Module

World History and Civilisation - BSc. International Relations (Top - up and 3 year)

World History and Civilisation

• World History and Civilization before the antiquity

• World History and Civilization in antiquity age

• Medieval Islam

• Medieval Europe

• European Renaissance

• European age of Enlightenment

• Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire

• Industrialization and the Modern Era

• Post Modernity and Globalization

• Changing world order

Industrialization and the Modern Era

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, which reached the United States by the 1800s, strongly influenced social and
economic conditions.

Summarize the changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to manufacturing

Key Points

The Industrial Revolution was a global phenomenon marked by the transition to new manufacturing
processes in the period from about 1760 to 1840. Though the United States borrowed significantly from
Europe’s technological advancements during the Industrial Revolution, American inventors contributed
to this international period of economic and industrial growth.

Increased automation and mechanization, facilitated by new machine tools and interchangeable parts,
revolutionized manufacturing, particularly in the textile industry.
Improved transportation networks and swelling urban populations also allowed for the expansion of
domestic markets.

The unprecedented levels of production in domestic manufacturing and commercial agriculture during
this period greatly strengthened the American economy and reduced dependence on imports.

The Industrial Revolution resulted in greater wealth and a larger population in Europe as well as in the
United States.

Key Terms

steam power:

Power derived from water heated into water vapor that is usually converted to motive power by a
reciprocating engine or turbine.

water power:

Any source of energy derived from running or falling water; originally obtained from a waterwheel
immersed in a stream; modern hydroelectric power is obtained from turbines fed from reservoirs.

Industrial Revolution:

The major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labor by one dominated by
industry and machine manufacture.

Introduction: The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a global phenomenon marked by the transition to new manufacturing
processes in the period from about 1760 to 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in the United
Kingdom, and mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the
United States in the early nineteenth century. During this Revolution, changes in agriculture,
manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology profoundly affected social and economic
conditions in the United States.

New Innovations

Though the United States borrowed significantly from Europe’s technological advancements during the
Industrial Revolution, several great American inventions emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century
that greatly affected manufacturing, communications, transportation, and commercial agriculture.

Advances in Technology
In the 1780s, Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill that eventually displaced traditional
gristmills. Evans’s system for handling bulk material became widely used in flour mills and breweries
during the nineteenth century and is among the innovations credited with the development of the
assembly line. By the turn of the century, Evans also had developed one of the first high-pressure steam
engines and began establishing a network of machine workshops to manufacture and repair these
popular inventions. In 1793, Eli Whitney developed a machine to separate the seeds of short-fibered
cotton from the fibers. The resulting cotton gin generated huge profits for slave-holding cotton planters
in the South. In the early 1830s, Cyrus McCormick’s horse-drawn mechanical reaper allowed farmers in
the West to harvest great quantities of wheat, leading to great crop surpluses.

Reliance on horse power for machinery in the United States soon gave way to water power; this resulted
in a concentration of industrialization developing in New England and the rest of the northeastern
United States, where fast-moving rivers were located. The great number of rivers and streams along the
Atlantic seaboard provided optimal sites for mills and the infrastructure required for early
industrialization.

Between 1800 and 1820, additional industrial tools emerged that rapidly increased the quality and
efficiency of manufacturing. In the first two decades of the 1800s, the development of all-metal machine
tools and interchangeable parts facilitated the manufacture of new production machines for many
industries. Steam power fueled by coal, wide utilization of water wheels, and powered machinery
became common features of the manufacturing industry.

Improved Transportation

During this period, domestic trade also expanded with the introduction of canals, improved roads, and
railways. In 1807, Robert Fulton built the first commercial steamboat, which operated between New
York City and Albany. With the proliferation of new canal routes in the 1820s and 1830s, steamboat
technology was crucial to domestic freight shipments in the United States.

Subsistence farming declined, and more consumer goods arrived on the market. The transition away
from an agricultural-based economy toward machine-based manufacturing led to a great influx of
population from the countryside, causing towns and cities to swell in population.

Communication
The communications revolution that began in this period served to connect communities and transform
business. In 1836, Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred Vail developed the American version of the electrical
telegraph system, which allowed messages to be transmitted through wires over long distances via
pulses of electric current. Messages were transcribed using the signaling alphabet known as “Morse
code.”

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history. During this period, the average
income and population began to exhibit unprecedented, sustained growth. In the two centuries
following the 1800s, the world’s average per capita income increased more than tenfold, while the
world’s population increased more than sixfold.

The profound economic changes sweeping the United States led to equally important social and cultural
transformations. The formation of distinct classes, especially in the rapidly industrializing North, was one
of the most striking developments. The unequal distribution of newly created wealth spurred new
divisions along class lines. Each class had its own specific culture and views on the issue of slavery. The
elite lived and socialized apart from members of the growing middle class. The middle class valued work,
consumption, and education and dedicated their energies to maintaining or advancing their social
status. Wage workers formed their own society in industrial cities and mill villages, though lack of
money and long working hours effectively prevented the working class from consuming the fruits of
their labor, educating their children, or advancing up the economic ladder.

Introduction to the Industrial Revolution

In the late 18th century, the world economy embarked on a rapid process of change. During this
Industrial Revolution, new technologies greatly magnified the productivity of workers, while fossil fuels
pushed manufacturing and transportation systems far beyond the natural limits of human and animal
power. As these advances drove the cost of industrial production down, consumption of manufactured
goods skyrocketed around the world. By the end of the 19th century, nearly every society on Earth had
been affected by the arrival of new products, new means of transportation, new weapons, and new
ideas. Scholars have tried to explain the causes of this great transformation since it began.

This unit will explain what industrialization is and provide a brief overview of what the Industrial
Revolution was and how it revolutionized people’s lives. We will then study different interpretations of
economic theory that attempted to account for these dramatic changes, beginning with pre-industrial
theories and culminating with current perspectives on the global economy.

Industrial Revolution: Britain

The Industrial Revolution and the Romantic Spirit

The Industrial Revolution refers to a series of significant shifts in traditional practices of agriculture,
manufacturing, and transportation, as well as the development of new mechanical technologies that
took place during the late 18th and 19th centuries in much of the Western world. During this time, the
United Kingdom, as well as the rest of Europe and the United States soon after, underwent drastic socio-
economic and cultural changes.

During the late 18th century, the United Kingdom’s economic system of manual and animal based labor
shifted toward a system of machine manufacturing while more readily navigable roads, canals, and
railroads for trade began to develop. Steam power as well as the sudden development of metal tools
and complex machines for manufacturing purposes underpinned the dramatic increase in production
capacity.

The Industrial Revolution had a profound effect upon society in the United Kingdom. It gave rise to the
working and middle classes and allowed them to overcome the long-standing economic oppression that
they had endured for centuries beneath the gentry and nobility. However, while employment
opportunities increased for common working people throughout the country and members of the
middle class were able to become business owners more easily, the conditions workers often labored
under were brutal. Further, many of them were barely able to live off of the wages they earned.

During this time, the industrial factory was created, which, in turn, gave rise to the modern city.
Conditions within these factories were often deplorable and, by today’s standards, unethical:
manufacturers frequently used children for labor purposes and laborers were required to work long
hours. Conditions were often dangerous, if not deadly. A group of people in the United Kingdom known
as the Luddites felt that industrialization was ultimately inhumane and took to protesting and
sometimes sabotaging industrial machines and factories.

While industrialization led to incredible technological developments throughout the Western world,
many historians now argue that industrialization also caused severe reductions in living standards for
workers both within the United Kingdom and throughout the rest of the industrialized Western world.
However, the new middle and working classes that industrialism had established led to urbanization
throughout industrial cultures, drastic population increases, and the introduction of a relatively new
economic system known as capitalism.

Industrialization seemed to exemplify humankind’s ability to dominate and manipulate nature by

understanding (through science) its laws. It also spurred cultural developments, as it enabled the
cheaper production of books and other printed materials, gave members of the middle-class more
leisure time, and made consumer goods more affordable and accessible for many.

Romanticism developed in the United Kingdom in the wake of, and in some measure as a response to,
the Industrial Revolution. Many English intellectuals and artists in the early 19th century considered
industrialism inhumane and unnatural and revolted – sometimes quite violently – against what they felt
to be the increasingly inhumane and unnatural mechanization of modern life. Poets such as Lord Byron –
particularly in his addresses to the House of Lords – and William Blake – most notably in his poem “The
Chimney Sweeper” – spoke out and wrote extensively about the psychological and social affects of the
newly industrial world upon the individual and felt rampant industrialization countered the human spirit
and intrinsic rights of men. To a large extent, English Romantic intellectuals and artists felt that the
modern industrial world was harsh and deadening to the senses and spirit. These intellectuals called for
a return, both in life and in spirit, of the emotional and natural, as well as the ideals of the pre-industrial
past.

This response and its various dimensions can be seen in the readings for this subunit. Byron’s speech, in
response to a law outlawing the activities of the Luddites, emphasizes the economic hardships that
industrialization has created among working people. He insists that the Luddites are only reacting due to
“circumstances of the most unparalleled distress” (Byron 1812). Only such desperation could have
pushed the perpetrators – despite the presence of military and police forces – to continue destroying
the machinery. He emphasizes that the underlying problem is that while the new machinery allowed the
capitalists to increase their profit it did so by “throw[ing] out of employment” large numbers of
workmen who “were left in consequence to starve” (Byron 1812). Rightly according to Byron, the
workers thus felt “themselves to be sacrificed to improvements in mechanism” (Byron 1812).

Blake’s “The Chimney-Sweeper” similarly reflects on the conditions of workers displaced by the new
industrialization and concomitant urbanization. The child who speaks begins by commenting on his
mother’s death, but the central image of the poem is the contrast between Tom’s vision of all the
sweepers in a heaven where they run “down a green plain, leaping, laughing” (15) and the reality of
their lives where “in soot” they sleep also figured through the image of them “locked up in coffins of
black” (12).

The poem also suggests that this religious vision helps to maintain the system, as the last line states that
“If all do their duty” (24) and if they continue to work long hours in dirty conditions, then they will
receive their reward in heaven. This idea is reiterated in Blake’s “London,” when he comments on “How
the Chimney-sweeper’s cry / Every blackning Church appalls” (9–10) setting up the contrast between the
sweepers and the church, even as it suggests their interconnection.

“London” also begins to develop another key point of the Romantic reaction to industrialization and
urbanization, their sense that these processes are not only economically unfair but also are
dehumanizing and unnatural. The images Blake begins with, i.e., the repeated “charter’d” and “marks”
of the opening stanza, suggest how humankind has transformed the Thames into yet another human-
dominated thoroughfare (the Thames is “charter’d” just like the street) and links that denaturalization
to the transformation and disempowerment of individuals who now show “Marks of weakness, marks of
woe” (4).

The problem, as the famous last line of the second stanza indicates, is one of consciousness and material
practices, as it is “mind-forg’d manacles” (8) that he hears in every voice. Human minds have created
these handcuffs, have chained themselves with the very processes – intellectual and material – that
supposedly were to set people free.

The two Wordsworth poems from this subunit begin to move us towards the related question of the
role of nature in Romanticism (see subunit 3.3.1) and further develop Blake’s emphasis on the
unnaturalness of London and his identification of the problem as being one of consciousness. In the
sonnet “The World Is Too Much with Us,” Wordsworth emphasizes the modern disconnection from
nature: “Little we see in Nature that is ours” (3), averring that he’d “rather be / A pagan suckled in a
creed outworn; / So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, / Have glimpses that would make me less
forlorn” (9–12). Wordsworth implies that we have lost a sense of the mystery of nature and of its mythic
and powerful element as epitomized in classical myths; note the reference to Proteus and Triton. While
he does not diagnose exactly why, he stresses that “we are out of tune” (8) with nature, because “The
world is too much with us” (1) and we “waste our power” with “Getting and spending” (2). Rather than
having a spiritual connection with nature, we treat the world as an instrument, as a route to economic
end. While the poem does not directly address industrialization, it epitomizes a Romantic critique of the
economic materialism and instrumental rationality that defined industrialization.

Summary

• The Industrial Revolution refers to the massive economic, technological, and social changes that
transformed Western Europe and the United States through the mechanization of production and the
reorganization of labor into factory systems during the beginning of the late-18th century in the United
Kingdom.

• While the Industrial Revolution produced incredible wealth, enabled the middleclasses to become
dominant, and allowed some in the working-class lives of more stability, it also drove many into horrific
working conditions, destroyed the livelihoods of others, and had devastating consequences for the
natural environment.
• British Romantic poets and thinkers reacted against the Industrial Revolution on a number of fronts, as
illustrated in poems by Blake and Wordsworth, attacking the economic devastation to working people
including children, its confining human consciousness to an instrumental view of nature and other
people, and its demystification of nature.

The Ottoman Empire

Link

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-
ottoman-empire/
Decline of the Ottoman Empire

After a long decline since the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire came to an end in the aftermath of its
defeat in World War I when it was dismantled by the Allies after the war ended in 1918.

Explain why the Ottoman Empire lost power and prestige

Key Points

The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in the 14th century and reached its apex under Suleiman
the Magnificent in the 16th century, stretching from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the
northwest and from Egypt in the south to the Caucasus in the north.

In the 19th century, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and
occupation; it ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries
such as France, the Netherlands, Britain, and Russia.

During the Tanzimat period of modernization, the government’s series of constitutional reforms led to a
fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, and
the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories.

The Ottoman Empire had long been the “sick man of Europe” and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914
was driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa.

The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan’s
announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman
Parliament. This marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
The empire entered WWI as an ally of Germany, and its defeat and the occupation of part of its territory
by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of the war resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle
Eastern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France.

The successful Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allies led to the emergence of the
Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate.

Key Terms

Tanzimat: Literally meaning “reorganization,” a period of reformation in the Ottoman Empire that began
in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. This era was characterized by various
attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and secure its territorial integrity against nationalist
movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state.

Turkish War of Independence: A war fought between the Turkish nationalists and the proxies of the
Allies – namely Greece on the Western front, Armenia on the Eastern, France on the Southern and with
them, the United Kingdom and Italy in Constantinople (now Istanbul) – after some parts of Turkey were
occupied and partitioned following the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I. It resulted in the
founding of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman
monarchy and caliphate.

Young Turks: A political reform movement in the early 20th century that consisted of Ottoman exiles,
students, civil servants, and army officers. They favored the replacement of the Ottoman Empire’s
absolute monarchy with a constitutional government. Later, their leaders led a rebellion against the
absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. With this revolution, they
helped to establish the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, ushering in an era of multi-party democracy
for the first time in the country’s history.

Overview: The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire, was founded at the end of the 13th century in
northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman.
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik
was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the
1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the
Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of
Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of
the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some were later
absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the
course of centuries.
With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman
Empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. The
Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which
prompted them to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the
Tanzimat. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th century and joined World War I with the
imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories.

The Empire’s defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of
World War I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories, which were divided
between the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence against the
occupying Allies led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the
abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate.

Decline and Modernization

Beginning in the late 18th century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign
invasion and occupation. In response to these threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous
internal reform which came to be known as the Tanzimat. This succeeded in significantly strengthening
the Ottoman central state, despite the empire’s precarious international position. Over the course of the
19th century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater
degree of influence over its population than in any previous era. The process of reform and
modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) during the
reign of Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-ı
Şerif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun in 1856. By the end of this period in 1908, the Ottoman
military was somewhat modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European
Armies.

During the Tanzimat period, the government’s series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern
conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, and the replacement
of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories.

Defeat and Dissolution

The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional
Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the
Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system
(electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s
citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own
against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and
transform the empire into a more harmonious place.

Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. The Second Constitutional
Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan’s announcement of the
restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. This era is
dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and the movement that would
become known as the Young Turks. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered
in 1911 with the founding of the opposition Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Union or Entente), which
poached many of the more liberal Deputies from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took
a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the Balkan Wars, dueled Freedom and
Accord in a series of power reversals that ultimately led to the CUP seizing power from the Freedom and
Accord in the 1913 Ottoman coup d’état and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until
the end of World War I.

The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the Ottoman-
German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire
with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the Goeben and Breslau incident,
in which it gave safe harbor to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships, officially
transferred to the Ottoman Navy, but effectively still under German control, attacked the Russian port of
Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers in the Middle
Eastern theater.

The Ottoman involvement World War I in the Middle Eastern ended with the the Arab Revolt in 1916.
This revolt turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed
to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the Armistice of Mudros was signed
on October 30, 1918, the only parts of the Arabian peninsula still under Ottoman control were Yemen,
Asir, the city of Medina, portions of northern Syria, and portions of northern Iraq. These territories were
handed over to the British forces on January 23, 1919. The Ottomans were also forced to evacuate the
parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan),
which they had gained towards the end of World War I after Russia’s retreat from the war with the
Russian Revolution in 1917.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The new
countries created from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.

The occupations of Constantinople and Smyrna mobilized the Turkish national movement, which
ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence. The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was
performed by Grand National Assembly of Turkey on November 1, 1922. The Sultan was declared
persona non grata and exiled from the lands that the Ottoman Dynasty ruled since 1299.

Globalization
Defining Globalization

Globalization is the process by which the international exchange of goods, services, capital, technology
and knowledge becomes increasingly interconnected.

Define globalization in the broader context of global business and historical development

Key Points

• Globalization is a natural phenomenon, in both cultures and markets, that allows for synergy
through specialization.

• Some economists postulate that the roots of global trade links may be attributed to the
Sumerians around 3,000 B.C., ultimately expanding across the European and Asian regions.

• Modern day markets are exponentially more interdependent, as both travel and communication
have developed to the point of relative immediacy. This has resulted in a largely interdependent
world economy.

Key Terms

Synergy:

The concept that a whole can derive more value than the combination of the individual parts. A
common expression in defining synergy is 1+1 = 3, or each piece derives more value that it would on it’s
own.

interdependent:

Two or more systems that depend or support one another, often achieving mutual benefit.

globalization:
 The process of international integrating arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas,
and other aspects of culture.

The derivation of the term ‘globalization’ stems from the verb ‘to globalize’, which embodies the
concept of international interdependence and influence between various social and economic systems.
There are various interpretations and definitions of this concept, ranging from disciplines such as
sociology, philosophy, anthropology, and business. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) highlighted
four critical aspects of globalization that effectively define this idea from a business perspective:

• Trade and transactions (imports and exports)

• Capital and investment movements (i.e. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), etc.)

• Migration and movement of people

• Dissemination of knowledge

Globalization is a natural phenomenon, in both cultures and markets, that allows for synergy through
specialization. This empowers domestic economies to gain a larger array of products, services, human
capital, investment, and knowledge through leveraging external markets. The evolution of this natural
development provides interesting insights as to the value captured through international trade,
underlining it’s important role in worldwide economic development.

Some economists postulate that the roots of global trade links may be attributed to the Sumerians
around 3,000 B.C., as they created routes between themselves and civilizations in the Indus Valley
Region (what is now the northwestern region of India). The regions involved in these exchanges
potentially spanned from Spain to India, providing a large spectrum of potential specialization based on
climate, skills, availability of resources, etc. As a result, the concept of trading goods simpler to produce
in that particular region that were of equal value in pursuit of exchange became a practice that derived
value.

As cultures such as the Sumerian’s realized the advantages of trading, the surrounding regions began a
slow transition towards trade with other nations. What minimized globalization historically was the
enormous time and capital investment in travel, creating ‘trade spheres’ around countries/civilizations
that demonstrated potential trade proximity. Europe and Asia, due to the enormous cultural diversity
and relative ease of travel, played a substantial role in this development throughout the past 5,000
years. represents what a number of specific trade spheres looked like during the 13th century,
highlighting the value in proximity to other nations. is slightly more specific and represents the Silk Road,
one of History’s most distinct examples of trade development.

Modern day markets are exponentially more interdependent, as both travel and communication have
developed to the point of relative immediacy. The historic trade barriers have largely been broken
down, creating an international complexity in regards to market forces. The growing importance of
utilizing these international resources and isolating increased potential for exchange has demanded a
spotlight on understanding economics, particularly the pros and cons of a world market with far fewer
borders.

Benefits of Globalization

Globalization has lead to valuable, world-wide cross-cultural understanding and the fruitful exchange of
products and ideas.

Key Points

Globalization has some positive political, cultural, economic, and ethical consequences.

From a political perspective, globalization has lead to the rise of organizations designed to promote
international cooperation.

Globalization has fostered cross-cultural awareness and a sense of global civics.

Economically speaking, access to a variety of low-cost goods from across the globe has raised the
standard of living for some consumers.

Key Terms

global civics:

The notion that we have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being
human on Earth.

Globalization:

The process of going to a more interconnected world.

Globalization is far from a new concept, with its roots tracing back thousands of years. The international
exchange of both goods and ideas has resulted in an ever-increasing opportunity for people to explore
and appreciate the diversity of world culture. While the negative consequences of globalization are
undeniable, it’s important to acknowledge the positive consequences of globalization as well.
The Good in Globalization

The argument in support of globalization is multifaceted, involving complex political, cultural, economic,
and ethical factors. Let’s briefly touch upon each of these categories and explore the ways in which they
may be perceived as beneficial.

Political

The central pillar in political globalization is the ever-increasing need to cooperate. It is clear that
through the proverbial shrinking of the world, countries and cultures are brought together to facilitate
international agreement. The creation and existence of the United Nations, for example, has been called
one of the classic examples of political globalization.

Cultural

Along similar lines, the “shrinking of the world” has allowed individuals across the globe to explore new
cultures either via travel or through local exposure to international art, music, religion, theater, TV,
movies, and countless other cultural outlets and perspectives.

Ethical

While there are ethical concerns associated with globalization, there are ethical benefits as well.
International awareness carries with it, for example, the opportunity for nations and organizations to
address human rights injustices committed across the globe. This allows for a rising sense of global
civics, the notion that we have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of
being human on Earth.

Economic

Globalization allows for the exchange of goods and services across the globe. As a result of globalization,
areas with limited resources (i.e. areas with limited farmland or no access to medicine) are able to
access goods that can substantially improve their population’s standard of living.

Globalization also allows for specialization, allowing different parts of product, for example, to be
manufactured in different regions of the world. While one area may excel in producing the
semiconductor for your phone, another area might excel in crafting your touch screen, and so on. This
creates synergies through collaboration, enabling specialists to focus on their business strengths.
Complications of Globalization

The increasing rate of global economic and cultural exchange has resulted in a variety of developmental
challenges.

Link for introductionn to the Renaissance

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-westerncivilization/chapter/introduction-to-the-
renaissance/

link for the note onn age of enlightenment

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-age-of-enlightenment/

link for the note on Otoman empire

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-ottoman-empire/

link for

Post Modernity and Globalization

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/globalization/

6 February 2022

World History and Civilization before the antiquity

The Evolution of Humans

Human evolution is an ongoing and complex process that began seven million years ago.

Key Points

• Humans began to evolve about seven million years ago, and progressed through four stages of
evolution. Research shows that the first modern humans appeared 200,000 years ago.
 • Neanderthals were a separate species from humans. Although they had larger brain capacity
and interbred with humans, they eventually died out.

• A number of theories examine the relationship between environmental conditions and human
evolution.

• The main human adaptations have included bipedalism, larger brain size, and reduced sexual
dimorphism.

Key Terms

sexual dimorphism:

Differences in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal species.

encephalization:

An evolutionary increase in the complexity and/or size of the brain.

Red Queen hypothesis:

The theory that species must constantly evolve in order to compete with co-evolving animals around
them.

turnover pulse hypothesis:

The theory that extinctions due to environmental conditions hurt specialist species more than generalist
ones, leading to greater evolution among specialists.

savannah hypothesis:

The theory that hominins were forced out of the trees they lived in and onto the expanding savannah; as
they did so, they began walking upright on two feet.

Toba catastrophe theory:

The theory that there was a near-extinction event for early humans about 70,000 years ago.

social brain hypothesis:

The theory that improving cognitive capabilities would allow hominins to influence local groups and
control resources.

aridity hypothesis: The theory that the savannah was expanding due to increasingly arid conditions,
which then drove hominin adaptation.

hominids:

A primate of the family Hominidae that includes humans and their fossil ancestors.
bipedal:

Describing an animal that uses only two legs for walking.

Human evolution began with primates. Primate development diverged from other mammals about 85
million years ago. Various divergences among apes, gibbons, orangutans occurred during this period,
with Homini (including early humans and chimpanzees) separating from Gorillini (gorillas) about 8
millions years ago. Humans and chimps then separated about 7.5 million years ago.

image

Skeletal structure of humans and other primates.: A comparison of the skeletal structures of gibbons,
humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.

Generally, it is believed that hominids first evolved in Africa and then migrated to other areas. There
were four main stages of human evolution. The first, between four and seven million years ago,
consisted of the proto hominins Sahelanthropus, Orrorin and Ardipithecus. These humans may have
been bipedal, meaning they walked upright on two legs. The second stage, around four million years
ago, was marked by the appearance of Australopithecus, and the third, around 2.7 million years ago,
featured Paranthropus.

The fourth stage features the genus Homo, which existed between 1.8 and 2.5 million years ago. Homo
habilis, which used stone tools and had a brain about the size of a chimpanzee, was an early hominin in
this period. Coordinating fine hand movements needed for tool use may have led to increasing brain
capacity. This was followed by Homo erectus and Homo ergaster, who had double the brain size and
may have been the first to control fire and use more complex tools. Homo heidelbergensis appeared
about 800,000 years ago, and modern humans, Homo sapiens, about 200,000 years ago. Humans
acquired symbolic culture and language about 50,000 years ago.

Neanderthals

A separate species, Homo neanderthalensis, had a common ancestor with humans about 660,000 years
ago, and engaged in interbreeding with Homo sapiens about 45,000 to 80,000 years ago. Although their
brains were larger, Neanderthals had fewer social and technological innovations than humans, and they
eventually died out.

Theories of Early Human Evolution

The savannah hypothesis states that hominins were forced out of the trees they lived in and onto the
expanding savannah; as they did so, they began walking upright on two feet. This idea was expanded in
the aridity hypothesis, which posited that the savannah was expanding due to increasingly arid
conditions resulting in hominin adaptation. Thus, during periods of intense aridification, hominins also
were pushed to evolve and adapt.

The turnover pulse hypothesis states that extinctions due to environmental conditions hurt specialist
species more than generalist ones. While generalist species spread out when environmental conditions
change, specialist species become more specialized and have a greater rate of evolution. The Red Queen
hypothesis states that species must constantly evolve in order to compete with co-evolving animals
around them. The social brain hypothesis states that improving cognitive capabilities would allow
hominins to influence local groups and control resources. The Toba catastrophe theory states that there
was a near-extinction event for early humans about 70,000 years ago.

Human Adaptations

Bipedalism, or walking upright, is one of the main human evolutionary adaptations. Advantages to be
found in bipedalism include the freedom of the hands for labor and less physically taxing movement.
Walking upright better allows for long distance travel and hunting, for a wider field of vision, a reduction
of the amount of skin exposed to the sun, and overall thrives in a savannah environment. Bipedalism
resulted in skeletal changes to the legs, knee and ankle joints, spinal vertebrae, toes, and arms. Most
significantly, the pelvis became shorter and rounded, with a smaller birth canal, making birth more
difficult for humans than other primates. In turn, this resulted in shorter gestation (as babies need to be
born before their heads become too large), and more helpless infants who are not fully developed
before birth.

Larger brain size, also called encephalization, began in early humans with Homo habilis and continued
through the Neanderthal line (capacity of 1,200 – 1,900 cm3). The ability of the human brain to continue
to grow after birth meant that social learning and language were possible. It is possible that a focus on
eating meat, and cooking, allowed for brain growth. Modern humans have a brain volume of 1250 cm3.

Humans have reduced sexual dimorphism, or differences between males and females, and hidden
estrus, which means the female is fertile year-round and shows no special sign of fertility. Human sexes
still have some differences between them, with males being slightly larger and having more body hair
and less body fat. These changes may be related to pair bonding for long-term raising of offspring.
Other adaptations include lessening of body hair, a chin, a descended larynx, and an emphasis on vision
instead of smell.

The Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Revolution and invention of agriculture allowed humans to settle in groups, specialize, and
develop civilizations.

Explain the significance of the Neolithic Revolution

During the Paleolithic Era, humans grouped together in small societies and subsisted by gathering
plants, and fishing, hunting or scavenging wild animals.

The Neolithic Revolution references a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer way of life to a
more settled, agrarian-based one, with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal
species—depending on species locally available and likely also influenced by local culture.

There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to the factors that drove
populations to take up agriculture, including the Hilly Flanks hypothesis, the Feasting model, the
Demographic theories, the evolutionary/intentionality theory, and the largely discredited Oasis Theory.

The shift to agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger
sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new
labor.

The nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter-gatherers,
and they worked longer hours and had shorter life expectancies.

Life today, including our governments, specialized labor, and trade, is directly related to the advances
made in the Neolithic Revolution.

Key Terms

Hilly Flanks hypothesis: The theory that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros
mountains, where the climate was not drier, and fertile land supported a variety of plants and animals
amenable to domestication.

Evolutionary/Intentionality theory: The theory that domestication was part of an evolutionary process
between humans and plants.
Neolithic Revolution: The world’s first historically verifiable advancement in agriculture. It took place
around 12,000 years ago.

Hunter-gatherer: A nomadic lifestyle in which food is obtained from wild plants and animals; in contrast
to an agricultural lifestyle, which relies mainly on domesticated species.

Paleolithic Era: A period of history that spans from 2.5 million to 20,000 years ago, during which time
humans evolved, used stone tools, and lived as hunter-gatherers.

Oasis Theory: The theory that humans were forced into close association with animals due to changes in
climate.

Feasting model: The theory that displays of power through feasting drove agricultural technology.

specialization: A process where laborers focused on one specialty area rather than creating all needed
items.

Demographic theories: Theories about how sedentary populations may have driven agricultural changes.

Effects of the Neolithic Revolution on Society

The traditional view is that the shift to agricultural food production supported a denser population,
which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and
specialization in diverse forms of new labor. Overall a population could increase its size more rapidly
when resources were more available. The resulting larger societies led to the development of different
means of decision making and governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the
development of a social elite freed from labor, who dominated their communities and monopolized
decision-making. There were deep social divisions and inequality between the sexes, with women’s
status declining as men took on greater roles as leaders and warriors. Social class was determined by
occupation, with farmers and craftsmen at the lower end, and priests and warriors at the higher.

Effects of the Neolithic Revolution on Health

Neolithic populations generally had poorer nutrition, shorter life expectancies, and a more labor-
intensive lifestyle than hunter-gatherers. Diseases jumped from animals to humans, and agriculturalists
suffered from more anaemia, vitamin deficiencies, spinal deformations, and dental pathologies.

Overall Impact of the Neolithic Revolution on Modern Life

The way we live today is directly related to the advances made in the Neolithic Revolution. From the
governments we live under, to the specialized work laborers do, to the trade of goods and food, humans
were irrevocably changed by the switch to sedentary agriculture and domestication of animals. Human
population swelled from five million to seven billion today.

Pool of Questions Part A

1. Name three ancient civilization of the world

2. Write in your own words the meaning of civilizatrrion

3. State Two (2) causes of World War 1

4. State Two (2) major waring parties in the World War 1

5. Identify Two Causes of World War 2

6. briefly explain the purpose of Nuremberg trial

7. Briefly explain why is it called the dark ages in the World History

Pool of questions Part B

1. Write an essay on the world history and civilization of the different periods in the human civilization.

2. Critically evaluate the rise and fall of Ottoman empire

3. Write Short Notes on the following topics

• Industrials Revolution

• Ottoman Emptier

• Changing World order

• Medieval Europe

• Post modernity and Globalization

4. Explain why the Ottoman Empire lost power and prestige

5. Identify the core ideas that drove the Age of Enlightenment

6. Describe the influences of the Renaissance and historical perspectives

7. Summarize the changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to manufacturing

8. Define globalization in the broader context of global business and historical development

9. Eamine the positive outcomes of globalization

10. Write account on the human evolution that took place in the civilization

Link for introductionn to the Renaissance

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-westerncivilization/chapter/introduction-to-the-
renaissance/

link for the note onn age of enlightenment

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-age-of-enlightenment/

link for the note on Otoman empire

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-ottoman-empire/

link for

Post Modernity and Globalization

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/globalization/

Study note as of 12 February 2022

Evaluate the extent and influence of Babylonian culture

• Babylonian temples were massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses. Such uses
of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled
tiles.
 • Certain pieces of Babylonian art featured crude three-dimensional statues, and gem-cutting was
considered a high-perfection art.

• The Babylonians produced extensive compendiums of astronomical records containing

catalogues of stars and constellations, as well as schemes for calculating various astronomical
coordinates and phenomena.

• Medicinally, the Babylonians introduced basic medical processes, such as diagnosis and
prognosis, and also catalogued a variety of illnesses with their symptoms.

• Both Babylonian men and women learned to read and write, and much of Babylonian literature
is translated from ancient Sumerian texts, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Neo-Babylonian Culture

The resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th and 6th century BCE resulted in a number of
developments. In astronomy, a new approach was developed, based on the philosophy of the ideal
nature of the early universe, and an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. Some
scholars have called this the first scientific revolution, and it was later adopted by Greek astronomers.
The Babylonian astronomer Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BCE) supported a heliocentric model of
planetary motion. In mathematics, the Babylonians devised the base 60 numeral system, determined
the square root of two correctly to seven places, and demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean
theorem before Pythagoras.

Epic of Gilgamesh

One of the most famous Babylonian works, a twelve-book saga translated from the original Sumerian.

pilaster

An architectural element in classical architecture used to give the appearance of a supporting column
and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental function.

etiology

Causation. In medicine, cause or origin of disease or condition.

mudbrick
A brick mixture of loam, mud, sand, and water mixed with a binding material, such as rice husks or
straw.

Enūma Anu Enlil

A series of cuneiform tablets containing centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena.

Diagnostic Handbook

The most extensive Babylonian medical text, written by Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa.

Describe the rise of civilization along the Nile River

The prehistory of Egypt spans from early human settlements to the beginning of the Early Dynastic
Period of Egypt (c. 3100 BCE), and is equivalent to the Neolithic period.

The Late Paleolithic in Egypt began around 30,000 BCE, and featured mobile buildings and tool-making
industry.

The Mesolithic saw the rise of various cultures, including Halfan, Qadan, Sebilian, and Harifian.

The Neolithic saw the rise of cultures, including Merimde, El Omari, Maadi, Tasian, and Badarian.

Three phases of Naqada culture included: the rise of new types of pottery (including blacktop-ware and
white cross-line-ware), the use of mud-bricks, and increasingly sedentary lifestyles.

During the Protodynastic period (3200-3000 BCE) powerful kings were in place, and unification of the
state occurred, which led to the Early Dynastic Period.

Neolithic

The later part of the Stone Age, during which ground or polished stone weapons and implements were
used.

nomadic pastoralism

The herding of livestock to find fresh pasture to graze.

Fertile Crescent

Also known as the Cradle of Civilization, the Fertile Crescent is a crescent-shaped region containing the
comparatively moist and fertile land of Western Asia, the Nile Valley, and the Nile Delta.

serekhs

An ornamental vignette combining a view of a palace facade and a top view of the royal courtyard. It
was used as a royal crest.

The prehistory of Egypt spans from early human settlements to the beginning of the Early Dynastic
Period of Egypt (c. 3100 BCE), which started with the first Pharoah Narmer (also known as Menes). It is
equivalent to the Neolithic period, and is divided into cultural periods, named after locations where
Egyptian settlements were found.

The Late Paleolithic

This period began around 30,000 BCE. Ancient, mobile buildings, capable of being disassembled and
reassembled were found along the southern border near Wadi Halfa. Aterian tool-making industry
reached Egypt around 40,000 BCE, and Khormusan industry began between 40,000 and 30,000 BCE.

The Mesolithic

Halfan culture arose along the Nile Valley of Egypt and in Nubia between 18,000 and 15,000 BCE. They
appeared to be settled people, descended from the Khormusan people, and spawned the Ibero-
Marusian industry. Material remains from these people include stone tools, flakes, and rock paintings.

The Qadan culture practiced wild-grain harvesting along the Nile, and developed sickles and grinding
stones to collect and process these plants. These people were likely residents of Libya who were pushed
into the Nile Valley due to desiccation in the Sahara. The Sebilian culture (also known as Esna) gathered
wheat and barley.

The Harifian culture migrated out of the Fayyum and the Eastern deserts of Egypt to merge with the Pre-
Pottery Neolithic B; this created the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, who invented nomadic
pastoralism, and may have spread Proto-Semitic language throughout Mesopotamia.
The Neolithic

Expansion of the Sahara desert forced more people to settle around the Nile in a sedentary, agriculture-
based lifestyle. Around 6000 BCE, Neolithic settlements began to appear in great number in this area,
likely as migrants from the Fertile Crescent returned to the area. Weaving occurred for the first time in
this period, and people buried their dead close to or within their settlements.

The Merimde culture (5000-4200 BCE) was located in Lower Egypt. People lived in small huts, created
simple pottery, and had stone tools. They had cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, and planted wheat,
sorghum, and barley. The first Egyptian life-size clay head comes from this culture.

The El Omari culture (4000-3100 BCE) lived near modern-day Cairo. People lived in huts, and had
undecorated pottery and stone tools. Metal was unknown.

The Maadi culture (also known as Buto Maadi) is the most important Lower Egyptian prehistoric culture.
Copper was used, pottery was simple and undecorated, and people lived in huts. The dead were buried
in cemeteries.

The Tasian culture (4500-3100 BCE) produced a kind of red, brown, and black pottery, called blacktop-
ware. From this period on, Upper Egypt was strongly influenced by the culture of Lower Egypt.

The Badarian culture (4400-4000 BCE) was similar to the Tasian, except they improved blacktop-ware
and used copper in addition to stone.

The Amratian culture (Naqada I) (4000-3500 BCE) continued making blacktop-ware, and added white
cross-line-ware, which featured pottery with close, parallel, white, crossed lines. Mud-brick buildings
were first seen in this period in small numbers.

Explain the reasons for the rise and fall of the Old Kingdom
 • The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to the period when Egypt gained in complexity
and achievement, spanning from the Third Dynasty through the Sixth Dynasty (2686-2181 BCE).

• The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, where the first
notable king of the Old Kingdom, Djoser, established his court.

• In the Third Dynasty, formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as Nomes,
which were ruled solely by the pharaoh. The former rulers of these states were subsequently
forced to assume the role of governors, or otherwise work in tax collection.

• Egyptians during this Dynasty worshipped their pharaoh as a god, and believed that he ensured
the stability of the cycles that were responsible for the annual flooding of the Nile. This flooding
was necessary for their crops.

• The Fourth Dynasty saw multiple large-scale construction projects under pharaohs Sneferu,
Khufu, and Khufu’s sons Djedefra and Khafra, including the famous pyramid and Sphinx at Giza.

• The Fifth Dynasty saw changes in religious beliefs, including the rise of the cult of the sun god
Ra, and the deity Osiris.

Ra

The sun god, or the supreme Egyptian deity, worshipped as the creator of all life, and usually portrayed
with a falcon’s head bearing a solar disc.

Osiris

The Egyptian god of the underworld, and husband and brother of Isis.

Nomes

Subnational, administrative division of Ancient Egypt.

nomarchs

Semi-feudal rulers of Ancient Egyptian provinces.

Old Kingdom
Encompassing the Third to Eighth Dynasties, the name commonly given to the period in the 3rd
millennium BCE, when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of complexity and achievement.

Djoser

An ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Third Dynasty, and the founder of the Old Kingdom.

necropolis

A cemetery, especially a large one belonging to an ancient city.

Sneferu

A king of the Fourth Dynasty, who used the greatest mass of stones in building pyramids.

The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to the period from the Third Dynasty through the Sixth
Dynasty (2686-2181 BCE), when Egypt gained in complexity and achievement. The Old Kingdom is the
first of three so-called “Kingdom” periods that mark the high points of civilization in the Nile Valley.
During this time, a new type of pyramid (the step) was created, as well as many other massive building
projects, including the Sphinx. Additionally, trade became more widespread, new religious ideas were
born, and the strong centralized government was subtly weakened and finally collapsed.

The king (not yet called Pharaoh) of Egypt during this period resided in the new royal capital, Memphis.
He was considered a living god, and was believed to ensure the annual flooding of the Nile. This flooding
was necessary for crop growth. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for a large number of pyramids,
which were constructed as royal burial places. Thus, the period of the Old Kingdom is often called “The
Age of the Pyramids.”

Egypt’s Old Kingdom was also a dynamic period in the development of Egyptian art. Sculptors created
early portraits, the first life-size statues, and perfected the art of carving intricate relief decoration.
These had two principal functions: to ensure an ordered existence, and to defeat death by preserving
life in the next world.

The Mongol Empire

Overview of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire expanded through brutal raids and invasions, but also established routes of trade
and technology between East and West.

• The Mongol Empire existed during the 13th and 14th centuries and was the largest land empire
in history.

• The empire unified the nomadic Mongol and Turkic tribes of historical Mongolia.

• The empire sent invasions in every direction, ultimately connecting the East with the West with
the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace, which allowed trade, technologies, commodities, and
ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia.

• The Mongol raids and invasions were some of the deadliest and most terrifying conflicts in
human history.

• Ultimately, the empire started to fragment; it dissolved in 1368, at which point the Han Chinese
Ming Dynasty took control.

Key Terms

tributary states: Pre-modern states subordinate to a more powerful state.

Pax Mongolica: Also known as the Mongol Peace, this agreement allowed trade, technologies,
commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia.

High Middle Ages: A time between the 10th and 12th centuries when the core cultural and social
characteristics of the Middle Ages were firmly set.

Medieval Europe

Middle Ages, the period in European history from the collapse of Roman civilization in the 5th century
CE to the period of the Renaissance (variously interpreted as beginning in the 13th, 14th, or 15th
century, depending on the region of Europe and other factors). A brief treatment of the Middle Ages
follows. For full treatment, see Europe, history of: The Middle Ages

20 February 2022

Feudalism

Link for fedualism and medieval europe

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/medieval-life/

Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that was determined by the
ownership of land.

Recall the structure of the feudal state and the responsibilities and obligations of each level of society

Feudalism flourished in Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries.

• Feudalism in England determined the structure of society around relationships derived from the
holding and leasing of land, or fiefs.

• In England, the feudal pyramid was made up of the king at the top with the nobles, knights, and
vassals below him.

• Before a lord could grant land to a tenant he would have to make him a vassal at a formal
ceremony. This ceremony bound the lord and vassal in a contract.

• While modern writers such as Marx point out the negative qualities of feudalism, such as the
exploitation and lack of social mobility for the peasants, the French historian Marc Bloch
contends that peasants were part of the feudal relationship; while the vassals performed
military service in exchange for the fief, the peasants performed physical labour in return for
protection, thereby gaining some benefit despite their limited freedom.

• The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a “feudal revolution” or
“mutation” and a “fragmentation of powers” that increased localized power and autonomy.

Key Terms

mesne tenant: A lord in the feudal system who had vassals who held land from him, but who was
himself the vassal of a higher lord.

vassals: Persons who entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal
system in medieval Europe.

fiefs: Heritable property or rights granted by an overlord to a vassal.

homage: In the Middle Ages this was the ceremony in which a feudal tenant or vassal pledged reverence
and submission to his feudal lord, receiving in exchange the symbolic title to his new position.

fealty: An oath, from the Latin fidelitas (faithfulness); a pledge of allegiance of one person to another.
Overview

Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th
and 15th centuries. It can be broadly defined as a system for structuring society around relationships
derived from the holding of land, known as a fiefdom or fief, in exchange for service or labour.

The classic version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the
warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. A lord was in broad
terms a noble who held land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord,
and a fief was what the land was known as. In exchange for the use of the fief and the protection of the
lord, the vassal would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land
tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between
lord and vassal concerning the fief formed the basis of the feudal relationship.

Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire,
especially in the Carolingian empires, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support
cavalry without the ability to allocate land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a
system of hereditary rule over their allocated land, and their power over the territory came to
encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres.

Many societies in the Middle Ages were characterized by feudal organizations, including England, which
was the most structured feudal society, France, Italy, Germany, the Holy Roman Empire, and Portugal.
Each of these territories developed feudalism in unique ways, and the way we understand feudalism as
a unified concept today is in large part due to critiques after its dissolution. Karl Marx theorized
feudalism as a pre-capitalist society, characterized by the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in
their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who
farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce, and money
rents.

While modern writers such as Marx point out the negative qualities of feudalism, the French historian
Marc Bloch contends that peasants were an integral part of the feudal relationship: while the vassals
performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasants performed physical labour in return for
protection, thereby gaining some benefit despite their limited freedom. Feudalism was thus a complex
social and economic system defined by inherited ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and
economic privileges and obligations. Feudalism allowed societies in the Middle Ages to retain a relatively
stable political structure even as the centralized power of empires and kingdoms began to dissolve.
Structure of the Feudal State in England

Feudalism in 12th-century England was among the better structured and established systems in Europe
at the time. The king was the absolute “owner” of land in the feudal system, and all nobles, knights, and
other tenants, termed vassals, merely “held” land from the king, who was thus at the top of the feudal
pyramid.

Below the king in the feudal pyramid was a tenant-in-chief (generally in the form of a baron or knight),
who was a vassal of the king. Holding from the tenant-in-chief was a mesne tenant —generally a knight
or baron who was sometimes a tenant-in-chief in their capacity as holder of other fiefs. Below the
mesne tenant, further mesne tenants could hold from each other in series.

The Manor System

The manor system was an element of feudal society in the Middle Ages characterized by the legal and
economic power of the lord of a manor.

Illustrate the hierarchy of the manor system by describing the roles of lords, villeins, and serfs

• The lord of a manor was supported by his land holdings and contributions from the peasant
population. Serfs who occupied land belonging to the lord were required to work the land, and
in return received certain entitlements.

• Serfdom was the status of peasants in the manor system, and villeins were the most common
type of serf in the Middle Ages.

• Villeins rented small homes with or without land; as part of their contract with the lord they
were expected to spend some time working the land.

• Villeins could not move away without the lord’s consent and the acceptance of the new lord
whose manor they were to move to. Because of the protection villeins received from the lord’s
manor, it was generally not favorable to move away unless the landlord proved to be especially
tyrannical.

• The manor system was made up of three types of land: demesne, dependent, and free peasant
land.

• Manorial structures could be found throughout medieval Western and Eastern Europe: in Italy,
Poland, Lithuania, Baltic nations, Holland, Prussia, England, France, and the Germanic kingdoms.

Key Terms
villein:

The most common type of serf in the Middle Ages. They had more rights and a higher status than the
lowest serf, but existed under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from freemen.

demesne:

All the land, not necessarily all physically connected to the manor house, that was retained by the lord
of a manor for his own use and support, under his own management.

serfs:

Peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism. It was a condition of bondage that
developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe.

freemen:

Men who were not serfs in the feudal system.

Manorialism was an essential element of feudal society and was the organizing principle of rural
economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire. Manorialism was widely
practiced in medieval Western Europe and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the
advent of a money-based market economy and new forms of agrarian contract.

Manorialism was characterized by the vesting of legal and economic power in the lord of a manor. The
lord was supported economically from his own direct landholding in a manor (sometimes called a fief),
and from the obligatory contributions of the peasant population who fell under the jurisdiction of the
lord and his court. These obligations could be payable in several ways: in labor, in kind, or, on rare
occasions, in coin. Manorial structures could be found throughout medieval Western and Eastern
Europe: in Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Baltic nations, Holland, Prussia, England, France, and the Germanic
kingdoms.

The main reason for the development of the system was perhaps also its greatest strength: the
stabilization of society during the destruction of Roman imperial order. With a declining birthrate and
population, labor was the key factor of production. Successive administrations tried to stabilize the
imperial economy by freezing the social structure into place: sons were to succeed their fathers in their
trade, councilors were forbidden to resign, and coloni, the cultivators of land, were not to move from
the land they were attached to. The workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs. As the
Germanic kingdoms succeeded Roman authority in the West in the 5th century, Roman landlords were
often simply replaced by Gothic or Germanic ones, with little change to the underlying situation or
displacement of populations. Thus the system of manorialism became ingrained into medieval societies.

The Manor System

Manors each consisted of three classes of land:

Demesne, the part directly controlled by the lord and used for the benefit of his household and
dependents;

Dependent (serf or villein) holdings carrying the obligation that the peasant household supply the lord
with specified labor services or a part of its output; and

Free peasant land, without such obligation but otherwise subject to manorial jurisdiction and custom,
and owing money rent fixed at the time of the lease.

Additional sources of income for the lord included charges for use of his mill, bakery, or wine-press, or
for the right to hunt or to let pigs feed in his woodland, as well as court revenues and single payments
on each change of tenant. On the other side of the account, manorial administration involved significant
expenses, perhaps a reason why smaller manors tended to rely less on villein tenure.

Trade and Commerce

Trade started to expand during the late-13th and early-14th centuries as forms of partnerships and
financing began to appear.

List the factors that led to a change in commerce and trade in the Late Middle Ages

• Explorers opened up new trade routes to the south of Africa, India, and America due to the
dominant position of the Ottoman Empire impeding trade routes to the west.

• The Commercial Revolution began in the late-13th and early-14th centuries with the rise of
insurance issuing, forms of credit, and new forms of accounting allowing for better financial
oversight and accuracy.

• In England, the crises caused by the Great Famine and the Black Death from 1290–1348, as
well as subsequent epidemics, produced many challenges for the economy, culminating in the
Peasant ‘s Revolt.
 • The English agricultural economy remained depressed throughout the 15th century, with
growth coming from the greatly increased English cloth trade and manufacturing.

• Fairs grew in popularity, reaching their heyday in the 13th century, as the international wool
trade increased. Despite an overall decline after the 14th century, the great fairs continued to
play an important role in exchanging money and regional commerce.

• In cities linked to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, the Hanseatic League developed as a trade
monopoly.

guild: Association of artisans or merchants who controlled the practice of their craft in a particular
town. They were organized in a manner similar to something between a professional association and
a trade union.

usury: The practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans intended to unfairly enrich the
lender.

bullion: Gold bars, silver bars, and other precious metals bars or ingots.

Ottoman Empire: Empire founded by Oghuz Turks under Osman Bey in northwestern Anatolia in 1299
and dissolved in 1923 in the aftermath of World War I, forming the new state of Turkey.

During the Late Middle Ages, the increasingly dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern
Mediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who started
looking for alternatives. Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes south of Africa to
India, and across the Atlantic Ocean to America.

Start of the Commercial Revolution

In the late-13th and early-14th centuries, a process took place—primarily in Italy but partly also in the
Holy Roman Empire—that historians have termed a “commercial revolution.” Among the innovations
of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed
to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that
circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury and eliminated the dangers of carrying
bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for
better oversight and accuracy.

Guilds
With the financial expansion, trading rights were more jealously guarded by the commercial elite.
Towns saw the growing power of guilds that arose in the 14th century as craftsmen uniting to protect
their common interest. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money
economy and to urbanization. Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization,
as commodity money was the normal way of doing business.

In medieval cities, craftsmen started to form associations based on their trades. Confraternities of
textile workers, masons, carpenters, carvers, and glass workers, all controlled secrets of traditionally
imparted technology—the “arts” or “mysteries” of their crafts. Usually the founders were free
independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices. These guilds were organized in a manner
similar to something between a professional association, a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society.
They often depended on grants of letters patented by a monarch or other authority to enforce the
flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of
materials. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting
places.

Where guilds were in control, they shaped labor, production, and trade; they had strong controls over
instructional capital, and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of apprentice to craftsman,
and then from journeyman eventually to widely recognized master and grandmaster, began to
emerge. European guilds imposed long standardized periods of apprenticeship and made it difficult
for those lacking the capital to set up for themselves or without the approval of their peers to gain
access to materials or knowledge, or to sell into certain markets, an area that equally dominated the
guilds’ concerns. These are defining characteristics of mercantilism in economics, which dominated
most European thinking about political economy until the rise of classical economics.

Hanseatic League

In cities linked to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, the Hanseatic League developed as a trade
monopoly. This facilitated the growth of trade among cities in close proximity to these two seas. Long-
distance trade in the Baltic intensified as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic
League under the leadership of Lübeck.

The Hanseatic League was a business alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade
along the coast of Northern Europe and flourished from 1200–1500, and continued with lesser
importance after that. The chief cities were Cologne on the Rhine River, Hamburg and Bremen on the
North Sea, and Lübeck on the Baltic Sea. The Hanseatic cities each had their own legal system and a
degree of political autonomy.
The league was founded for the purpose of joining forces for promoting mercantile interests,
defensive strength, and political influence. By the 14th century, the Hanseatic League held a near-
monopoly on trade in the Baltic, especially with Novgorod and Scandinavia.

English Economy

The crises caused by the Great Famine and the Black Death between 1290 and 1348, as well as
subsequent epidemics, produced many challenges for the English economy. The Peasant’s Revolt of
1381 had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black
Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years’
War, and instability within the local leadership of London.

Although the revolt was suppressed, it undermined many of the vestiges of the feudal economic order
and the countryside became dominated by estates organized as farms, frequently owned or rented by
the new economic class of the gentry. The English agricultural economy remained depressed
throughout the 15th century, with growth coming from the greatly increased English cloth trade and
manufacturing.

Fairs

From the 12th century onwards, many English towns acquired a charter from the Crown allowing
them to hold an annual fair, usually serving a regional or local customer base and lasting for two or
three days. Fairs grew in popularity, reaching their heyday in the 13th century, as the international
wool trade increased. The fairs allowed English wool producers and ports on the east coast to engage
with visiting foreign merchants, circumnavigating those English merchants in London keen to make a
profit as middlemen. At the same time, wealthy magnate consumers in England began to use the new
fairs as a way to buy goods like spices, wax, preserved fish, and foreign cloth in bulk from the
international merchants at the fairs, again bypassing the usual London merchants.

Towards the end of the 14th century, the position of fairs started to decline. The larger merchants,
particularly in London, had begun to establish direct links with the larger landowners such as the
nobility and the church; rather than the landowner buying from a chartered fair, they would buy
directly from the merchant. Nonetheless, the great fairs remained important well into the 15th
century, as illustrated by their role in exchanging money, regional commerce, and providing choice for
individual consumers.
The Black Death

The Black Death was an infamous pandemic of bubonic plague and one of the most devastating
pandemics in human history.

Evaluate the impact of the Black Death on European society in the Middle Ages

The Black Death resulted in the deaths of an estimated 75-200 million people—approximately 30% of
Europe’s population.

It spread from central Asia on rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant
ships, and traveled towards Europe as people fled from one area to another.

The Great Famine of 1315-1317 and subsequent malnutrition in the population likely caused weakened
immunity and susceptibility to disease.

Medieval doctors thought the plague was created by air corrupted by humid weather, decaying
unburied bodies, and fumes produced by poor sanitation.

The aftermath of the plague created a series of religious, social, and economic upheavals, which had
profound effects on the course of European history.

As people struggled to understand the causes of the Black Death, renewed religious fervor and
fanaticism bloomed in its wake, leading to the widespread persecution of minorities.

Flagellantism, the practice of self-inflicted pain, especially with a whip, became popular as a radical
movement during the time of the Black Death, and was eventually deemed heretical by the church.

The great population loss wrought by the plague brought favorable results to the surviving peasants in
England and Western Europe, such as wage increases and more access to land, and was one of the
factors in the ending of the feudal system.

Key Terms

bubonic plague:

Disease circulating mainly in fleas on small rodents. Without treatment, the bacterial infection kills
about two thirds of infected humans within four days.

the Silk Road:

Series of trade and cultural routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions of the Asian
continent, connecting the West and East from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
Flagellant:

Practitioners of an extreme form of mortification of their own flesh by whipping it with various
instruments.

In the Late Middle Ages (1340–1400) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history
when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in 1347. The Black Death was one
of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75–200
million people and peaking in Europe in the years 1348–1350.

Path of the Black Death to Europe

The Black Death is thought to have originated in the arid plains of Central Asia, where it then travelled
along the Silk Road, reaching the Crimea by 1346. It was most likely carried by Oriental rat fleas living on
the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships.

Mongol dominance of Eurasian trade routes enabled safe passage through more secured trade routes.
Goods were not the only thing being traded; disease also was passed between cultures. From Central
Asia the Black Death was carried east and west along the Silk Road by Mongol armies and traders
making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the Pax
Mongolica. The epidemic began in Europe with an attack that Mongols launched on the Italian
merchants’ last trading station in the region, Caffa in the Crimea. In the autumn of 1346, plague broke
out among the besiegers and then penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italian merchants
fled on their ships, unknowingly carrying the Black Death. The plague initially spread to humans near the
Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to
another.

Spreading throughout the Mediterranean and Europe, the Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–
60% of Europe’s total population. While Europe was devastated by the disease, the rest of the world
fared much better. In India, populations rose from 91 million in 1300, to 97 million in 1400, to 105
million in 1500. Sub-Saharan Africa also remained largely unaffected by the plagues.

Symptoms and Treatment

The most infamous symptom of bubonic plague is an infection of the lymph glands, which become
swollen and painful and are known as buboes. Buboes associated with the bubonic plague are
commonly found in the armpits, groin, and neck region. Gangrene of the fingers, toes, lips, and nose is
another common symptom.
Medieval doctors thought the plague was created by air corrupted by humid weather, decaying
unburied bodies, and fumes produced by poor sanitation. The recommended treatment for the plague
was a good diet, rest, and relocating to a non-infected environment so the individual could get access to
clean air. This did help, but not for the reasons the doctors of the time thought. In actuality, because
they recommended moving away from unsanitary conditions, people were, in effect, getting away from
the rodents that harbored the fleas carrying the infection.

Plague doctors advised walking around with flowers in or around the nose to “ward off the stench and
perhaps the evil that afflicted them.” Some doctors wore a beak-like mask filled with aromatic items.
The masks were designed to protect them from putrid air, which was seen as the cause of infection.

Since people didn’t have the knowledge to understand the plague, people believed it was a punishment
from God. The thought the only way to be rid of the plague was to be forgiven by God. One method was
to carve the symbol of the cross onto the front door of a house with the words “Lord have mercy on us”
near it.

Impact of the Black Death on Society and Culture

The aftermath of the plague created a series of religious, social, and economic upheavals, which had
profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe’s population to
recover, and the effects of the plague irrevocably changed the social structure, resulting in widespread
persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival
has been seen as creating a general mood of morbidity, influencing people to “live for the moment.”

Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause of the plague, Europeans turned to
astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague’s
emergence. No one in the 14th century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people
began to believe only God’s anger could produce such horrific displays. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian
writer and poet of the 14th century, questioned whether plague was sent by God for human’s
correction, or if it came through the influence of the heavenly bodies. Christians accused Jews of
poisoning public water supplies in an effort to ruin European civilization. The spreading of this rumor led
to complete destruction of entire Jewish towns, but it was caused simply by suspicion on the part of the
Christians, who noticed that the Jews had lost fewer lives in the Plague due to their hygienic practices. In
February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. In August of the same year, the Jewish
communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated.
There was a significant impact on religion, as many believed the plague was God’s punishment for sinful
ways. Church lands and buildings were unaffected, but there were too few priests left to maintain the
old schedule of services. Over half the parish priests, who gave the final sacraments to the dying, died
themselves. The church moved to recruit replacements, but the process took time. New colleges were
opened at established universities, and the training process sped up. The shortage of priests opened
new opportunities for lay women to assume more extensive and important service roles in local
parishes.

Flagellantism was a 13th and 14th centuries movement involving radicals in the Catholic Church. It
began as a militant pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The peak of
the activity was during the Black Death. Flagellant groups spontaneously arose across Northern and
Central Europe in 1349, except in England. The German and Low Countries movement, the Brothers of
the Cross, is particularly well documented. They established their camps in fields near towns and held
their rituals twice a day. The followers would fall to their knees and scourge themselves, gesturing with
their free hands to indicate their sin and striking themselves rhythmically to songs, known as
Geisslerlieder, until blood flowed. Sometimes the blood was soaked up by rags and treated as a holy
relic. Some towns began to notice that sometimes Flagellants brought plague to towns where it had not
yet surfaced. Therefore, later they were denied entry. The flagellants responded with increased physical
penance.

The Black Death had a profound impact on art and literature. After 1350, European culture in general
turned very morbid. The common mood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark with
representations of death. La Danse Macabre, or the dance of death, was a contemporary allegory,
expressed as art, drama, and printed work. Its theme was the universality of death, expressing the
common wisdom of the time that no matter one’s station in life, the dance of death united all. It
consisted of the personified Death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the grave—
typically with an emperor, king, pope, monk, youngster, and beautiful girl, all in skeleton-state. Such
works of art were produced under the impact of the Black Death, reminding people of how fragile their
lives and how vain the glories of earthly life were.

Economic Impact of the Plague

The great population loss wrought by the plague brought favorable results to the surviving peasants in
England and Western Europe. There was increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the
peasants’ already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. Feudalism never
recovered. Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move
about and rise higher in life.
The Black Death encouraged innovation of labor-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity.
There was a shift from grain farming to animal husbandry. Grain farming was very labor-intensive, but
animal husbandry needed only a shepherd, a few dogs, and pastureland.

Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and thus
put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export
of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia, and northern Germany. However, the upper
classes often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and
successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly
of the peasant class) could wear so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act
as higher class members with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that
peasants could not demand more with increasing value. In England, the Statute of Labourers of 1351
was enforced, meaning no peasant could ask for more wages than they had in 1346. This was met with
varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of
the 1381 Peasants’ Revolt in England.

Plague brought an eventual end of serfdom in Western Europe. The manorial system was already in
trouble, but the Black Death assured its demise throughout much of Western and Central Europe by
1500. Severe depopulation and migration of people from village to cities caused an acute shortage of
agricultural laborers. In England, more than 1300 villages were deserted between 1350 and 1500.

The War on Terror

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Discuss how the United States responded to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001

 Explain why the United States went to war against Afghanistan and Iraq

 Describe the treatment of suspected terrorists by U.S. law enforcement agencies and the U.S.
military

9/11

Shortly after takeoff on the morning of September 11, 2001, teams of hijackers from the Islamist
terrorist group al-Qaeda seized control of four American airliners. Two of the airplanes were flown into
the twin towers of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. Morning news programs that were
filming the moments after the first impact, then assumed to be an accident, captured and aired live
footage of the second plane, as it barreled into the other tower in a flash of fire and smoke. Less than
two hours later, the heat from the crash and the explosion of jet fuel caused the upper floors of both
buildings to collapse onto the lower floors, reducing both towers to smoldering rubble. The passengers
and crew on both planes, as well as 2,606 people in the two buildings, all died, including 343 New York
City firefighters who rushed in to save victims shortly before the towers collapsed.

The third hijacked plane was flown into the Pentagon building in northern Virginia, just outside
Washington, DC, killing everyone on board and 125 people on the ground. The fourth plane, also
heading towards Washington, crashed in a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, when passengers, aware
of the other attacks, attempted to storm the cockpit and disarm the hijackers. Everyone on board was
killed.

That evening, President Bush promised the nation that those responsible for the attacks would be
brought to justice. Three days later, Congress issued a joint resolution authorizing the president to use
all means necessary against the individuals, organizations, or nations involved in the attacks. On
September 20, in an address to a joint session of Congress, Bush declared war on terrorism, blamed al-
Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden for the attacks, and demanded that the radical Islamic fundamentalists
who ruled Afghanistan, the Taliban, turn bin Laden over or face attack by the United States. This speech
encapsulated what became known as the Bush Doctrine, the belief that the United States has the right
to protect itself from terrorist acts by engaging in pre-emptive wars or ousting hostile governments in
favor of friendly, preferably democratic, regimes.

Pool of Questions Part A

1. Name Three(3) ancient civilization of the world

2. Write in your own words the meaning of civilizatrrion

3. State Two (2) causes of World War 1

4. State Two (2) major waring parties in the World War 1

5. Identify Two Causes of World War 2

6. briefly explain the purpose of Nuremberg trial

7. Briefly explain why is it called the dark ages in the World History

8. list Three (3) Early human evvolutionary hyposthsis

9. State the period in which mongolian empire existed

10. Identify Two (2) purposes in which monglian empire continue to expand

11. State one(1) salient feature of Mongolian empire

12. Briefly explain the development that occured during babylonian period

13. State Two (2) Impacts of black death duriing medieval period

14. Briefly explain the term ''Flagellantism''.

15. List Two (2) Charaterisitcs of medieval life in Europe

16. briefly explain the effects of industrial revolution

17. Explain the period of neolithic era in the world history

18. State Two (2) salient features of Babylonian culture

Pool of questions Part B

1. Write an essay on the world history and civilization of the different periods in the human civilization.

2. Critically evaluate the rise and fall of Ottoman empire

3. Write Short Notes on the following topics

• Industrials Revolution

• Ottoman Emptier

• Changing World order

• Medieval Europe

• Post modernity and Globalization

4. Explain why the Ottoman Empire lost power and prestige

5. Identify the core ideas that drove the Age of Enlightenment

6. Describe the influences of the Renaissance and historical perspectives

7. Summarize the changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to manufacturing

8. Explain the significance of the Neolithic Revolution that has brought about invention of agriculture
allowed humans to settle in groups, specialize, and develop civilizations.
9. Write a short essay on any of the civlizations in the histroy of humanity

10. Evaluate the impact of the Black Death on European society in the Middle Ages

11. Explain the structure of the feudal state and the responsibilities and obligations of each level of
society in the medieval europe

12. Define globalization in the broader context of global business and historical development

13. Eamine the positive outcomes of globalization

14. Write account on the human evolution that took place in the civilization

Pool of Questions Part A

1. Name three ancient civilization of the world

2. Write in your own words the meaning of civilizatrrion

3. State Two (2) causes of World War 1

4. State Two (2) major waring parties in the World War 1

5. Identify Two Causes of World War 2

6. briefly explain the purpose of Nuremberg trial

7. Briefly explain why is it called the dark ages in the World History

Pool of questions Part B

1. Write an essay on the world history and civilization of the different periods in the human civilization

OR

Critically evaluate the rise and fall of Ottoman empire

2. Write Short Notes on the following topics

A.Industrials Revolution

B. Ottoman Empire

C. Changing World order

D. Medieval Europe
E. Post modernity and Globalization

OR

Explain why the Ottoman Empire lost power and prestige

3. Identify the core ideas that drove the Age of Enlightenment

OR

Describe the influences of the Renaissance and historical perspectives

4. Summarize the changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to manufacturing

OR

Explain the significance of the Neolithic Revolution that has brought about invention of agriculture
allowed humans to settle in groups, specialize, and develop civilizations.

5. Evaluate the impact of the Black Death on European society in the Middle Ages

OR

Explain the structure of the feudal state and the responsibilities and obligations of each level of society
in the medieval europe

6. Write a short essay on any of the civlizations in the histroy of humanity

OR

Define globalization in the broader context of global business and historical development

7. Eamine the positive outcomes of globalization

OR

Write an account on the human evolution that took place in the civilization