Electrical Engineering Labrotary (1)

Introduction
In this laboratory, the student will deal with such matters as; laboratory
reports, safety issues, resistance color codes, the breadboard, the Lab. measuring
equipments and simulation software.

Resistance Nominal Values and Tolerances:

Resistor manufacturers print resistance values on resistor casings either in
numerical form or in a color code. These values, though, are only nominal
values; they are approximately equal to the actual resistances. The possible
percentage variation of resistance about the nominal value is called the tolerance.
The popular carbon-composition resistors have tolerances of 5, 10, and 20
percent, which means that the actual resistances can vary from the nominal
values by as much as ±5, ±10, and ±20 percent of the nominal values.

Color Code:
The most popular resistance color code has nominal resistance values and
tolerances indicated by the colors of either three or four bands around the resistor
casing, as shown in Fig.(1). Sometimes there is a fifth band for failure rate. It will
not be considered. The colors of the first and second bands correspond,
respectively, to the first two digits of the nominal resistance. The first digit, is
never a zero. The color of the third band, except for silver and gold, corresponds
to the number of zeros that follow the first two digits. A third band of gold
corresponds to a multiplier of 10 -1, and one of silver to 10-2. The fourth band
indicates the tolerance and is either gold, silver, or is missing. Gold corresponds
to a tolerance of 5 percent, silver to 10 percent, and a missing band to 20 percent.

1
 Fig. (1) Resistance color code

The resistance color code is shown in Table 1. The following are examples of
using table1. A resistor with bands of red, yellow, orange, and gold is a 24 kΩ
resistor of 5% tolerance. Also, a resistor with bands of blue, gray, yellow, and
silver is a 680 kΩ resistor of 10% tolerance, and, a 1 Ω resistor of 20% tolerance
has color bands of brown, black, and gold. Remember that the first digit is never
zero, which means that the first color band is never black.

Breadboard Description
Most of the circuits built and tested in this laboratory will be assembled on a
“breadboard,” which looks like a piece of plastic with holes in it. Electrical
components (resistors, capacitors, wires, etc.) are inserted into the holes. What
makes a breadboard unique is that certain combinations of the holes are
electrically connected with each other. Since these connections are inside the
plastic, they cannot be seen. Thus, a user must know which holes are connected.
Most breadboards have a similar pattern of interconnections as shown in Fig. (2).

2
Table (1) Color code

Fig. (2) Breadboard

3
Laboratory Equipments
This handout is intended to provide a brief technical overview of the mostly
used laboratory instruments in the Electrical Eng. Lab. 1: The multi-meter, the
oscilloscope, and the function generator.

The Multi-meter
The multi-meter is a device capable of measuring electrical physical
quantities such as; voltages, currents, and resistances. Given the wide range of
measurements that are possible with this device, it is an indispensable tool in any
electrical engineering lab. The multi-meter is mostly used for measuring voltage
(as voltmeter), measuring current (as an ammeter), and measuring resistance (an
ohmmeter). The following is brief description of each function.

voltmeter
Configures the multi-meter to measure the magnitude of voltages in the
electrical circuit. This configuration is selected by either pressing the DC V or
the AC V buttons. It is connected in parallel with the element across which the
voltage is to be measured. (Why?).

ammeter
Configures the multi-meter to measure the magnitude of currents, It is
connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured (why).
This configuration is selected by pressing either the DC I (SHIFT, DC V) or AC
I (SHIFT, AC V) buttons.

ohmmeter
Configures the multi-meter to measure the resistance in low, mid or high
ranges. This configuration is selected by pressing the Ω button. It is different

4
from the ammeter and voltmeter in that, it will show full scale deflection for zero
Ohms ( zero resistance or short circuit) and no deflection for infinite resistance.

The Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is an electronic instrument based on the cathode ray tube
(CRT) which is capable of generating a graph of an input signal versus a second
variable. In most applications the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the
horizontal (X) axis represents time (although other configurations are possible).
Essentially, the oscilloscope consists of four main parts (see Fig. (3)): An
electron gun, a time−base generator (this serves as a clock), two sets of deflection
plates used to steer the electron beam and a phosphorescent screen which lights
up when struck by electrons. The electron gun, deflection plates, and the
phosphorescent screen are all enclosed in a glass envelope which has been sealed
and evacuated. The visible part of the CRT tube, the "screen", is the outside of
the glass wall on whose inner surface lays the phosphorescent film. The screen is
inscribed with a set of axes enclosed by a grid. As the oscilloscope operates, the
electron beam traces a graph of the input voltage versus time on the
phosphorescent film behind these axes. The horizontal axis is the time axis, and
the vertical axis is the voltage axis.

Fig. (3) The internal parts of an oscilloscope (CRT)

5
The Function Generator
The Function Generators are used for generating most of the waveforms that
can be used to test the circuits under study. It presents the main interface for
controlling wave shape, frequency, amplitude, and offset. By combining all of
these features it is possible to create almost any necessary test waveform. The
sine-wave, square wave, triangle wave, and ramp buttons generate the respective
waveforms at the output of the function generator.

Introduction to the Electronic Workbench

The purpose of this document is to introduce the many features of MultiSim.
Begin by first opening up MultiSim. For Windows users the default location can
be found by clicking: Start ->All Programs -> Electronics Workbench -> Design
Suite Freeware Edition 9 -> MultiSim 9. You should see a screen similar to Fig.
(4) below. This is called a “Capture and simulate” environment because you
“Capture” your schematic by drawing it in MultiSim and then you “Simulate” it.

Fig. (4) Capture and simulate environment

6
 Fig. (5) Different parts of the MultiSim workspace
Fig.5 shows the most important components in the MultSim workspace.
Note that the location of the toolbars on your MultiSim window may be different.
If you don’t see the toolbars shown above, Left-click on the View Menu and go
to Toolbars. Make sure the toolbars shown in Fig. (5) are checked as shown in
Fig. (6).

Fig. (6) Viewing the toolbars

7
Example 1: Simple DC Analysis in MultiSim
Let’s construct the simple circuit shown in Fig. (7)

Fig. (7) A simple series circuit constructed in MultiSim

Constructing this circuit in MultiSim is easy:

1. Left-Click on the Power Source Family in the Virtual Toolbar.
2. The Power Source Components will pop up.

Fig. (8) DC power source in MultiSim

3. Left-Click on the DC Power Source icon and drag a battery on the circuit
workspace. Fig. (8) shows the result.

If you want to change the value of the power source, Double-click the battery.
This opens up the Power Sources dialog box shown below.

8
 Fig. (9) Power Sources Dialog box
This dialog box is used to change the value of the battery voltage.
Let’s add the resistor and the potentiometer. Left-Click shows the Basic
Components Family in the Virtual Toolbar.
5. The Basic Components will pop up.
6. Left-Click on the Virtual Resistor tool and drag a resistor onto the workspace.
As in the case of the battery, you can Double-click the resistor to change
component value.
7. Lets complete the circuit by placing the potentiometer. Left-Click on the
Potentiometer tool and drag a potentiometer on the workspace. You can increase
(decrease) the resistance on the potentiometer by pressing the “A” (Shift+A) key.
Note: The increase and decrease refers to the resistance between the middle leg
and the bottom leg of the potentiometer. Double-click the potentiometer to
change the total resistance of the potentiometer and the increment or decrement
in the resistor value. Fig. (7) shows the circuit components placed on your
workspace. The “50%” next to the potentiometer means that the resistance
between the middle leg and bottom leg is 50% of 1 kΩ: 500 Ω. If you press A,
you will notice that resistance will increase by 5% (the resistance between the
middle leg and the top leg will decrease by 5%). Again, Double-click the
potentiometer to change the increment percentage.

9
 Fig. (10) The circuit components are in place

8. The final component to be placed is the ground or reference node. It does not
matter where the ground circuit is, for consistency lets pick the node at the
bottom of the circuit as ground (reference).
Left-click the Ground tool in the Power Source Components menu. Drag the
ground to the bottom of the circuit, the result is shown in Fig. (11).

Fig. (11) Circuit redy for wiring

9. To wire the circuit, simply Left-click at the starting node, drag the wire to the
ending node and Left-click again. Fig. (12) shows the results of wiring the 12 V
source to the 1 kΩ resistor.

10
 Fig. (12) A wire connecting the 12 V source to the 1 kΩ resistor

Complete the wiring as shown in Fig. (13).

Fig. (13) The circuit wiring is complete

Remark: To make debugging easier in larger circuits, it would be instructive to

change the wire colors. To do this, Left-click on the wire to select it and Right-
click to choose the wire color. You should try to stick to electronics wire color
conventions. For example: RED for power and BLACK for ground.
Before we can simulate the circuit, we need to add instruments so we can make
measurements. One of the neat things about MultiSim is that it comes with a
bunch of standard instruments. These instruments are the same as on your lab
bench. Hence your simulation environment is a step closer to your real lab
environment.
The instrument toolbar is displayed by default. If your instrument toolbar
is not displayed, click the Instruments button on the Design Bar. When you
click this button, the Instruments toolbar appears. It includes one button for each
instrument as shown in Fig. (14).

11
 Fig. (14) Button for each instrument.

Virtual instruments have two views: the instrument icon you attach to your
circuit, and the opened instrument, where you set the instrument’s controls and
display options. The circuit in this example is ready for simulation except that we
have no way to see the output. The simulator in Workbench outputs only to
instruments which you connect to the circuit diagram. For this dc example we
will connect a voltmeter across R1 which we will take as the output. To connect
the voltmeter; select the multimeter from the Instruments toolbar on the right
side of the screen. Place the multimeter near the R1 resistor and connect the plus
terminal to the left of R1 and the minus terminal to the right of R1 as shown in
Fig. (15). Double click on the multimeter and verify that it is set up as a dc
voltmeter. Let the multimeter set up screen open so that you can view the results
of the simulation.

Fig. (15) Instrument connection

12
 Connect a multi-meter across R1. The voltage across R1 is taken as the
output voltage. Double click on the multi-meter to open the meter's setup and
view screen.
You can start the simulation by pressing the F5 function key, or by selecting
run from the Simulation menu at the top of the screen. The result of the
simulation will be shown on the multi-meter.

Fig. (16) The multimeter showing the results of the simulation

The Multi-meter also can be used as an ammeter or an Ohmmeter and, by

clicking on the Set... button you can manually set the impedance of the meters to
conform to real world instruments.
Workbench also has a voltmeter and an ammeter in the Indicators section of the
Parts Bin.

Laboratory Report
The report is written after the experiment is completed and should be
submitted to the lab. office after next lab. session. Some general guidelines are
given below. Your instructor may give you additional and specific guidelines for
preparing these reports.

Guidelines for Lab. Reports

For each experiment, you will submit a laboratory report. The laboratory
report is to be used to express in a written form the purpose, methods employed,

13
results obtained and conclusions reached in your experiment. It should be very
neat, concise and complete.
The common organization for laboratory reports:
1. Experiment title
2. Student name and the name(s) of the group
3. Date
4. Abstract
5. Introduction
6. Procedure
7. Data and analysis
8. Results and discussion
9. Conclusions
10. Data sheets
Each report should be clearly identified with (1) a title, (2) student name
and the name(s) the group, (3) the date the experiment is performed, and (4) an
abstract. The abstract should be a very brief overview of the goals and the main
results of the experiment. If a known electrical quantity was measured in the
experiment then the student should state the numerical value of the result that
he/she obtained for that quantity and also state how close his/her result was to the
expected result. It would be a good practice to write the abstract last.
The introduction (5) of a laboratory report identifies the experiment to be
undertaken, the objectives of the experiment, the importance of the experiment,
and overall background for understanding the experiment. The objectives of the
experiment are important to state because these objectives are usually analyzed in
the conclusion to determine whether the experiment succeeded. The background
often includes theoretical predictions for what the results should be, and the
experimental procedure (6) that were employed to complete the experiment. It is
not necessary (in fact it is undesirable) to give a step-by-step account of your
activities in the experiment. Rather you should summarize the main techniques
that used to get to the final result.

14
 The report must have a section entitled Data and Analysis (7) in which the
student lists and describe the raw experimental data collected during the
experiment. Include any tables, graphs, results of best fits… etc. as is appropriate
and describe how quantities were calculated from the raw data.
Results and discussion (8) the main section of a laboratory report is the
presentation of the results and the discussion of these results. The report should
have a section entitled conclusions in which a statement of the main result(s) of
the experiment and compares on these result(s) to the accepted or theoretical
value(s) (if available) by computing a percentage discrepancy.
In discussing the results, the student should not only analyze the results, but
also discuss the implications of these results. Moreover, pay attention to the
errors that existed in the experiment, both where they originated and what their
significance is for interpreting the reliability of conclusions. One important way
to present numerical results is to show them in graphs.
Finally, in long laboratory reports, a conclusion (9) section often appears.
Whereas the "Results and Discussion" section has discussed the results
individually, the "Conclusion" section discusses the results in the context of the
entire experiment. Usually, the objectives mentioned in the "Introduction" are
examined to determine whether the experiment succeeded. If the objectives were
not met, the student should analyze why the results were not as predicted. Note
that in short reports or in reports where "Discussion" is a separate section from
"Results," the student often do not have a "Conclusion" section.
At the end of the laboratory report staple the DATA Sheets (10) that been
used during the laboratory period to record the important data and results. Here
the student should show an example of each calculation that been used
throughout the experiment. Fig. 17 shows a sample data sheet.

15
ELECTRICAL LABORATORY 1 Form for DATA (only)

Experiment:
Student Name:
Page
Group name:
Date

Fig. (17) The sample of data sheet

16
Laboratory Safety
When working in any electrical laboratory, always keep electrical safety in
mind. Following are some safety rules that each student should be aware of
before beginning a laboratory experiment. Some of the rules do not apply to this
laboratory, but to other electrical laboratories.
1. Use only the equipment provided. Do not use other equipment unless the
laboratory instructor approves the use.
2. Keep all equipment properly grounded.
3. Avoid handling of exposed leads and conductors.
4. Turn off the power before changing components or connections.
5. To decrease the chances of being electrically shocked, wear dry shoes and
do not stand on metal or wet concrete. Also, do not wear any metal or
jewelry. Moreover, do not handle wires, components, or equipment with
wet hands.
6. Always check and re-check circuit wiring before applying power. Always
have a single switch or button that will immediately switch off power from
the circuit in case of trouble.
7. Always ask for directions or help if you are unsure of the correct
measurement procedure or circuit connection. If you don’t understand
what you are doing, seek assistance from the Lab. instructor.

17
 Experiment No: 1

Ohm's Law

1. Objects:
 Simulation of Ohm's Law and Resistance measurement using Electronic
Workbench software package (EWB).
 To get familiar with Ohm's law implementation in electric circuits,
moreover, voltage-current measurements, network reduction,
transformation and power supplied and consumed calculations are among
other electrical engineering principles a student should a quire.

2. Apparatus:
 Resistors (different ratings)
 (D.C) power supply
 Measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter)
 Filament lamp
 Connecting wires and board.

3. Theory:
In 1826 George Ohm published a paper, in which his measurements of
electricity were summarized in a simple relation between current and voltage,
using a constant that we call the resistance of the circuit.

Ohm's Law relates the current (I ) through a conducting material to the

voltage (V ) across its ends by:

V  R * I ................(1.1)
R is called the resistance of the material. For metals and most other

conductors, R is constant, that is, it is not dependent on the amount of

18
 current. In some materials "semiconductors" R is not constant, and this fact
is useful in many electrical applications.

Considering D.C quantities, if V is the potential difference across a

resistor R , and the current through it is I , then

V  R * I ...........................................1.1
Equation (1.1) is that of a straight line passing through the origin see Fig.

(1.1). It is obvious that the slope of the line is the resistance R ,

i.e:
Sv V (volt )
R  slope  ........(1.2)
Si I ( Amp)

 K tan(  )

where, S v = scale factor for the V -axis  V 


 cm 

S i =scale factor for the I  Amp 

-axis  
 cm 

K =scale ratio
Many electric circuits and devices or elements do have non-linear V I
characteristics, i.e. not as smooth and straight as shown in Fig. (1-1).
Fig. (1-2) shows such characteristics.
None of the shapes shown in Fig. (1-2) can be represented as a single linear
resistor.
Therefore, such characteristics can be obtained experimentally. Analyzing
circuits containing such non-linear elements mathematically requires a sort of

approximations in representing the V I characteristics by functions. Of such

approximations is the curve fitting technique. As an example, consider the
filament lamp characteristics of Fig. (1-3).

19
 Approximate the characteristics for all values of V and I greater than zero
by two straight lines, one can write the following two equations for such
piecewise linear approximation,
V1
V  I, for0  I  I1 (line1).....(1.3)
I1
and
V2
V  I, forI  I1 (line 2)...................(1.4)
I2
Using the approximated linear equation in circuit analysis yields
approximate solution. In order to obtain a more accurate result, graphical
method is worthy considering.

In linear circuits, if resistors of resistance R1 , R2 , R3 .........etc. are

connected in series, see Fig. (1-4a), the total equivalent resistance R is given
by:

R  R1  R2  R3..........  Rn ..............(1.5)
And, if they are connected in parallel, see Fig. (1-4b), the total equivalent
resistance R is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
    .........  ...........(1.6)
R R1 R2 R3 Rn
With regard to energy, electric circuits and system do follow the law of
conservation of energy. In other words, the sum of energy generated by the
sources equal to sum of energy consumed in the elements of the circuit(s).

Consider Fig. (1-5), if V represents the potential difference in volts across

a circuit or an element having resistance R in Ohms, carries a current I in
Amperes, supplied from a voltage source of E volts then:

V2
Pconsumed (Watts)  V * I  I * R 
2
...........(1.7)
R

20
 Psupplied(Watts)  E * I .............................(1.8)
and

Pconsumed  Psupplied

4. Procedure:
Part A: Simulation Analysis:
1-Simulation of Ohm's Law
In this section, Ohm's law will be investigated using the software Package
EWB to analyze the circuits. It is required that the circuit first be drawn on the
computer screen and then analyzed (simulated) to obtain the desired result.

A.1 Linear characteristics:

 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-6) in EWB.
 Vary the supply voltage source in the rang (E=0 to 10 V ) volts in
steps of 2 V a cross the ab terminals and make record of the current
in each case in table (1-1).
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-7) in EWB.

 Vary the resistance value of R2 in range (100 to 500 Ω ) in steps of

100 Ω ; make record of the current in each case in table (1-2).
A.2 Non-linear characteristics:
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-8) in EWB.
 Vary the supply voltage source in rang (E=10 to 30 V ) volts in steps of
5 V across the ab terminals and make record of the current in each case as
shown in table (1-3).
A.3 Simulation Resistance Measurement:
 Get the following three resistors: 390, 33, and 120 Ω . Measure the
resistance with the multimeter and conclude their values using the color
code system. Mark the nominal and the measured values in table (1-4).

21
  Calculate the percentage difference between the nominal and measured
value. Does the difference fall within the tolerance specified in the color
code?
 Connect the three resistors in series as shown in Fig. (1-9).
 Measure the total equivalent resistance, using the multimeter.
 If the resistors are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. (1-10), what is the
equivalent resistance?

Part B: Practical Implementations

B.1 V  I characteristics
B.1.1 Linear characteristics:
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-6).
 Vary the supply voltage source in rang (E=0 to 10 V ) volts in steps of 2 V
across the ab terminals and make record of the current in each case as in
table (1-1).
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-7).

 Vary the resistance value of R2 in range (100 to 500 Ω ) in steps of

100 Ω ; Record the current in each case in table (1-2).

B.1.2 Non-linear characteristics:
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1-8).
 Vary the supply voltage source in rang (E=10 to 30 V ) volts in steps of
5 V across the ab terminals and make record of the current in each case
in table (1-3).
 Linearize the characteristics using straight lines equations. Make a note
of these equations on your graph.

22
B.2 Resistance Measurements:
 Connect the circuit shown if Fig. (1-9)

 Use the Ohmmeter to measure the equivalent resistance Rab in each case.

 For the same combinations of resistors of Fig. (1-10) use voltage source
(E=5-20 V ) across the ab terminals and make a record of the supply
current, (two readings in each case)

 Find Rab and comment on results.

V
ΔV

Φ
ΔI I
Fig (1-1)

I I

V
(a) (b) photo- V
Vacuum tube
I V

(c) varistor V (d) filament I

lamp

Fig. (1-2)

23
 V

Line 2

Line
V1
0 I 2 I1

V2

Fig. (1-3)

R1

a R1 R2 R3 b a R2 b

(a) series R3
connection
(b)
parallel
Fig. (1-4) connectio
n

DC
source
+ Circuit or
_ E V Element R

Fig. (1-5)

24
 Table (1-1)
a I 100 
E(Volts) Current R1
I(mA) +
A
0 E _

2
4 R2 500
b
6
8 Fig. (1-6)

10

Table (1-2)
I
+ R1=100
R2 (Ω) Current
I(mA)
E=10v _ A
100
200
300 R2
100-500
400
500 Fig. (1-7)

Table (1-3)

Current
a I
R1=12 
E(Volts)
I (mA) +
10 _ A
E
15
20
25 b

30 Fig. (1-8)

25
 390

a 33 b

a R1 R2 R3 b
120
390 33  120

Fig. (1-9) Fig. (1-10)

Table (1-4)
RnomRmes/Rnom*100% Specified
Nominal Measured
Resistor Tolerance Comments
Value(Ώ) Value( Ω)
(%)
R1

R2

R3

Table (1-5) (All voltages in Volt and currents in Ampere)

E2=25
E1
Va Ia Vb Ib Vc Ic
5

10

15

20

25

26
5. Discussion:
1. Comment on your measurements.
2. Why the shunt resistor of the ammeter is low?
3. Why the series resistor of the voltmeter is high?

4. Draw and explain all ( V - I ) characteristics of your measurements.

5. A 30  and 40  resistors are connected in parallel then connected in
series with 50  resistors and 15 V voltage source forming a closed
circuit. Using EWB package calculate Requ, the drop voltage across
the parallel branch and the total current passing through the circuit.

6. For the circuit shown in Fig. (1-11), calculate Requ, Vab , I 2 , Psupplied

and Pconsumed in the 30 Ω resistor.

I 60 a 10 

I1 I2
E=10 Vab 80 
30

b 40 

Fig. (1-11)

27
 Experiment No: 2

Kirchhoff's Laws

1. Object:
 To verify Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws using (EWB) software
package.
 To verify Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws experimentally.

2. Apparatus:
 Resistors (different rating),
 (DC) power supply,
 Measuring instruments (Ammeter, Voltmeter, Ohmmeter),
 Filament lamp,
 Connecting wires and board.

3. Theory:
Thus far we have considered Ohm's law (Exp. No.1) and how it can be
used to find current, voltage and power associated with a resistor. However,
Ohm's law by itself cannot be used to analyze even the simplest circuit. Two laws
first stated by the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887) in 1847,
formally known as Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's voltage law
(KVL). Together with the terminal characteristics for the various circuit
elements, permits systematic analysis of any electrical network. To analyze a
network or a circuit is to know the voltage across and the current in every
element.

28
 Defining a node as "simply a point in a circuit at which two or more
circuit elements join", Kirchhoff's current law states: "The sum of the
currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving that node ".
Mathematically, KCL can be expressed:
N

I
n 1
n  0 ............ ( 2  1)

A variety of statements can be found in different texts. Where In is the

nth current entering (or leaving) the node and N is the number of node currents.
Consider Fig. (2-1), the nodes are labeled a, b, c and d, while the branches
are numbered 1, 2... and 6. At nodes a – d, the following four equations
(constraints) hold.
For node a,

I1  I 2  I 3  0
For node b,

I3  I 4  I5  0
For node c, ……….. (2-2)

 I1  I 4  I 6  0
For node d,

I 2  I5  I 6  0
In the sum (equations 2-2) we assigned a plus sign to those branch currents
whose direction entering into the node the sign for those leaving the node.
KCL is of extreme importance, and of the following features:
1- KCL imposes a linear constraint on the branch currents, viz, equations 2-2
are linear homogeneous algebraic equations.
2- KCL is independent of the nature of the lumped elements, i.e. it does not
matter whether the elements are, linear, non-linear, active … etc.
3- KCL expresses the conservation of charge at any and every node.

29
 In order to state Kirchhoff's voltage law, it is necessary first to define a
loop or a closed path , simply, a loop is a traversed path (two or more branches in
succession ) whose starting node is the same as its ending one.
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that: "The sum of all the voltages around any
closed path in a circuit equals zero".
Mathematically, KVL can be expressed:
N

V
n 1
n  0 ............ ( 2  3)

Where: Vn is the nth element voltage in a loop of N elements.

In order to apply KVL, assign a reference direction to the loop (see Fig. 2-
1, d1, d2). For the example loops chosen, all voltages in line with the reference
direction, have a plus sign and vice versa. Therefore, the loop voltage equations
(constraints) for the two loops chosen:
For loop 1,

 V4  V5  V6  0
............ (2-4)
For loop 2,

V1  V2  V4  V5  0
The followings are the features of KVL,
1- KVL imposes a linear constraint between branch voltages of a loop.
2- KVL applies to any lumped electric circuit; it does not matter whether the
circuit elements are linear, non linear, passive… etc. In other wards, KVL
is independent of the nature of the elements.

30
4. Procedure:
A Simulation part
1- Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (2-2) in EWB.
2- Make a record of all the branch currents with regards to their signs.
3- Make a record of all the branch voltages (with polarities).
4- Replace resistor R3 by the filament lamp and repeat 2, 3 above.
5- Mark your readings obtained in table (2-1) and verify Kirchhoff's Law's
accordingly.
6- Derive the proper equations for all branch currents and voltages in terms of
E1, E2, R1, R2, R3, using KCL and KVL. (For time saving, you can do
this step before-hand at your spare time).
7- Compare the results of 6 after substituting for the unknowns, with those
obtained in 2 and 3. Mark calculated values of current and voltage in table
(2-1).
B. Practical implementation
1- Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (2-2)
2- Make a record of all the branch currents with regards to their signs.
3- Make a record of all the branch voltages (with polarities).
4- Replace resistor R3 by the filament lamp and repeat 2, 3 above.
5- Mark your reading obtained in table (2-1) and verify Kirchhoff's Law's
accordingly.
6- Derive the proper equations for all branch currents and voltages in
terms of E1, E2, R1, R2, R3, using KCL and KVL. (For time saving,
you can do this step before-hand at your spare time).
7- Compare the results of 6 after substituting for the unknowns, with those
obtained in 2 and 3. Enter calculated values of current and voltage in
table (2-1).

31
5. Simulation and theoretical Exercises:
1- What must be the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig. (2-3) for zero
current in the 5 Ohm resistor? Check your answer using EWB package
software.
2- The terminal voltage V of the load of resistor RL = 200 Ω (see Fig. 2-4), is
controlled by a voltage divider of total resistance R d = 1200 Ω. Using
EWB plot the voltage V as a function of the resistance R x as it varies from
zero to Rd, known that Vd =220 V.
Rx
3- Derive V x  V  in the circuit shown in Fig. (2-5).
Rx  R y

Ry
4- Derive I x  I  in the circuit shown in Fig. (2-6).
Rx  R y

5- Comment on the results obtained in the practically implemented and the

simulated circuits.
a

V1
1 3 V3

c
V4
4 b 2 V2

6 5 V5
V6
d

Fig. (2-1)

32
 R1 R2
68Ω 82Ω
E1 6V R3 51Ω 12V E2

Fig. (2-2)

2Ω 5Ω R
6V 10Ω 30Ω 12V

Fig. (2-3)

Vd Rd RL
V
Rx

Fig. (2-4)

Vx
I
Rx
V Ix Rx Ry
V Ry

Fig. (2-5) Fig. (2-6)

33
6. H.W
Find the branch currents and voltages (with polarities) in the circuit shown
in Fig. (2-7).

R4

R1 R2
E2
E1 R3
R9

R5 R6 R7

R8

Fig. (2-7)

Table (2-1)
Simulation Data Measured data
Ammeter
Step Current Voltmeter
Voltage (Volt) reading
No. (Ampere) reading (Volt)
(Ampere)
I R1 I R2 I R3 VR1 VR 2 VR 3 I R1 I R2 I R3 VR1 VR 2 VR 3

2-2
&
2-3
2-4
2-5
Theoretical calculations
2-7

34
 Experiment No: 3

Δ-Y and Y-Δ Circuit Conversions

1. Objects:
1. Simulation of the Δ-Y and Y-Δ circuit conversions using EWB
software.
2. To verify Δ-Y and Y-Δ circuit conversions practically.

2. Apparatus:
 Multimeter.
 Several resistors.
 D.C. power supply.

3. Theory:
Consider the resistors Ra , R and Rc which are connected in Δ, Fig. (3-1a),
b
the equivalent Y connected resistors must satisfy the condition that the total
resistance between any two terminals in one configuration must be equal to that
in the second configuration. Consider the Y configuration shown in Fig. (3-1b)
From Fig. (3-1a):
R (R  R )
R  c a b ....................(3.1)
ab R R R
a b c
From Fig. (3-1b):
R  R  R .................................(3.2)
ab 1 2
The following condition must apply:

35
 R (R  R )
R R  c a b ...........................(3.3)
1 2 R R R
a b c
Similarly for Rac :

R (R  R )
R R  b a c ............................(3.4)
1 3 R R R
a b c
And for Rbc :

R (R R )
R  R  a b c ..........................(3.5)
2 3 R R R
a b c
Solving equations (3.3), (3. 4) and (3.5) for the unknowns, R1 , R 2 and R3 in

terms of Ra , R b and Rc yields:

R R
R  b c .........................(3.6)
1 R R R
a b c
R R
R  a c .......................(3.7)
2 R R R
a b c
R R
R  a b .......................(3.8)
3 R R R
a b c
Or solving the same equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5) for the unknowns
Ra , R and Rc in terms of R , R and R yields:
b 1 2 3
R R R R R R
Ra  1 2 1 3 2 3 .......................(3.9)
R
1
R R R R R R
R  1 2 1 3 2 3 ......................(3.10)
b R
2
R R R R R R
Rc  1 2 1 3 2 3 .......................(3.11)
R
3

36
4. Procedure:
Part A: Simulation
1. Connect the circuit of Fig. (3-2).
2. Measure the current in each branch.
3. Measure the voltage across ab , ac and bc .
4. Disconnect from the supply and measure R R R
ab , ac and bc .
5. Calculate the equivalent of, R1 , R 2 and R3 .

6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for the circuit in Fig. (3-3).

Part B: Practical Implementations

1. Connect the circuit of Fig. (3-2).
2. Measure the current in each branch.
3. Measure the voltage across ab , ac and bc .
4. Disconnect from the supply and measure R R R
ab , ac and bc .
5. Calculate the equivalent of, R1 , R 2 and R3 and connect the Y equivalent.

6. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 above.

5. Discussions:
1. Derive equations (3.6) and (3.9).
2. Check your measurements of the currents and voltages with
Kirchhoff's laws.
3. Verify that the total power consumed in the Δ connected resistances is equal
to that consumed by the Y connected resistances.
4. Compare your measurements of currents, voltages and powers with the
calculated values of the same parameters and discuss.

37
6. H.W
1. In Fig. (3-1a), if Ra =100Ω, R =150 Ω and Rc =200Ω. Calculate the value
b
of, R1 , R 2 and R3 in the equivalent Y configuration.

2. In Fig. (3-1b), if R1 =33Ω, R 2 = 47 Ω and R3 =68Ω Calculate the value of,

Ra , R and Rc in the equivalent Δ configuration.

b
3. Calculate the equivalent resistance seen across the supply in the circuit shown
in Fig. (3-4).
a b

R1 R2
RC
a b

Rb Ra R3

c c

(a) Delta connection Fig. (3-1) (b) Star connection

220 a
A

+ 100
- 4V 150

A b
+ c 200 
- 4V
A

Fig. (3-2)

38
 220  a
A

33 
+
- 4V

44 
66 
A b
c
+
- 4V
A

Fig. (3-3)

R4

R1 6K  R2

+ 4K  4K 
- 400V

R5 3K  R3 4K  R1 12 K 

Fig. (3-4)

39
 Experiment No: 4

Superposition and Reciprocity Theorems

1. Object:
 To acquire the knowledge of implementing the superposition theorem as a
tool in performing network analysis using (EWB) software and verify it
practically.
 To verify the reciprocity theorem using (EWB) software and verify it
practically.

2. Apparatus:
 Resistors of different ratings,
 D.C power supply,
 Measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter),
 Connecting wires and board.

3. Theory:
A. Superposition Theorem
In a linear network containing more than one source (current or voltage) the
resultant current through and voltage across any branch is the algebraic sum of
currents and voltages that would be produced by each source, acting alone with
all the other sources being replaced meanwhile by their respective internal
resistances.
B. Reciprocity Theorem
The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks. It is,
not a theorem employed in the analysis of multisource networks. The theorem
states the following:

40
 The current I in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E
anywhere else in the network, will equal the current through the branch in which
the source was originally located, if the source is placed in the branch in which
the current I was originally measured. In other words, the location of the voltage
source and the resulting current may be interchanged without a change in current.
The theorem requires that the polarity of the voltage source has the same
correspondence, with the direction of the branch current in each position. In the
representative network of Fig. (4-1a), the current I due to the voltage source E
was determined. If the position of each is interchanged as shown in Fig. (4-1b),
the current I will be the same value as indicated.

4. Procedure:
Simulation
Part A:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (4-2), and set V1 and V2 to fixed values
which you most keep constant throughout the experiment.

2. Measure the branch current I1 , I 2 & I 3 .

3. Repeat step 2 with source V2 replaced by a short circuit. (Note: Disconnect
the source V2 first and jumper the circuit leads). See Fig. (4-3). Now, mark
the currents as I 1' , I 2' & I 3' .
4. Repeat step 3 with source V1 replaced by short circuit. see Fig. (4-4). Now,
mark the current as I 1" , I 2" & I 3" .

5. Calculate I 1 , I 2 and I 3 from:

I1 = I 1' + I1''
I 2 = I 2' + I 2''
I 3 = I 3' + I 3'' .

41
 6. Using the superposition theorem and for the given values of R1 , R2 , R3 , V1

and V2 , calculate I1 , I 2 and I 3 and compare with the measured values.

Part B:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (4-5).

2. Measure the current I 2 .

3. Rearrange the circuit of Fig. (4-5) as shown in Fig. (4-6), measure the

current I 3 and compare with I 2 .

Practical Implementation
Repeat all steps in parts A & B above.

5. Discussion:
1. What is the condition under which the superposition theorem can be applied?
2. Is the total power dissipated in resistance R of Fig. (4-7), is equal to the sum

of the powers due to each of the sources V1 and V2 acting alone? Explain.
Note Tabulate your results as shown in Table (4.1) for part A & Table (4.2)
for part B.

6. H.W
1. For the circuit shown in Fig. (4-8), calculate the current through the 9 Ω
resistor using superposition theorem.
2. For the circuit shown in Fig. (4-9), determine the current I . Is the
reciprocity theorem satisfied?

42
 R1 R2 a R1 R2
a

I
+ R3 R4
-E R3 R4 c
c

+
-
I b d
b d
E
Fig. (4-1b)
Fig. (4-1a)

I1 R1 R2 I2
56 Ω I3 82 Ω
+ R3 +
10 V 47 Ω 7V
_ _

Fig. (4-2)

I1' R1 R2 I2'
A A
56 Ω 82 Ω
+ I3'
10 V
_ A

R3 47 Ω

Fig. (4-3)
I ''
1 R1 R2 I2''
A A
56 Ω ''
I 82 Ω
3

A +
_ 7V

R3 47 Ω

Fig. (4-4)
43
 R1 R2
R1 R2
56 Ω 82 Ω
56 Ω 82 Ω
R3 47 Ω R3 47 Ω +
I2 10 V
_ _
10 V +
I3

Fig (4-5) Fig (4-6)

R3 R1
6Ω

R4 R 4Ω
R2
4A 9Ω
12 Ω
32 V
V1 V2

Fig. (4-7) Fig. (4-8)

8Ω 6Ω

24 24V
I E 20Ω
24Ω

Fig. (4-9)

44
 Table (4.1)

Simulation Data Measured Data

Step No. Current (Ampere) Current reading (Ampere)

I1 I 2 I 3 I 1' I 2' I 3' I1'' I 2'' I 3'' I1 I 2 I 3 I 1' I 2' I 3' I1'' I 2'' I 3''

Table (4.2)

Simulation Data Measured Data

Step No. (Amper) (Amper)

I3 I2 I3 I2
2

45
 Experiment No: 5

Thevenin´s and Norton's Theorems

1. Object:
To acquire the knowledge of implementing Thevenin´s and Norton's
theorems as tools in performing network reduction and analysis using (EWB)
software and verify them practically .

2. Apparatus:
 Resistors of different ratings.
 D.c power supplies.
 Measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter).
 Connecting wires and board.

3. Theory:
3.1 Thevenin´s Theorem:
An extremely useful equivalent circuit theorem stated by Thevenin in
1887applies to circuits containing active as well as passive elements. The
theorem states that:
"Any active network of circuits having two accessible terminals A and B can
be replaced, so far as its external behavior is concerned, by a single e.m.f
( E th ) acting in series with a single resistance between A and B ( Rth ). The

value of the e.m.f is that which exists between A and B when the external
circuits are disconnected. The value of the series resistance is that of the
internal resistance between A and B when all active sources are replaced by
their internal resistances".

46
3.2 Norton's Theorem:
Norton's theorem is a variation of Thevenin´s theorem and bears a close
resemblance to it. Just as Thevenin´s theorem show how to find a simple series
equivalent to an active network, so Norton's theorem show how to find a simple
parallel equivalent to an active network. Norton's theorem states that:
"Any network of circuits having two accessible terminals A and B can be
replaced, so far as its external behavior is concerned, by a single current
source ( I N ), acting in parallel with a resistance between A and B ( R N ). The

value of IN is that which flows in a zero resistance wire between A and B

when the external circuits are disconnected. The value of the parallel
resistance is that of the internal resistance between A and B when all active
sources are replaced by their internal resistances".
There is an important relationship between the Thevenin and Norton
equivalents of an active resistive network. Such relationship may be obtained by
applying a source transformation to either equivalent.
Eth As shown in Fig. (5-1.a).
I 
Rth  RL

Eth
If IN  and Rth  RN
Rth

Eth Rth  RL 1
I  
Rth Rth  RL RL

RN E Rth
I  IN   th  as shown in Fig. (5-1.b).
R N  RL Rth Rth  RL

47
4. Procedure:
Part (A) Simulation
Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (5-2) and set V1 and V2 to fixed values
which you must keep constant through out the experiment.

4.1 Thevenin´s Theorem:

1. Taking R1 as the load of the circuit of Fig. (5-2) measure the current through it
by connecting a suitable ammeter in series with resistance R1 . This is load

current I L .

2. Remove R1 (and the ammeter) and replace by a suitable voltmeter between A

and B, take the voltmeter reading. This is Vth .

3. Remove power sources V1 and V2 , short circuit.

4. Measure the resistance between A and B using a suitable ohmmeter. This
is Rth .

5. Using Thevenin´s theorem and given values of R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 , R5 , V1 andV2 ,

calculate Vth , Rth and I L and compare with the measured values.
6. Draw Thevenin´s equivalent circuit.
7. Repeat steps 1-6 taking R2 , R3 , R4 , and R5 as the load.

4.2 Norton's Theorem:

1. Repeat step 1 of section 4.1.
2. Replace R1 by a short circuiting wire, and note ammeter reading. This is I N .

3. Repeat step 3 of section 4.1.

4. Measure the resistance between A and B using a suitable Ohmmeter. This
is R N .

5. Using Norton's theorem and given values of R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 , R5 , V1 andV2 ,

calculate I N , R N and I L and compare with the measured values.

48
6. Draw Norton's equivalent circuit.
7. Repeat step 1-6 taking R2 , R3 , R4 , and R5 as the load alternately.

Note: always tabulate your results (See table 5-1).

Part (B) Practical Implementation

Repeat all steps in part A practically using the resistors & board, & power
supplies.

5. Theoretical Exercise:
For the network shown in Fig. (5-3) calculate the galvometer (G) current
using (a) Thevenin´s theorem (b) Norton's theorem; take the galvanometer
resistance as 1Ω.

6. Discussion:
1. Comment on your results.
2. Can you verify Thevenin´s and Norton's theorem? Explain.

7. H.W
For the circuit shown in Fig. (5-4) uses the Thevenin's and Norton's
theorem to find the current flowing through the 6 Ω resistor.
A A
• •
I
Rth I
IN RN RL
RL
Eth

• •
B B

(a) Fig. (5-1) (b)

49
 A 82Ω B 68Ω 150Ω

R1 R2 R3
V1 2.5 V 200Ω R 4 220Ω R5 2.5 V V2

Fig. (5-2)

3Ω 6Ω
4Ω

G 10V
4Ω 12V

6Ω 3Ω
2A 2Ω 6Ω

Fig. (5-3) Fig. (5-4)

Table (5-1)

RL(Ω) Rth (Ω) E th (V) R N (Ω) I N (A) I L (A)

R182

R268

R3200

R4220

R5150

50
 Experiment No: 6

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

1. Object:
To get acquainted with the cathode ray oscilloscope (C. R. O).

2. Apparatus:
 Oscilloscope.
 D.C. power supply.
 Signal generator.
 Resistor and capacitor.

3. Theory:
An oscilloscope is an electronic instrument capable of displaying a time
varying function (e.g. electric signal) on its screen. From the displayed electric
signal, voltage or current and time or frequency of the signal may be measured.
The oscilloscope comprises three basic units, namely the screen, the electron
gun and the electrostatic plates. The screen of the oscilloscope is made of
phosphorous compound which gives light when hit by an electron beam. The
electron beam which originates from an electron gun is steered by vertical and
horizontal parallel electrostatic plates as it is shown in Fig. (6.1) A potential
difference on the horizontal plates moves the electron beam horizontally while a
potential difference on the vertical plates moves the electron beam vertically as
shown in Fig. (6-2).
As the polarity of the potential difference varies with time, the electron beam
spot moves horizontally or vertically on the screen of the oscilloscope. If the
polarity of the potential differences is changed at a rate greater than 16 times /
sec, then the electron beam spot draw a horizontal or vertical line on the screen.
51
The horizontal axis on the oscilloscope represents the time –axis and it is
controlled by a time base signal which is internally generated. While the vertical
axis on the oscilloscope represents the amplitude-axis and it is controlled by the
signal to be displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope.

4. Procedure:
(a) D.C. voltage measurements:
1. Turn the time base vernire completely counter clock wise until it clicks.
Adjust the vertical and horizontal positions of the spot until it is at the
centre of the screen. This is the electron beam without any potential
differences on the X and Y plates.
2. Connect the D.C power supply to the vertical plates (Y-amplifier) of the
oscilloscope and apply the voltage 1V, 5V, 50 mV and -6.8V (for each
value of voltage use a different scale) then measure the deflection of the
spot in cm, for each voltage.

(b) A.C. voltage measurements:

In order to display an A.C voltage on the screen of an oscilloscope, the
time-base generator (X-amplifier) of the oscilloscope should be turned on.
Connect the signal generator to the vertical plates (Y-amplifier), then set the
amplitude and the frequency of the signal generator to the following values.

Amplitude frequency (kHz)

2V 0.25
0.5 V 0.30
50 mV 1.0

Draw the signal displayed on the screen for each case and measure the period
(time from creast to creast (T)) of the signal displayed on the screen.

52
(c) Addition of two signals:
1. Connect the signal generator to the Y-plate (Y-amplifier) of the
oscilloscope, and then set the oscillator amplitude to 3 volts and its
frequency to 300 Hz. Connect the other Y amplifier (channel B) of the
oscilloscope to the D.C. power supply and set its voltage to (+2 Volts).
2. Draw the D.C. and A.C. signals.
3. Change the switch on the oscilloscope from (A or B) position to the
(Add) position. Draw the resultant signal which is the superposition of
A.C. and D.C signals.
4. Repeat steps (1 to 3) for a D.C. voltage of (-2Volts)
5. Connect the input of the circuit shown in Fig. (6-3) to Y_amplifire
(channel A) of the oscilloscope and the output of the same circuit to the
Y_amplifire (channel B) of the oscilloscope. Thus on channel A an A.C.
signal of amplitude 2Volt and frequency 300 Hz, is displayed while on
channel B, the output of the circuit shown in Fig. (6-3) is displayed.
Observe that the output signal differs in phase and amplitude from the
input signal.
6. Draw both signals and measure the phase shift.
7. Add both signals and draw the resultant signal.

5. Discussion:
1. Discuss the deflection of electron beam in a C.R.O in electric and
magnetic fields.
2. Explain how an oscilloscope may be used to display a current
waveform.
3. Comment on the resultant signal of the circuit shown in Fig. (6-3).

53
 Y- plates

Cathode
•
screen

Intens
focus

X- plates

Fig. (6-1)

screen
Vertical or
Y- plates

Horizontal or
X- plates

Electron beams
spot

Fig. (6-2)

Vin Vc

AC Channel B
Channel A

Fig. (6-3)

54
 Experiment No: 7

Impedance Elements Characteristics

1. Object

Study the effect of the frequency on Resistance (R), Inductance

(L), and Capacitance (C).

2. Apparatus
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 A.C power supply
 Resistance(500Ω),Inductance(300mH) and Capacitance(0.1 μF).

3. Theory
1) Resistance:
Suppose that the applied voltage is A
e=Em Sin (wt)
Therefore: V R
i  e  Em Sin(wt)
R R
R  e  Em
i Im

The resistance R is constant and it is not affected by the frequency (f).

55
 1) Inductance:
Suppose that the applied voltage is
e  Em Sin(wt)
di
eL
dt
di A
Em Sin(wt)  L
dt
Em
di  Sin(wt)dt
L V L
Em Em π
i Cos(wt)  Sin(wt  )
WL WL 2
π
i  ImSin(wt  )
2
Em
Where : Im 
WL
Em
 XL   WL  2fL
Im
The inductive reactance XL is directly proportional with frequency (f).

3) Capacitance
Suppose that the applied voltage is A
e  Em Sin(wt)
de
iC  WCE mCos(wt)
dt V
C
π
i  WCE mSin(wt  )
2
Where : Im  WCE m
Em Em 1 1
 XC    
Im WCE m WC 2πfC
The capacitive reactance XC is inversely proportional with the
frequency (f).

56
4. Procedure
-Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1), with 10volt supply (V P.P),
R=500Ω.
-Change the frequency up to 5 KHz and record voltmeter and ammeter
readings at each step (record 10 readings).

F (KHz) V I R=V/I
0.5

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

57
Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (2), with10volt supply (VP.P),
L=300mH.
-Change the frequency from 400-2200 Hz and record voltmeter and
ammeter readings at each step (record 10 readings).

F (Hz) V I XL=V/I XL=2πfL

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

58
-Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (3), with 10 volt supply (V P.P),
C=0.1μF
-Change the frequency from 1-8 KHz and record voltmeter and
ammeter readings at each step (record 10 readings).

F (KHz) V I XC=V/I XC=1/2πfC

1

1.5

2.5

5. Discussion
- Compare between the simulation and practical results.
-Draw the curves that show the change of R, XL and XC with the
frequency (f).
-Discuss the curves. What are your conclusions?
-At which frequency that makes XL=XC?
59
 Experiment No: 8

RLC Series Circuit

1. Object:
Study the characteristics of A.C. series circuits.

2. Required Parts and Equipments:

 Resistance 270 Ω,
 Inductance 300 mH,
 Capacitance 0.7 μ F,
 Oscilloscope,
 Signal generator,
 Bread board.

Useful Formulas:
AC voltage –current relationships for RL, RC and RLC series circuits.

RL circuit
Z  R  jXL Where X L  2f L
V  Vrms  I  I rms0

Z 
Vrms Vrms XL
and Z  Z    tan 1
I rms I rms0 R

R R

L jX L
V  Vm 

60
RC circuit
1
Z  R  jXc where XC 
2 fC
V  V rms    I  I rms0
V V  
XC
Z  rms and Z  rms  Z    tan 1
I rms I rms0 R

R R

C  jX C
V  Vm 

RLC circuit
XL  XC
Z  R  JX L  JX C  R  J ( X L  X C )   tan 1
R
R R
jX L
L
C  jX C
V  Vm 

Phasor diagram
1. If X L  X C is shown in Fig (7-1 a & b) where VL , VR and VC are vector

quantities.
2. If X L  X C is shown in Fig (7-2 a & b) where VL ,VR and VC are vector

quantities.

61
3. Procedure:
Part A: Simulation
1. Turn the (EWB) program ON.
2. Connect the resistance and inductance in series as shown in Fig. (7-3).
3. Adjust the function generator to 200 Hz, 10 V and 50% duty cycle.
4. Select sine waveform, turn the circuit ON for about 50 ms then turn it
OFF.
5. Measure the phase shift between the current I and the input voltage V
using oscilloscope.
6. Print the result of the display graph.
7. Draw the Phasor diagram.
8. Connect the resistance and capacitance in series as shown in Fig. (7-4).
9. Repeat steps 3 to 7.
10. Connect the resistance, inductance and capacitance in series as shown in
Fig. (7-5). Draw the Phasor and impedance diagrams.

Part B: Practical implementation

1. Connect the resistance and inductance in series as shown in Fig (7-3).
2. Repeat steps 3 to 10 in part A.

4. Discussion:
1. Compare between the theoretical and computer simulation results.
2. Can we obtain a plot of X L against frequency f experimentally?
3. Explain why Phasor and impedance diagrams have the same angles.
4. What is the value of Phasor shift if
R  300  L  400 mH with f  50 Hz. Discuss the increase or decrease
in the phase shift.

62
VL jX L
VRL ZRL
V Z

 
VR R
VC jX C

Fig. (7-1a) Fig. (7-1b)

VL jXL
VRL ZRL

VR R
 
V Z

VC jXC

Fig. (7-2a) Fig. (7-2b)

- +
300 mH 300 Ω

Fig. (7-3)

63
 - +
0. 7 µ F 300 Ω

Fig. (7-4)

- + 0. 7 µ F 300Ω
300 mH

Fig. (7-5)

5. H.W
For the circuit shown in Fig. (7-6), you can only measure the voltage Vs ,Vc ,VR .
Derive an expression for the coil power factor in terms the above voltages?

r+jXL R

VC VR

Vs

Fig. (7-6)

64
 Experiment No: 9 .

RLC Parallel Circuit

1. Object:
Study the characteristics of A.C. parallel circuits.

2. Required Parts and Equipments:

 Resistance (300, 100)Ω,
 Inductance 300 mH,
 Capacitance 0.7µF,
 Oscilloscope,
 Signal generator,
 Bread board.

Useful formulas:
AC voltage-current relationships for RL, RC and RLC parallel circuits.

RL Circuit

Total admittance B  G  jBL , where BL  1  1

XL  L
I I rms   BL
I  I rms  , B   B  ,   tan 1
V Vrms 0 G

G  jBL

65
RC Circuit:
1 BC
Total admittance B  G  jBC where BC   C ,   tan 1
XC G

V Vrms 0 , I  I rms  , B  I  I rms   B 

V Vrms 0

G jBC

RLC Circuit
BC  BL
B  G  jBC  jBL  G  j ( BC  BL )   tan 1
G
 may be either positive or negative.

G jBC  jBL

3. Procedure:
Part A
1. Turn the EWB program ON.
2. Connect the resistance and inductance in parallel as shown in Fig. (8-1).
3. Adjust the function generator to 200 Hz and 50% duty cycle.
4. Select sine waveform, turn the circuit ON for about 50 ms then turn it
OFF.
5. Measure the phase shift between the current I and the input voltage V
using oscilloscope.
6. Print the result of the display graph.
7. Draw the Phasor diagram.
8. Connect the resistance and capacitance in parallel as shown in Fig. (8-2).

66
 9. Repeat steps 3 to 7.
10. Connect the resistance, inductance and capacitance in parallel as shown in
Fig. (8-3). Draw the Phasor and impedance diagram.
11. Connect the resistance, inductance and capacitance as shown in Fig. (8-4).
Draw the Phasor and impedance diagrams.

Part B
Repeat Part A practically.

4. Discussion:
1. Compare between the theoretical and computer simulation results.
2. Is the phase angle  is the same that for RLC series circuit, why?
3. Calculate the total admittance B for circuit shown in step 11 in two
different ways?
4. What the value of phase shift if R  300 Ω L  400 mH
with f  50 Hz .Discuss the increase or decrease in the phase shift.

- +
300 Ω

300 mH 100 Ω

Fig. (8-1)

67
 - +
300 Ω

0.7 μ F 100 Ω

Fig. (8-2)

300 Ω
- +
0.7 μ F
100 Ω

300 mH 100 Ω

Fig. (8-3)

- +
300 mH 300 Ω

0.7 μ F 100 Ω

Fig. (8-4)

68
 Experiment No: 10

Resonance in Series and Parallel Circuits

1. Object:
To investigate the variation of impedance of a series and parallel RLC
circuits in the region of resonant frequency.

2. Required Parts and Equipments:

 Resistance 100Ω,
 Inductance 0.01 H,
 Capacitance 0.01 µF,
 Oscilloscope,
 Signal generator,
 Bread broad,
 Voltmeter,
 Ammeter.

Useful formulas
1
The resonance frequency is f 0  . The series resonance
2 LC
X L  X C can be achieved by changing the supply frequency because
1 are frequency dependent.
X L  2 f L and X C 
2 f c
The higher the supply frequency, the greater X L and the smaller X C , as

shown in Fig. (9-1).

69
3. Procedure:
Part A
Series RLC circuit
1- Turn the EWB program ON.
2- Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (9-2).
3- Set the voltmeter to 6 Vr.m.s.
4- Select sine waveform; vary the oscillator from 14 kHz to 17 KHz in steps of
0.5 kHz.
5- Record the reading of the voltmeter at each step as in table (9-1).

Parallel RLC circuit

 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (9-3), and repeat the above procedure.

Part B
Repeat part A practically.

4. Calculations:
1. Evaluate the impedance of the series and parallel circuits at each step.
2. Plot a graph of X L and X C w.r.t. of frequency.
3. Plot a graph of impedance w.r.t. of frequency.
4. Determine the value of the impedance at the resonant frequency.
5. Compare the value of the resonant frequency to the theoretical value.

5. Discussion:
1- Compare the value of the resonant frequency in the EWB programming to
the experimental value.
2- Comment on the results you have obtained.

70
 X L, XC

XL

R
XC

f
f

Fig. (9-1)

- +
A - +
A
100 Ω
100 Ω
0.01 H V
V
0.01 µF
0.01 µF 0.01 H

Fig. (9-2) Fig. (9-3)

Table (9-1)
Frequency (kHz) Ir.m.s (A)

71
 Experiment No: 11

Maximum Power Transfer

1. Object:
To study the maximum power transfer theorem in AC circuits.

2. Required Parts and Equipments:

 Resistance,
 Inductance,
 Capacitance,
 Ammeter,
 Signal generator,
 Bread broad.

3. Theory:
The transferred power in an electrical system is the real power since it can be
converted into form like heat and mechanical power.
In general the source of power can be replaced by a generator connected in series
to a complex impedance.
Accordingly a load condition must be satisfied to achieve the maximum transfer
of real power. This condition can be obtained as follows:
E = the source emf.

Z S = the constant source impedance.

Z L = the load impedance.

Z S  RS  jX S

Z L  RL  jX L
E
Then I 
ZS  ZL

72
The apparent power: S  I 2 Z L  I 2 ( RL  jX L )
E 2 RL E 2 RL
The real power becomes: P  I RL  2

Z s  Z L  2 ( RS  RL ) 2  ( X L  X S ) 2

Since Z L contains two variables RL and X L separately i.e. holding one constant
and the other variable.
Form the above formula it is obvious that for a certain value of RL , the greatest
power P corresponding to XL variation is when X L   X S therefore.
E 2 RL
P
( RS  R L ) 2

Taking the differential and equating the derivative to zero,

dp ( R  R L ) 2  2 R L ( RS  R L )
 E2 S 0
dRL ( RS  R L ) 4

Or RL  RS
Therefore to achieve the maximum power transfer, the load impedance must be:
Z L  RS  jX S or Z L  Z S*

Where Z S* is the conjugate of Z S .

This principle can be expressed in words as follows: for maximum power
transfer; impedance of the load should be equal to the complex conjugate of the
equivalent impedance of the source.
At this load condition the maximum real power transfer from the source to the
load
E 2 RL E2
Pmax  
( RL  RL ) 2 4 RL

4. Procedure:
Part A
1- Turn the EWB program ON.
2- Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (10-1).
3- Set the input voltage to 10 Volts 50 Hz and keep it constant.

73
 4- Keep the load resistance RL at 800 Ω.
5- Vary the capacitance C L until you got maximum current in the ammeter.
Record the value of the current and C L .
6- Vary the capacitance from 0 to 0.05 µF in steps of 0.005µF record the
current in each steps.
7- Keep the capacitance at the value you got in step 5.
8- Vary the load resistance from 800 Ω to 2800 Ω in steps of 200 Ω and take
the reading of ammeter in each case.
Part B
Repeat part A practically.

5. Calculations:
1- Calculate the real power P from step 5 and 6 then draw a graph of P
against X C , ( P  I 2  RL ) .
2- Calculate the real power P from step 8, and then draw a graph of P
against RL .
3- Compare between the graphs in the above calculation with those you
obtained from the practical results.

517mH 800Ω
A
800Ω
10V/1400Hz/ 0 Deg
6 Vr.m.s

0.025µF

Fig. (10-1)

74
 Experiment No: 12

Power Factor Improvement

1. Object:
To gain knowledge on power factor correction and improvement it.

2. Required Parts and Equipments:

 Resistance,
 Inductance,
 Capacitance,
 Ammeter,
 AC power supply,
 Bread broad.

Useful formulas:
P P
PF    cos 
S Q  P2
2

Where PF is power factor, P is real power in Watt  V  I  cos  , Q is reactive

power in var  V  I  sin  , S is apparent power in VA  V  I and  is the
phasor angle (lead or lag) between V & I phasors. To improve the power factor
the apparent power S has to be made closer to real power P, this can be achieved
if Q is reduced by inserting a capacitor in parallel with the load.

75
3. Procedure:
Part A
1- Turn the EWB program ON.
2- Connect the circuit shown in Fig. (11-1).
3- Set the mode of the ammeter and voltmeter to AC mode.
4- Set the voltage to 20V and keep it constant.
5- Measure the voltage by the voltmeter.
6- Change the capacitor in 0.1 µF steps up to Cmax=1.5 µF and record the
current in 15 the steps.
Part B
Repeat A practically

4. Calculations:
1- Calculate the power factor in each step.
2- Plot a graph of PF against C.
3- Plot a graph of the total current magnitude against C

5. Discussion:
1- Compare the practical result t with computer simulation results.
2- Draw the power triangle of the circuit.
3- How can you improve the PF in capacitive circuits?
4- In an inductive single phase circuit, derive the expression for required
capacitive C in farad in order to improve the power factor from cos 1 to
cos2

50 Ω
V
6 V/50 Hz/0 Deg
0.9 H

Fig. (11-1)

76