Wireless Sensor Networks

AAT-II
1.Comparison of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and
Wireless Mesh Networks (WMNs)

Feature Wireless Sensor Wireless Mesh Networks

Networks (WSNs) (WMNs)
Purpose Used for data Designed to provide
collection and extended wireless
monitoring in specific communication and
applications. coverage.
Node Roles Nodes are typically Nodes have distinct roles:
homogeneous and act clients, routers, and
as sensors. gateways.
Energy Energy efficiency is Nodes are often plugged
Efficiency critical as nodes are in or have better power
battery-powered. resources.
Topology Often form star or tree Use a dynamic mesh
topologies. topology for redundancy
and reliability.
Communication Typically multi-hop Multi-hop with long-
with limited range. range communication
and better bandwidth.
Application Environmental Community Wi-Fi,
Areas monitoring, disaster recovery, and
healthcare, industrial urban communication.
automation.

2.Eloberate on any four techniques to reduce power

consumption in wireless sensor networks.
 Duty Cycling
Nodes alternate between active and sleep modes to save energy. For example, the
radio transceiver is turned off during idle periods, significantly reducing power
consumption. This technique requires synchronization among nodes to ensure
data is transmitted effectively.

 Data Aggregation
Redundant data from multiple sensors is aggregated at intermediary nodes to
reduce transmission overhead. For example, in environmental monitoring, average
temperature readings are sent instead of individual data points, minimizing energy
usage.
 Energy-Efficient Routing Protocols
Protocols like LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) dynamically
organize nodes into clusters. Cluster heads communicate with the base station,
reducing the need for direct transmission from every node, saving energy.

 Energy Harvesting
Nodes equipped with solar panels or other energy-harvesting mechanisms can
replenish their power. This technique extends network lifetime, especially in
outdoor applications where renewable energy sources are available.

3.When does GPSR enter the perimeter routing mode and how
does it use the right-hand rule in this mode?
When Does GPSR Enter Perimeter Routing Mode?
Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) uses perimeter routing when greedy
forwarding fails, i.e., when the node cannot find a neighbor closer to the
destination than itself. This situation typically arises in void regions where no direct
path to the destination exists.

Right-Hand Rule in Perimeter Routing

The right-hand rule is applied to traverse the edges of the communication graph
around the void. Starting at the current node, the algorithm selects the next edge
counterclockwise to the incoming edge and continues this process. The rule
ensures systematic exploration of the void boundary while maintaining a record of
visited nodes to avoid loops.

This mode efficiently navigates around voids, ensuring the packet reaches a node
closer to the destination or finds an alternative route if possible.

4.Which of these can be addressed by gossiping and how can

they be addressed?
Two nodes A and B do not know their own positions, but they
can hear beacons in their proximities. Node A can hear beacons
located at (4, 2) and (2, 5). Node B can hear beacons located at
(2, 5) and (3, 7). All nodes have a radio range of 2 units.(a) Are
either (3, 3.5) or (3, 4.5) possible locations for node A? (b) Are
either (2, 6) or (4, 5) possible locations for node B?

(a) Possible Locations for Node A:

 (3, 3.5): This point is within the radio range of both beacons (4, 2)
and (2, 5). Therefore, it's a possible location for Node A.
  (3, 4.5): This point is also within the radio range of both beacons.
Hence, it's also a possible location for Node A.

(b) Possible Locations for Node B:

 (2, 6): This point is within the radio range of both beacons (2, 5)
and (3, 7). Thus, it's a possible location for Node B.

 (4, 5): This point is not within the radio range of beacon (2, 5).
Therefore, it's not a possible location for Node B.

Addressing the Location Estimation Problem Using Gossiping:

Gossiping can be used to improve the accuracy of location estimates in wireless

networks. Here's a basic approach:

1. Initial Estimates: Each node makes an initial estimate of its

location based on the beacons it can hear.

2. Gossiping: Nodes periodically exchange their location estimates

with their neighbors.

3. Refinement: Each node can refine its estimate by considering the

estimates of its neighbors and the beacons it can hear. This can
involve techniques like weighted averaging or triangulation.

4. Iterative Refinement: This process can be repeated multiple times

to gradually improve the accuracy of the estimates.

By iteratively sharing and refining information, nodes can collectively improve their
location estimates, especially in scenarios where individual estimates are
uncertain.

5.A node?s position in two dimensional space is (x, y) = (10, 20)

with a maximum error of 2 in the x direction for 95% of all
measurements and a maximum error of 3 in the y direction for
90% of all measurements. What is the accuracy and the
precision of this location information?
Accuracy and Precision:

 Accuracy: This refers to how close the measured value is to the

true value. In this case, the accuracy is affected by the maximum
error in each direction. The worst-case scenario for accuracy would
be a combined error of 2 (x-direction) + 3 (y-direction) = 5 units.

 Precision: This refers to the repeatability of a measurement. In this

case, the precision is influenced by the consistency of the
measurements. Since the errors are specified as maximum values
 for a certain percentage of measurements, we can assume that the
measurements are relatively precise within those bounds.

Therefore, the location information has low accuracy due to the potential for
significant errors, but relatively high precision within the specified error bounds.

6.Why are parallel buses not desirable in a wireless sensor

node?
Wireless sensor nodes are typically designed with stringent constraints on size,
weight, and power consumption. Parallel buses, while offering high data transfer
rates, are not suitable for these devices due to the following reasons:

1. Increased Power Consumption: Parallel buses require multiple

signal lines, each of which needs to be driven and terminated. This
results in higher power consumption compared to serial buses,
which use fewer signal lines.

2. Larger Physical Footprint: Parallel buses require more physical

space on the circuit board to accommodate the multiple signal
lines and associated circuitry. This can increase the overall size of
the sensor node, making it less suitable for deployment in space-
constrained environments.

3. Increased Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Parallel buses can

generate significant amounts of EMI, which can interfere with the
operation of other components in the sensor node and nearby
devices.

4. Higher Complexity: Designing and implementing parallel bus

interfaces is more complex than designing serial bus interfaces.
This can increase the cost and time required to develop sensor
nodes.

7.How the design of the MAC protocol affects the energy

efficiency of a sensor node.
The Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol plays a crucial role in determining the
energy efficiency of a wireless sensor node. A well-designed MAC protocol can
significantly reduce energy consumption by optimizing the scheduling of
transmissions and minimizing idle listening time.

Here are some key factors that affect energy efficiency in MAC protocol design:

1. Slotted ALOHA: This protocol divides time into fixed-length slots.

Nodes transmit in a random slot, reducing collision probability but
potentially leading to idle slots.

2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): Nodes sense the channel

before transmitting. If the channel is idle, they transmit; otherwise,
 they wait. This can reduce collisions but can also lead to significant
idle listening.

3. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Nodes are assigned fixed

time slots for transmission. This eliminates collisions but requires
precise synchronization.

4. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Nodes hop between

different frequency channels, reducing the likelihood of
interference and increasing security.

Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol Design Considerations:

 Minimize Transmission Time: Shorten transmission durations by

compressing data and using efficient modulation techniques.

 Reduce Idle Listening: Implement power-saving mechanisms like

sleep scheduling and selective listening.

 Optimize Contention-Based Protocols: Adjust parameters like slot

length and backoff time to minimize collisions and idle listening.

 Consider Energy-Aware Routing: Choose routes that minimize

energy consumption, taking into account factors like node energy
levels and link quality.

 Utilize Energy-Efficient Hardware: Employ low-power radio

transceivers and microcontrollers.

By carefully designing the MAC protocol and considering these factors, it is

possible to significantly improve the energy efficiency of wireless sensor nodes,
extending their battery life and enabling longer deployments.

8.Briefly explain selective forwarding attack

Selective Forwarding Attack

A selective forwarding attack occurs when a malicious node in a network

intentionally drops specific packets while forwarding others. This disrupts the
communication and data reliability of the network without completely halting it,
making the attack difficult to detect. In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the
attack targets critical data, such as control packets or specific application data, to
manipulate the network's functionality.

For instance, in a monitoring application, a compromised node may forward

regular updates but drop emergency alerts, causing incorrect decisions or delayed
responses. This attack often collaborates with other threats, like wormholes or
sinkholes, amplifying its impact. To mitigate such attacks, strategies like redundant
paths, anomaly detection, and cryptographic methods are employed.
9.List the basic security models of IEEE 802.15.4 standard
Basic Security Models of IEEE 802.15.4 Standard

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines low-power, low-data-rate wireless

communication, with security mechanisms to protect data integrity, confidentiality,
and authenticity. Its security model includes the following basic elements:

1. Access Control

o Ensures only authorized devices participate in the network.

o Uses unique keys and addresses to validate devices during

communication setup.

2. Data Encryption

o Protects transmitted data from eavesdropping by

encrypting payloads.

o Employs AES-128 (Advanced Encryption Standard) for

confidentiality.

3. Message Integrity

o Ensures data has not been altered during transmission.

o Uses Message Integrity Codes (MICs) for authentication

and tamper detection.

4. Replay Protection

o Guards against replay attacks by detecting and rejecting

duplicate packets.

o Sequence numbers or freshness counters ensure each

packet is unique.

5. Key Management

o Provides a framework for distributing and maintaining

cryptographic keys.

o Includes pre-configured, dynamically assigned, and

network-wide keys for scalability.

These models collectively enhance security in resource-constrained networks,

balancing efficiency with protection.