Chapter 2. Mathematical Methods Certain mathematical tools are required to understand Physies. Vector analysis and elementary calculus are two among these. Different physical quantities can be classified into the following two categories: Hasmagnitude and ‘as magnitude nly Sealars: Scalar quantities are those quantities which require only the magnitude for their complete specifications. Physical quantities which can be completely specified by a number and unit, and therefore which are scalar are mas have the magnitude only, are scalars. Some physical quantiti length, time, energy, volume, density, temperature, electric charge, electrie poten al etc. These examples obey the algebraic law of addition. Veetors: Vector quantities are those quantities which require magnitude as well as direction for their complete specifications. Vectors are physical quantities, which besides having both magnitude and direction also obey the law of geometrical addition, (The law of geometrical addition, i.e. the law of triangular addition and law of parallelogram are discussed later in this chapter). Some physical quantities, which are vectors are displacement, Velocity, acceleration, force, electric intensity, magnetic intensity, magnetic moment ete. Vector quantities cannot, in general, be added in algebraically. Different types of ctors: 1, Null Vectors: A vector having zero magnitude an arbitrary direction is called zero vector or ‘null © vector. The initial point and the end point of such a vector coincide so that its direction is indeterminate. The concept of null vector is hypothetical but we introduce it only to explain some mathematical results, Properties of a Null Vector (a) Ithas zero magnitude. (b) It has arbitrary direction (c) It is represented by a point. vector’ and is written a Page 1 of 17 Mathematical Methods HLS.C (XD) PHY:(d) When a null vector is added or subtracted from a given vector the resultant vector is same as the given vector. (e) Dot product of a null vector with any veetor is always zero. (0) Cross product of a null vector with any vector is also a null vector. 2. Resultant vector: The resultant of two or more vectors is that single vector, which produces the same effect, as produced by all the vectors together. > 3. Negative Vectors: Two vectors which have same magnitude (length) but A their direction is opposite to each, other called the negative vectors of each z other, In figure above vectors A and C or B and C are negative vectors. > 4. Equal Vectors: Two or more, vectors are equal if they have the same A magnitude (length) and direction, whatever their initial points. In the figure F above, the vectors A and B are equal. 5, Position vector: A vector which gives the position of a particle at a point y With respect to the origin of a chosen coordinate system is called the position : P vector of the particle. = OP is the position vector of the particle present at P. L + 6. Unit Vectors: A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of unity. Its only purpose is to describe a direction in space. On x-y co-ordinate system i denote unit vector in positive x direction and J denotes unit veetor in positive y direction. * Any vector in x —y plane can be represented in terms of these unit vectors ¢ and J. Similarly, any vector in a 3-dimensional x y z space can be represented in terms of unit vectors i, J andi. Here, kis the unit vector in the positive z direction, as shown in above. 7. Collinear vectors: Vectors having a common line of action are —_—_ called collinear vectors, There are two types of collinear vectors. One is parallel vector and another is anti-parallel vector. 8. Parallel Vectors: Two or more vectors (which may have different magnitudes) s are said to be parallel (= 0°) when they are parallel to the same line. In the figure below, the vectors and Bare parallel. Page 2 of Mathematical Methods HLS.C (XI) PHYSICSAnti-Parallel Vector: ‘wo or more vectors (Which may have different magnitudes) acting along opposite direction are called anti-parallel vectors. In the figure below, the vectors B andC are anti parallel vectors. Vector Operations: Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar: Multiplying a vector Poy a scalar quantity, say s, yields another vector. Let us write Q=s P Q will be a vector whose direction is the same as that of P and magnitude is s times the magnitude of P. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Scalar quantities can be added algebraically. for example, 4 kg of sugar and 3 kg of sugar, when combined together in any way, always give 7 kg of sugar. This is not always there in case of vectors, since they possess directions, also, in addition to the magnitudes. Following are some points regarding vector addition: (a) Addition or composition of vectors means finding the resultant of a number of vectors acting on a body. (b) The vectors can be added geometrically and not algebrai (c) Vectors, whose resultant is to be calculated behave independent of each other. In other words, each vector behaves as if the other vectors were absent. (d) Vector addition is commutative. soi+B=8+A It means that the law of addition of vectors is independent of the order of vectors. Now, the vector whose initial point coincides with the initial Graphical Representation of Vector Addition: To find @ +B , shift vector such that its initia coincides with the terminal point of veetor A point of vector A, and terminal point coincides with the term Page 3 of 17 Mathematical Methodspoint of vector B represents @ + 6 as shown in the above figure. To find + @, shift A such that its initial point coincides with the terminal point B vector whose initial point coincides with the initial point of J and terminal point coincides with the terminal point ofA represents + 7 Vector Subtraction: The process of subtracting one vector from another is equivalent to adding, vectorially, the negative of the vector to be subtracted. Suppose there are two vectors A and B, shown in figure (A) and we have to subtract B and A. It is just the same thing as adding vectors ~ B to A The resultant is shown in figure (B). Properties of Vector Addition:- Vector addition obeys the following properties. 1. Vector addition is commutative: It means that the order of veetors to be added together does not affect the result of addition. If two vector are to be added together, then ath 2. Vector addition is associative: While adding three or more vectors together, the mutual grouping of vector does not affect the = @+(5+2)=(@+5)+2 result Mathematically, 3. Vector addition is distributive: It means a scalar time the sum of pvo vectors is equal to the sum of the scalar times of the two vectors, individually. Mathematically, ma +mb=m(a@+6' Geometrical Representation of Addition of Vectors: Magnitude and direction of @ + b:- Let angle between vector A and B be 0. x Page 4 0! Mathematical Methods ow (AY POLLInthe figure vector OA) = vector A, vector (AB) = vector B From A ADB, AD =bcos 0 BD =bsin® Inright angled AODB, OD =a+bcosd BD=bsin0 Therefore, OB = \(OD*+BD? ) a*+b*+2ab cos 0) la + | = a+b when 0=2na la +b Jnw = [a—b] when @=(2n+1)x (where n= 0, 1, 2, ....-) Ifa +b is inclined at an angle @ with vector a, then tan a =((b sin 0)/(a*b cos@)) Triangle’s Law of Vector Addition: Itis a law for the addition of two vectors. It can be stated as follows: “If two vectors are represented (in magnitude and direction) by the two sides ofa triangle, taken in the same order, then their resultant in represented (in magnitude and direction) by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order.” Consider two vectors A and B [Below Figure] acting, simultaneously, on a body. Represent vector B by the line OB. At A draw another line OA representing B. Join OC. ThenOC (=F) gives the resultant of A and J. It can be noted that OB and BC are in same order while A is in opposite order. This is in accordance with the triangle’s law. so, ff =OC A+B Page 5 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS. =-- ~~~ ~~ — - —-~~~— ~~~ ~~ — B+A It is, further, clear that the order of vectors in vector addition is immaterial. So, vector addition is commutative. If 0 is the angle between A and B, then the magnitude of the resultant vector J will be, B’)+2ABcos0 and if ois the angle between B and A then, Asin@ = tan" '( 4508 — i B+Acos® If three vectors acting, simultaneously, on a particle can be represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then the particle will remain in equilibrium, Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows: Law of Parallelogram of Vectors The addition of two vectors may also be understood by the law of parallelogram. It states that “if two vectors acting simultaneously at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, their resultant is given in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.” According to this law if two vectors P and @ are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram both pointing outwards as shown in the figure below , then the diagonal drawn through the intersection of the two vectors represents the resultant (i.e. vector sum of 2” and @). 1fQ is displacement from position AD to BC by displacing it parallel to itself, this method becomes equivalent to the triangle method In case of addition of two vectors by parallelogram method as shown in figure, the magnitude of resultant will be given by, (AC)’=(AE)’+ (EC) or R’=(P + Q cos 8)’ (Q sin 8)" Or R=\P'+Q'+2PQcosd Mathematical Methods. H.S.C (XI) PHYSICSQsind And the direction of resultant from vector P will be given by tana="F = 5G ep 1 _Qsind a=tan P+Qcos0 Special Cases (a) When 0 = 0°, cos 0 = 1, sin 0” =0 Substituting for cos @ in equation R=\P*+Q'+2 PQcos®, We get, R=\P'+Q°+2 PQcos0 R=\P'+Q° or R= P+ Q (maximum) 1_Qsind Substituting for sin @ and cos 8 in equation @=tan 520 OG » We get, = tan sind a=tan P+Qcos0 -1QX0 P+Q @stan = tan'(0)=0 The resultant of two vectors acting in the same directions is equal to the sum of the two. The direction of resultant coincides with those of the wo vectors. (b) When @ = 180°, cos 180° =-1, sin 180° = 0 Substituting for cos 0 in equation R=y P’+Q"+2 PQcos8 , We get, +Q'+2PQcos0 Page 7 of 17 Mathematical Methods HLS.C (XI) PHYSICS1_Qsin8 P+Qcosa’ *° Se Substituting for sin 180° and cos 180" in equation a@=tan tan? -Qsin180__ pt QXO0 a= tan” F4Qcosi80 ~ *" Peg(—a) ~ BM =0 This magnitude of the resultant of two vectors acting in opposite direction is equal to the difference of magnitudes of the two and represents the minimum value. The direction of the resultant is in the direction of the bigger one. (c) When 6 = 90, cos 90’ = 0, sin 90 Substituting for cos @ in equation R= P’+Q’+2 PQcos0 , We get, R iy P*+Q*-2PQ(0) wVP+Q Substituting for sin 90° and cos 90° in equation a= tan = pan! -Qsin 90. 1_QX1 Q een P+Qcos90 ~ fan P+Q(0) © fan (p) The resultant of two vectors acting at right angles to each other is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the magnitudes of the two vectors. Direction of the resultant depends upon their relative magnitudes. Resolution of vectors: A vector can be written as a sum of two or more vectors along certain fixed directions. Thus a vector V can be written as V= (1) where @ ,f, pare unit vectors along chosen directions. Vi, V2and Vsare known as components of V along the three directions @, 8,7. The process of splitting a given vector into its components is called y resolution of the vector. The components can be found along directions at any required angles, but if these components are found along the directions “ which are mutually perpendicular, they are called rectangular components. Let us see how to find rectangular components in two dimensions Page 8 of 17 Mathematical Methods DownloadConsider a vector R=OC, originating from the origin ofa rectangular co-ordinate vem as shown in Fig. Drop perpendiculars from C that meet the x-axis at A and y-axis of at B. OA: ; R, and R,,, being the components of OC along the x and y axes, respectively Then by the law of parallelogram of vectors, R=R,+R, R=R,i+R,j where j and j are unit vectors along the x and y axes respectively, and R, and R, are the magnitudes of the two components of R. R, Let 6 be the angle made by Rwith the x-axis, then cos8 => 2 R,=Roos8 nase (4) R sino = R 2 R,=Rsin® seunsasnaneerseeO) Squaring and adding Eqs. (4) and (5), we get Equation (6) gives the magnitude of R. To find the direction of R, from Fig. tand= im) Similarly, if R,.R,AR, are the rectangular components of R along the x, y and z axes of the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system in three dimensions, then Page 9 of 17 Mathematical Methods ) PHYSICS+R,+R, (R,i+R, j+R,k or, [R[=\ R+R+Re If two vectors are equal, it means that their corresponding components are also equal and vice versa. The vectors cannot be added algebraically, like scalar quantities. The angle between the two vectors plays an important role in addition of vectors. Similarly, angle between two vectors plays an important role when the two vectors are multiplied together. Consider two quantities having magnitudes ‘3° and ‘2° respectively. If the quantities are scalars then then the result of their multiplication cannot be anything other than 6. We are at liberty to express these product as 3.2 = 6 or 32 = 6. If the two quantities are vector quantities, the result of their mul can have any value lying in between -6 and +6, The result depends upon the angle between them. Moreover, we are not free to put a dot (.) or a cross (<) in between. Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar: Let vector a is multiplied by a scalar m. If m is a positive quantity, only magnitude of the vector will change by a factor ‘m’ and its direction will remain same. If'm is a negative quantity the direction of the be reversed. vector wi Multiplication of a Vector by a Vector: There are two ways in which two vectors can be multiplied together. (A) Dot Product or Scalar Product: The dot product of two vectors a and b is defined as the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the smaller angle ae b = [al [bj Coso between the two. It is written by putting a dot (.) between two vectors, The result of this product does not possess any direction, So, it is a scalar quantity. Hence it is also called a scalar product. where a and b are the magnitudes of the respective vectors and 0 is the angle between them, The final product is a scalar quantity. If qo vectors are mutually perpendicular then 0 = 90° and cos 90° = 0, Hence, their dot product is zero. Some Examples of Dot Product: Work (W): Work is the dot product of the force (F°) and displacement (&'). Work is scalar quantity. W=F.S = Fscosd Page 10 of 17 Mathematical Methods DownloadSe Power (P): Power is the dot product of force (F) and velocity (u’). Power is also a scalar quantity. paPu Characteristles of Dot Product: Dot product of two vectors obeys the following characteristics. (i) Commutative: Dot product between two vectors is commutative in nature. If and B are two vectors, then, @.b = 6.4 It means that the order of vectors in the product can be changed without affecting the result. (ii) Distributive: Dot product of vector with the sum of a number of other vectors is equal to the sum of the dot products of the vector taken with other vectors separately, Mathematically, it can be expressed as @-(b + €) = ab + a (ii) Dot product in terms of rectangular component: Here, ij-0tk=0,8f.k-oandit=10j=1, &k. (Iv) Perpendicular vectors: For two perpendicular vectors A and B, 0 @.b =\A| |B\ cos 0 = ab cos 90°=0 Thus, the product of two non-zero vectors, Which are perpendicular to each other, is always zero. This statement is known as condition of perpendicularity. (9) Collinear veetors: (a) Parallel vectors: In this case, 0 = 0°, So, @.5 =| |B| cos 0 = ab cos 0° (b) Anti-parallel vectors: In this case, 0= 180°, @.6 = || |B) cos @ = ab eos 180° Therefore, the dot product of collinear vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes. It is positive if they are parallel and negative if they are anti-parallel. The statement is called condition of co-linearity. (vi) Equal veetors: Vectors are equal if they possess same magnitude and direction, i.e. 0=0° So dot product of two equal vectors is given by @.G = al al cos0” = Dot product two equal veetors is equal to the square of the magnitude of the cither, Page 11 of 17 Mathematical MethodsThus,id = J.J =F + Cross product of two veetors A (B) Cross Product or Vector Product and B is defined as a single vector © whose magnitude is equal to the Raxr product of their individual magnitudes and the sine of the smaller angle <. between them and is directed along the normal to the plane containing ey ¥ 7 and B. AxB =C =ab sinoit (aa Here iis the unit vector in a direction perpendicular to the plane containing A and B Cross product of two vectors being a vector quantity is also known as vector : ? product pao F To specify the sense of the vector ¢, refer to the figure given below Imagine rotating a right hand serew whose axis is perpendicular to the plane formed by vectors u and b so as to tum it from vectors a to b ough the angle 8 , i (ey ) between them. Then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the } direction of the vector product vectors A and B Some Examples of Cross Product: Angular momentum (L): Angular momentum (ZL) which is the cross product of position veetor (2) and momentum (P) isalso a vector quantity. L-RxP Characteristies of Cross Product () Not commutative: Cross product of two vectors is not commutative in nature. @xb=-bxa Thus, @ x 6 A bx Gi) Distributive: Cross product of a vector with the sum of a number of vectors is equal to the sum of cross product of the vector taken with other vectors separately. Page 12 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS$0.4 x (6+) =axb+axe (iii) Collinear vectors: (a) Parallel veetors: In this case, 8 = 0°, sin @= 0, So. x 6 =a null veetor (b) Anti-parallel vectors: In this case, again, @ x b =a null vector Therefore, cross product of two linear vectors is always a null vector (zero magnitude). The statement is known as condition of co-linearity. dv) Equal veetors: For equal vectors, 0 = 0, sin = 0, So, @ x 8 =a null veetor (¥) Perpendicular vectors: For perpendicular vectors, = 90°, sin @= 1, So, @ x 0 = ab The magnitude of the cross product of two perpendicular vectors is equal to the product of their individual magnitudes. (vi) Orthogonal unit veetors: In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ixj= jxk kxi xi kxj--i | Introduction to Calculus: branches of science. Here we will learn the Calculus isthe study of continuous (not basics of the two branches of calculus namely differential and integral calculus. discrete) changes in mathematical quantities. This branch of mathematics was first developed Differential Calculus: by G.W Leibnitz and Sir Issacs Newton in the Let us consider a function y = ffx). Here x 17th century and is extensively used in several Hed an independent variable and f(x) gi Page 13 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS Downloaddifferent values of and is the dependent variable. Average rate of change of y with respect to x. Non: the etic ofthe increment of the fuction tothe increment an the independent variable, ay _ f(x+4x)- f(s) ae Now. 4x-+0,Ay—+0aud “> finite quantity. then papa it derivative fs) exists andi denoted by yo 3) on Thus, f( (vents) for the limit ro exist, (x+h)-F(x)_ 5 Fe ee (Right Hava derivative) (Lefi Hand derivative) Standard Derivatives Formulae: Page 14 of 17 Mathematical Methods 1 sxeRneR.x>0 a A (in) = osx a Si(cors)--sinx (sec x) =seo x.taa x (covee x) =~ cocec x. cot x {cot x) =—cosec? x 4 stant) =O gy (constnt) > (XD) PHYSICSa + yavUvvvvvsa"Ts + vausvz¥VEsrsY @) xeR (das du.) (2 \eeray wy-,) +f ee} (0182 8385 tg) (wi) xeR + +{F\ 29 ty Bye) (wwii) (see) ixh Gis) “Quaint Rae” mown as coin {soe s) 0) Chala Re: 1fy=/00.4= 00). 000 dy dy du dw ten ie du dw Rules in Derivative: =e « Uvand v are derivable funetions oft, then, or Boe) e( 4) au dv © Teunty temdiferentition: 5 (u2¥)= +o Tuitegral éatentas @ Melepiwin bya coosnar (K0)-KE, wheres | Integral calculus isthe branch of ’ aya coanaae 2 . & say constant mathematics dealing with properties of integrals “Prods nater (us) =u. and their applications. Physical interpretation of Tngeneral, tegral of a function fix), ie., J f(x) dv is the area under the curve ff) versus x. [tis the reverse process of differentiation as we will see @ Hu,u.uy uy... u,ere the functions of, then below We know how to find the area of a rectangle, triangle etc. In Fig. (a) we have shown y which is a function of x, A and B being two points on it, ° 2 3B x Page 15 of 17 Mathematical Methods Rovwebna avesa ieg,a Jat ds +¢. [sinxdx =—cosx+C cos xdx = sine +C dx = tone $C i fooses*xds = -cotx + C Mist Jocoxtanndn —ses x4 We? a8 dx =e x? coseexcotx dx = —cosee x +C. ‘tanxdx = -log| cosx|+C=log i a a cot xdx = log |sinx | +C J¥eme a= secxdx ~ log|seex + tan x) +C Definite Integration: persian bal teek ete Let (x) be any antiderivative of f(x), then for any tro values of the independent variable x, say a and b, the difference F (b)-F (a) is called the definite integral of f(x) from a to band ‘The rmmbers a and b are called che limits of integration: ais the lower limit and b is the upper limit. Usually F (b) ~ F (a) és abbreviated by writing F(x) & Page 17 of 17 Mathematical Methods S.C (XI) PHYSICS