in bullet points:

- C was implemented in 1972 at Bell Laboratories and became known as the

development language for the UNIX operating system.
- C++ evolved from CCertainly! Here's a summary of the text in bullet points:

- C was implemented in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Laboratories.

- It initially became widely known as the development language for the UNIX
operating system.
- Today, most code for general-purpose operating systems is written in C or C++.
- C++ is an extension of C and provides additional features for object-oriented
programming.
- C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at Bell Laboratories.
- C++ was originally called "C with Classes" and was later renamed to C++.
- C++ is influenced by the Simula programming language and offers capabilities for
object-oriented programming.
- The book mentioned is object-oriented and introduces customized, reusable
classes and objects.
- It also includes an optional case study on an automated teller machine (ATM)
implementation using C++ and the UML modeling language.

Here's a summary of the text in bullet points:

- Objects and classes are reusable software components that represent various
entities, such as date, time, audio, video, automobiles, and people.
- Object-oriented design and implementation approaches make software
development more productive and easier to understand, correct, and modify.
- Classes contain member functions that perform tasks, similar to a car's
engineering drawings that house the design of pedals, steering wheels, etc.
- Objects are created from classes through instantiation and referred to as instances
of their respective classes.
- Reusing existing classes saves time and effort in building new classes and
programs and promotes system reliability and effectiveness.
- Messages are sent to objects through member-function calls, similar to pressing
the gas pedal to make a car go faster.
- Objects have attributes represented as part of their class, such as a car's color,
number of doors, and current speed.
- Encapsulation wraps attributes and member functions into objects, hiding
implementation details and promoting information hiding.
- Inheritance allows the creation of new classes by absorbing characteristics from
existing classes and adding unique features.

Certainly! Here's a summary of the text in bullet points:

- Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) is a process used to develop large

and complex software systems.
- For such projects, it is important to follow a detailed analysis process to determine
the system's requirements and develop a design that satisfies them before writing
any code.
- Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) languages like C++ allow you to implement
an object-oriented design as a working system.
- The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a widely used graphical language for
communicating the results of the OOAD process.
- UML provides a standardized set of diagrams to represent different aspects of the
system, such as class diagrams, use case diagrams, and sequence diagrams.
- Using UML, software professionals can visualize and communicate the structure,
behavior, and interactions of the system's components.
- Following an OOAD process and utilizing UML can help ensure a systematic and
well-designed approach to software development.

Let me know if there's anything else I can assist you with!

Here's a summary of the text in bullet points:

- The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a graphical language widely used for
modeling object-oriented systems in the field of Object-Oriented Analysis and
Design (OOAD).
- UML provides a standardized set of diagrams that can be used to communicate the
results of the OOAD process.
- It is the most widely used graphical scheme for modeling object-oriented systems.
- UML diagrams are introduced in Chapters 3 and 4 of the book and are used
throughout the deeper treatment of object-oriented programming until Chapter 12.
- In Chapters 25-26, there is an optional ATM Software Engineering Case Study that
presents a subset of UML's features and guides readers through an object-oriented
design and implementation experience.

Let me know if there's anything else I can assist you with!