Data processing & analysis

Data processing

Data Processing is a way of organizing collected data to make it easier to analyze

and understand. When data is collected, it often comes in a raw and unorganized
form, making it hard to interpret or use for any meaningful purpose. Since the
human mind has limits in handling large amounts of unorganized information,
statistical techniques are used to give the data structure and clarity.

Processing ensures that all the important data is ready for comparisons and
analysis. As Mill said, the first job of a statistician is to organize numbers in a way
that their meaning can be understood, comparisons with other data can be made,
and further analysis is possible. In simple terms, processing makes raw data
manageable and useful.

The process of data handling involves steps like editing, coding, classifying, and
tabulating the data so that it can be analyzed effectively. This step is essential for
making the information clear and ready for use.

Processing stages

1)Editing
2)Coding
3)Classification
4)Tabulation

1)Editing
When data collected through schedule and questionnaire there are chances for
incompleteness, inaccuracy,inconsistency and absence of uniformity in the answers.
Editing is the process of checking the data to detect errors and omissions

Features of Editing

Features of Editing Data in Data Processing and Analysis in Social

Science Research Methodology

1. Error Detection
Editing identifies errors, inconsistencies, or missing data in the collected
data. It ensures that the data is correct and acceptable for analysis.

2. Completeness
It ensures that all the required data fields are filled and that no important
information is left out. Incomplete data may affect the quality of the
analysis.

3. Consistency
Verifies that the responses and entries are logically consistent. That is, a
respondent's age and education level are logically consistent.

4. Accuracy
Verifies if the data recorded is correct and consistent with the actual
responses or observations.

5. Removal of Irrelevant Data

Eliminates unnecessary or irrelevant data, which may interfere with
analysis.

6. Standardization
Ensures data presented in a uniform format like standardizing units of
measurements, dates, or categories of response.
7. Clarity
Elucidates ambiguous answers or ambiguous information by rechecking
or further clarification if possible.

8. Bias Minimization
Eliminates potential biases by ensuring that data is error-free from
misinterpretation or recording errors.

9. Preparation for Coding and Classification

Prepares the data in a manner that makes the subsequent steps, such
as coding and classification, easier and more efficient.

10. Quality Control

Acts as a quality control measure to ensure that the dataset is reliable
and ready for meaningful analysis in social science research.

Types of Editing

1.Field editing
2.Central Editing

•Field editing: Field editing involves reviewing and correcting data shortly after it
is collected, often while still in the field or immediately upon returning from it.
•Central editing: Central editing takes place at a later stage, typically at the
research headquarters or a central location, after all data collection is complete.

Editing primariy data

Primary data is usually collected using questionnaires or schedules. These forms are
filled out by respondents or enumerators and then returned to the researcher. Once
received, these questionnaires need to be carefully checked for errors, missing
information, or inconsistencies.

Editing secondary data

Data obtained from secondary sources is not always as reliable as data collected
directly from primary sources. To make secondary data suitable for analysis and
interpretation, it needs to be carefully checked and edited by the researcher.

During the editing process, errors and inconsistencies in the secondary data must be
identified and corrected. The focus should be on ensuring that the data is suitable for
the research purpose, adequate for the analysis, and reliable in its content.

2)Coding
Coding is a crucial step in data processing and analysis in social science research. It
involves assigning numerical or symbolic codes to responses or data categories to
make them easier to organize, interpret, and analyze statistically. By converting raw
data into a structured format, coding simplifies the process of uncovering patterns,
relationships, and insights.

Steps in coding:
1.To study the answers
2.Develop a coding frame

3. Compare the answers with each questions

4. Convert the information (data) into separate sheet known as transcription sheet

Rules of coding:
•Code number should be provided into each respondent

•provide code for each questions

•coding work should be done by researcher himself

•Prepare coding frame

•Prepare instructions

• Arrange the service of trained coders

• inspect every coded item in a vigilant manner

• to ensure the coding process is going smoothly

• researcher should take various decision when any changes need

Transcribing:
The use of computers in research has brought great changes in processing of data.
Transcribing is a new step in this direction. It is a process of transferring the coded data
from a code sheet or a precoded questionnaire into computers or secondary storage
devices by key punching

3) Classification
Classification is the process of grouping data based on similarities or common
characteristics. It involves placing items with shared features into the same category.
Data with similar traits are grouped together, while those with different traits are placed
in separate categories. For example, students can be grouped by their marks, shops by
their sales, or letters by their delivery locations. The characteristic used for grouping,
such as marks, sales, or areas, forms the basis for classification. This process helps
organize and summarize large amounts of data into manageable categories. By
classifying data, it becomes easier to analyze and draw meaningful conclusions.

Objectives of classification:
1) To divide the data on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities
2) To reduce the data from complex to an intelligible form
3) To facilitate comparison
4) To identify most significant features of the data
5) To give prominence to the importance information information by dropping any
unnecessary elements in the data

Types of classification:
1) quantitative classification:- it refers to the classification of data according to some
characteristics that can be measured such as height, weight, etc.
2) Qualitative classification:- in qualitative classification, data are classified on the
basis of some attribute or quality such as sex, literacy, religion, etc.
3) Chronological classification:- if the data are observed over a period of time, it is
better to classify data on the basis of chronology. Such a classification is known
as chronological classification.
4) Geographical classification:- In geographical classification, data are classified on
the basis of location or area
5) Classification according to class interval:- data relating to income production,
age, height, weight, etc. or classified on the basis of class interval, such data are
known as statistics of variables

4) Tabulation
Data are converted into rows and columns in the form of table is called tabulation. In
other words, it is the arrangement of data in some kind of concise and logical order.

Purposes:
•It’s simplify the data

•It reduces explanatory and descriptive statement

• it facilitates comparison

• It helps to detect errors and omissions

• it gives an identity to data

Types of tabulation:
1) Simple tabulation:- in simple table only one characteristics is shown, hence this
type of table is known as one way table.
2) Complex tabulation:- in a complex table 2 or more characteristics are shown, it is
also called two way table.

Objectives of tabulation:-
1) To clarify the purpose of enquiry
2) To make the significance of data clear
3) To express the data in least possible space
4) To enable comparative study
5) To eliminate unnecessary data
6) To help in further analysis of the data

Principles of Tabulation:-
1) Table should be size of the paper
2) Should be more rose than columns
3) Every table should have a distinct number for easy reference
4) Captions and stubs should be arranged in systematic
5) Unit of measurement should be clearly defined
6) Figures should be rounded
7) Explanatory notes should be provided
8) Source note should be provided
9) Columns should be separated by lines
10)Columns may be numbered
11)Items related to each other should be placed near
12)All items should be logically arranged
13)Abbreviation should be avoided especially in the heading
14)Table should be neat, clear, accurate, and simple
 15)Should not indicate overloaded details
16)Data in the table should be chronological, quantitative, qualitative or geographical
manner

What is a dissertation?

Consider a dissertation to be the "last test" required to receive a certain degree. In

general, students submit a dissertation with the assistance of an adviser, and experts in
the area analyze the dissertation to determine whether it qualifies for the degree,
however different institutions in different countries have their own systems. A
dissertation defense, which is an oral presentation on the subject, is frequently required
of the student as well.

A dissertation to be the "last test" required to receive a certain degree. In general,

students submit a dissertation with the assistance of an adviser, and experts in the area
analyze the dissertation to determine whether it qualifies for the degree, however
different institutions in different countries have their own systems. A dissertation
defense, which is an oral presentation on the subject, is frequently required of the
student as well.

Dissertations can be either empirical or nonempirical, depending on the subject area.

Empirical dissertations, also called quantitative dissertations, are common in science
fields. They require students to gather new data, and the research methods they use
are also evaluated. Nonempirical dissertations, also known as qualitative dissertations,
use existing data instead. However, students are still expected to provide their own
original and creative analysis of the information.

Dissertations are a type of research paper, but they are much more detailed and
technical than regular school papers. When writing a dissertation, you need to use a
more advanced structure that includes sections like literature reviews, appendices, and
methodology, along with others.

How long is a dissertation?

There is no universal answer to “how long is a dissertation?” The page length
or word count varies depending on the degree, field of study, school, and
country.

But here are some rough estimates to give you an idea of what to expect

● Bachelor’s: 10,000–15,000 words (35–50 pages)

● Master’s: 18,000–22,000 words (65–80 pages)

● Doctorate: 80,000–100,000 words (200–300 pages)

Dissertation structure and requirements

•Title page

The title of the dissertation should answer the research question or thesis statement and
provide a brief explanation of the subject what is writing about. It should be clear to anyone who
reads the title what is writing about.

The formatting of the title page depends on the school and style guidelines. It typically includes
the name of the university, the program, and the date. Specific details should be confirmed with
the adviser.

•Acknowledgment

This section is optional and gives the chance to thank people who helped with writing the
dissertation, much like a dedication page or acceptance speech. If this section is included, it
should be written in a formal tone and kept brief.

•Abstract
An abstract is a concise summary of a dissertation placed at the beginning of the paper. It
presents the major points discussed in the research and briefly mentions the methodology. This
section is typically written as a single paragraph, ranging from 300 to 500 words.
•Table of contents

The table of contents lists all titles for chapters, headings, and subheadings, as well as
their corresponding page numbers. Moreover, the table of contents also includes the
supplementary sections—such as the bibliographic, appendices, and optional sections
like a glossary, list of abbreviations, or a list of figures and tables.

•List of figures and tables

Data-heavy dissertations often include multiple visual aids, such as figures or tables.
When a dissertation contains many visuals, a complete list with their page numbers can
be provided at the beginning of the paper. This functions as a table of contents
specifically for images and charts.

•List of abbreviations

Dissertations that use many abbreviations should have an alphabetized list at the
beginning of the paper that explains what each abbreviation means. This is especially
important when the dissertation uses abbreviations that are specific to a certain field
and may not be understood by readers who are not familiar with that field.

•Glossary
A glossary defines the complicated words used in a paper, functioning like a
mini-dictionary. Like the list of abbreviations, the glossary is useful when a paper
includes a lot of jargon that may not be understood by readers outside the field.

•Introduction
The first of the core chapters and the starting point of the paper, the introduction
explains the research topic and gives the background information needed to
understand it. This part clearly presents the thesis statement or research
question and provides a short description of how the paper explores it.

The introduction is usually organized with a short summary of each chapter. It

gives an idea of the methodology and describes the approach without going into
too much detail. It also explains the current state of research on the topic, helping
the reader understand how the dissertation fits into the field.

(The length of a dissertation introduction is typically about 10 percent of the entire paper.
For a dissertation of 20,000 words, the introduction would be approximately 2,000 words.
This is a general guideline, and the exact length may vary depending on the specific
requirements.)

•Literature review
During research, primary and secondary sources relevant to the topic are collected and
analyzed. The literature review evaluates and comments on these sources, not only
summarizing their findings but also identifying flaws and drawing connections between
them.

A key concept in a literature review is the research gap, which refers to specific areas of
the topic that have not been sufficiently studied. These gaps are ideal topics for
dissertations, with the goal of filling them through new data or analysis. The literature
review should clearly explain the research gap and how the dissertation addresses it.

Another essential part of the literature review is defining the theoretical framework,
which consists of the preexisting theories that support the research. The theoretical
framework includes all relevant, established information about the topic that the reader
needs to understand.

•Methodology
The methodology chapter explains how the research was done so the reader can
check if it is reliable. It gives details on how the data was collected, tests were
carried out, and data was analyzed, as well as why those methods were chosen. It
also lists any tools or equipment used and provides information about where and
when the tests took place.

The chapter may also mention any problems faced during the research. If there
were any biases in the topic, it should explain how the methods helped avoid
them.

•Results
The results chapter is the main part of the dissertation, where the findings are
explained in detail. This section shows the data or analysis, along with any charts
or graphs.
For research based on data, the results are usually presented one finding at a
time, with each one explained in detail. For research without data, the results are
organized by themes, patterns, or trends noticed during the study.

It’s important to connect the findings to the main research question or thesis.

•Discussion
The discussion chapter puts the findings from the previous chapter into context.
It explores what the data means for the topic, whether it fits into the theoretical
framework, and how it might change the way people think about the subject.
These are the main themes addressed in the discussion chapter.

Unexpected results or surprises can also be mentioned. Being transparent helps

build credibility, so this section is a good place to share personal opinions on
how the research progressed.

•Conclusion
As with all research paper conclusions, dissertation conclusions tie everything
together. This chapter, the final core chapter, should reevaluate the thesis
statement or clearly answer the research question. No new data or evidence
should be presented in the conclusion; instead, it should review and reiterate the
findings presented earlier.

•Bibliography
The bibliography lists the full citations of all the sources used, along with their publishing
information. In APA style, the bibliography is called a reference page.

•Appendices

The appendices are sections at the end of the paper that include extra materials related to the
topic but not essential to the main content. Important materials should be in the main paper,
while additional items like maps, interview transcripts, or extra explanations can go in the
appendices.
How to write a dissertation step-by-step

1)Choose the best topic

Picking a topic is very important for dissertations, especially for a doctorate. The
research should be meaningful, and there should be enough information
available to meet the required length.

When deciding on a topic, it helps to think of it as a thesis statement or a

research question. A thesis statement is one sentence that sums up the main
idea of the research, while a research question is what the research is trying to
answer.

Finding a research gap is also important. Look for parts of the topic that haven’t
been studied enough or need more data. These gaps are often the best choices
for a dissertation topic.

2)Conduct preliminary research

After choosing a topic, start by doing some basic research to understand what’s
already known about it. There’s no need to fully answer the research question
yet, but it’s important to figure out where to find useful information.

While going through sources, take note of any important findings or common
ideas related to the topic. Write down any questions that come up so they can be
answered later. Also, start thinking about how the dissertation will be organized,
as this will help when creating a research proposal.

3)Submit a research proposal

For advanced dissertations, like those in doctoral programs, a research proposal
might need to be submitted before starting. The proposal explains the plan for the
dissertation, including how it will cover a research gap and what methods will be
used. The supervisor reviews it and decides whether to approve or reject it based
on its quality.

4)Conduct principal research

After finishing the basic research and getting the proposal approved, the next
step is starting the main research, which is one of the most important parts of
writing a dissertation.

The goal is to collect as much information as possible about the topic, ideally
covering everything researchers have already discovered. This step also involves
clearly defining the research gap to know exactly what needs to be tested or
analyzed.

It is important to review primary sources (reference materials directly related

to an event—e.g., eye-witness accounts or raw data from experiments) and
secondary sources (reference materials from secondhand sources—books
interpreting historical events, analyses of raw data, etc.).

4)Outline your dissertation

A research paper outline is a helpful way to organize a dissertation before starting to

write. It’s not officially part of the dissertation, but it’s great for putting ideas in order.
Topics, points, and evidence can be moved around easily before writing them out.

The outline should list what will go into the main chapters: introduction, literature review,
methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. If any quotes or passages will be
used, writing down where they came from in the outline makes it easier to find them
later.

6)Write the first draft

Writing a dissertation can take days, months, or even years, so it is important to prepare for a
long process. A well-thought-out outline makes drafting the paper much easier, as it provides a
clear guide for expanding ideas.

The body of the paper should focus on presenting the data or analysis clearly, point by point.
The research and findings should be presented in a way that allows them to stand on their own.

7)Consult the adviser

The adviser provides guidance throughout the entire process of writing a
dissertation. It is important to ask questions and maintain regular communication
with the adviser while working on the first draft.

Once the first draft is complete, the adviser can review it to identify problem
areas or suggest new directions. Seeking feedback is encouraged, as providing
support is one of the adviser’s main roles.

8)Gather feedback
In addition to feedback from the adviser, seek others who can review the work.
Ideally, someone experienced in the field can offer a professional opinion, but
anyone knowledgeable about dissertations can provide useful insight for
improvement. The more feedback received before the final draft, the better.
9)Write the final draft
After compiling all feedback, write a final draft that incorporates the necessary
changes and improvements. While some parts may remain the same, others
might need to be rewritten. This is also an opportunity to remove any sections
that don’t directly relate to the main topic. Additionally, new sections may need to
be added to address issues that were not covered in the first draft.

10)Edit and proofread

The final step before submitting the dissertation is to correct any mistakes and
complete the edits. It is recommended to review the dissertation several times,
with at least one pass dedicated to checking for grammar mistakes or
misspellings. Using an online spell-checker can help highlight any spelling
errors.

11)Defend your dissertation

In some programs, an oral presentation is required in front of a group of experts
on the dissertation topic. This is called a dissertation defense, where the panel
asks tough questions to make sure the research and findings are solid.

A dissertation defense can be nerve-wracking, not just because it involves

speaking in public but also because it decides whether the degree will be
awarded. It’s important to stay calm, as almost everyone with an advanced
degree has been through this, and if everything goes well, it won’t have to be
done again.

Structure of a dissertation
Citation & referencing (APA style)

Citation and referencing in APA style (American Psychological Association) is a

standardized method widely used in social sciences. It ensures that sources used
in research are properly credited. Here is a guide to APA-style citations and
referencing:

Citation
In social science research methodology, citation is the process of acknowledging
the sources of information, ideas, or data used in a research work. It involves
crediting authors, researchers, or organizations whose work has contributed to
the research.

Purpose of Citation

1. Credibility: Demonstrates the reliability of the research by showing it

is based on established studies or data.

2. Avoiding Plagiarism: Prevents the unethical use of someone else’s

work by giving proper credit.
 3. Transparency: Allows readers to trace the original source of
information for verification or further study.

4. Academic Integrity: Upholds honesty in research practices.

Components of a Citation

• Author: The name(s) of the person or organization responsible for

the work.

• Year of Publication: Indicates when the source was published.

• Title: Specifies the title of the book, article, or report.

• Source Details: Includes publisher information, journal name, page

numbers, or website link.

Types of Citations

1. In-Text Citations: Brief references included within the text to point

readers to the full details in the reference list. Example: (Smith, 2020).

2. Reference List: A detailed list at the end of the research paper,

including full citations for all sources used.

Citations are crucial in social science research as they give credit to previous
studies and create a foundation for new insights.

Referencing
Referencing in social science research is the way of giving credit to the books,
articles, or other sources used while writing a research paper. It shows where the
information or ideas in the paper came from and helps others find the original
sources if they want to learn more.

Why is Referencing Important?

1. Gives Credit: It acknowledges the authors of the original work.

2. Avoids Plagiarism: It shows honesty by not claiming someone else’s

work as your own.

3. Helps Readers: It allows others to look up the sources for more

details.
 4. Shows Research: It proves the research is based on reliable
information.

How Does Referencing Work?

• At the end of the research paper, a list is made of all the sources that
were used.

• Each entry in the list includes details like the author’s name, the title
of the work, the year it was published, and where it can be found.

Referencing is like giving a “thank you” to the authors whose work helped in the
research and makes the paper more trustworthy and professional.

General APA in-text citations follow this pattern:

(Author, Year of publication).

To cite an online journal article in a reference entry in APA 7th edition include
the following elements:
1. Author(s) of the article: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J.
D.) of up to 20 authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&).
For 21 or more authors include the first 19 names followed by an ellipsis
(…) and add the last author's name.
2. Year of publication: Give the year in brackets followed by a full stop.
3. Title of the research article: Only the first letter of the first word and
proper nouns are capitalized.
4. Title of periodical: Give the full, non-abbreviated title of the periodical in
title case. It should also be italicized.
5. Volume number: The volume number is also italicized.
6. Issue number: For journals that are paginated by issue give the issue
number in brackets.
7. Page numbers: Give the full page range.
8. DOI or URL: Include the digital object identifier (DOI) as a hyperlink
starting with 'https://doi.org/'. If no DOI can be found, include the URL that
directly links to the cited work.
To cite a book in a reference entry in APA 7th edition include the following
elements:
1. Author(s) of the book: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J.
D.) of up to 20 authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&).
For 21 or more authors include the first 19 names followed by an ellipsis
(…) and add the last author's name.
2. Year of publication: Give the year in brackets followed by a full stop.
3. Title of the book: Book titles are italicized. Only the first letter of the first
word and proper nouns are capitalised.
4. Edition number: Include information about the edition if it is not the first.
5. Publisher: Give the name of the publisher but omit terms, such as
Publishers, Co., and Inc. Retain the words Books and Press.
6. DOI: Include the DOI, if available.
To cite a webpage in a reference entry in APA 7th edition include the following
elements:
● Author(s) of the webpage: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson,
J. D.) of up to 20 authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand
(&). For 21 or more authors include the first 19 names followed by an
ellipsis (…) and add the last author's name.
● Date of publication: Give the year, month and day in brackets followed by
a full stop, e.g. (2019, June 13).
● Title of the webpage: Give the title of the specific webpage an italicize.
● Title of the website: Give the official title of the website.
● URL: Give the full URL of the web page including the protocol (http:// or
https://)

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