Detailed Notes on Computer Organization

Abstract
This document provides comprehensive notes on key topics in Computer Organization,
focusing on number representation, computer architecture, memory systems, digital logic,
microprocessor characteristics, and computational fundamentals. Each section includes
important questions and answers, along with examples to facilitate understanding from an
exam perspective. The notes aim to equip students with the necessary knowledge and skills
to excel in their examinations.

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Number Representation and Conversion

Number Systems
Number systems are essential for representing data in computers. The most common
systems include binary, decimal, hexadecimal, and octal.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the binary number system?
• The binary number system uses two symbols, 0 and 1, to represent values. Each
digit represents a power of 2.

2. How do you convert binary to decimal?

• To convert binary to decimal, multiply each bit by 2 raised to the power of its
position (starting from 0) and sum the results.
• Example: Binary 1011 = (1 \times 2^3 + 0 \times 2^2 + 1 \times 2^1 + 1 \times 2^0 =
8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11)

Signed Number Representations

Signed numbers allow representation of both positive and negative values. The common
methods are sign magnitude, 1's complement, and 2's complement.

#### Sign Magnitude

• The most significant bit (MSB) indicates the sign (0 for positive, 1 for negative).
• Example: +5 is 0101 and -5 is 1101.

#### 1's Complement

• Invert all bits to find the negative representation.
• Example: +5 is 0101, -5 is 1010 (inverted).

#### 2's Complement

• Invert all bits and add 1 to find the negative representation.
• Example: +5 is 0101, -5 is 1011 (invert 0101 to 1010, then add 1).

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the difference between 1's complement and 2's complement?
• 1's complement involves inverting bits, while 2's complement involves inverting
bits and adding 1.

2. How do you perform sign extension?

• To extend the sign of a binary number, replicate the MSB until the desired bit
length is achieved.
• Example: Extending 1101 (which is -3 in 4 bits) to 8 bits results in 11111101.

Hexadecimal and Binary Conversions

Hexadecimal is a base-16 system, using digits 0-9 and letters A-F. Converting between binary
and hexadecimal is straightforward.

#### Important Questions:

1. How do you convert binary to hexadecimal?
• Group binary digits in sets of four (starting from the right) and convert each
group to its hexadecimal equivalent.
• Example: Binary 11011010 = 1101 (D) and 1010 (A) = DA.

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Computer Architecture and Organization

Flynn's Classification of Computer Architectures

Flynn's taxonomy classifies computer architectures based on instruction and data streams:
• SISD: Single Instruction Single Data
• SIMD: Single Instruction Multiple Data
• MISD: Multiple Instruction Single Data
• MIMD: Multiple Instruction Multiple Data

#### Important Questions:

1. What is SIMD?
• SIMD allows the same instruction to be executed on multiple data points
simultaneously, enhancing performance in tasks like image processing.

Instruction Formats
Instruction formats define the structure of machine language instructions. Common formats
include:
• 0-address: Implicit operands (stack-based).
• 1-address: One explicit operand (accumulator-based).
• 2-address: Two explicit operands.
• 3-address: Three explicit operands.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is a 3-address instruction format?
• It specifies three operands, allowing for more complex operations in a single
instruction.
• Example: ADD R1, R2, R3 (R1 = R2 + R3).

Addressing Modes
Addressing modes determine how the operand of an instruction is accessed. Common
modes include:
• Immediate: Operand is part of the instruction.
• Direct: Address of the operand is given explicitly.
• Indirect: Address of the operand is stored in a register.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the difference between direct and indirect addressing modes?
• Direct addressing uses the actual address of the operand, while indirect
addressing uses a pointer to the address.

Registers and Bus Systems

Registers are small storage locations within the CPU. The program counter (PC) keeps track of
the next instruction to execute.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the function of the program counter?
• The program counter holds the address of the next instruction to be executed in
the program sequence.

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Memory Systems

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, fast storage area that temporarily holds frequently accessed data
to speed up processing.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is direct-mapped cache?
• Each block of main memory maps to exactly one cache line, which can lead to
conflicts.

2. What is a 4-way set associative cache?

• Memory blocks are divided into sets, and each set contains multiple lines (4 in
this case), allowing more flexibility in storing data.

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory allows the execution of processes that may not be completely in memory,
using disk space as an extension of RAM.

#### Important Questions:

1. How does virtual memory work?
• It uses paging to divide memory into blocks, allowing the system to swap pages
in and out of physical memory as needed.

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Digital Logic and Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra Simplification

Boolean algebra is used in digital logic design to simplify expressions and circuits.

#### Important Questions:

1. What are the basic laws of Boolean algebra?
• Laws include the commutative, associative, and distributive laws.

Binary Counters
Binary counters are sequential circuits that count in binary.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is a ripple carry adder?
• A ripple carry adder is a type of adder where the carry output from one full
adder is the carry input to the next.

Flip-Flop Operations
Flip-flops are basic memory elements in digital circuits, used for storing binary data.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the difference between a D flip-flop and a JK flip-flop?
• A D flip-flop captures the value of the data input at a specific clock edge, while
a JK flip-flop can toggle its output based on the inputs.

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Microprocessor Characteristics

Parameters Influencing Microprocessor Design

Key parameters include clock speed, data bus width, and instruction set architecture.

#### Important Questions:

1. How does clock speed affect microprocessor performance?
• Higher clock speeds allow more instructions to be processed per second,
improving performance.

Control Unit Types

Control units can be hardwired or micro-programmed.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is the difference between hardwired and micro-programmed control units?
• Hardwired control units use fixed logic circuits, while micro-programmed
control units use a set of instructions stored in memory.

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Computational Fundamentals

Instruction Execution
Instruction execution involves fetching, decoding, and executing instructions.

#### Important Questions:

1. What are the stages of instruction execution?
• The stages include fetch, decode, execute, and write back.

Computational Task Sequences

Understanding the sequence of operations is crucial for optimizing performance.

#### Important Questions:

1. What is pipelining in instruction execution?
• Pipelining allows multiple instruction stages to be processed simultaneously,
improving throughput.

Processor Architecture
Processor architecture defines the structure and behavior of a processor.

#### Important Questions:

1. What are the main components of a processor architecture?
• Components include the ALU, control unit, registers, and cache.

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Key Recommendations
• Master different number representation techniques.
• Understand cache memory organization.
• Practice binary and hexadecimal conversions.
• Study instruction formats and addressing modes.
• Focus on computer architecture concepts.
• Learn signed number representations.
• Understand memory and processor organization.