CVLE451

Foundation Engineering

Lecture 1: Site Exploration and

Characterization
Geotechnical Engineering Related Failures:
Shanghai Building Collapse (2009)
Bearing Capacity Failures
Slope Failures
Definition

The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that

will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is
generally referred to as site investigation.

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Exploration programme
• The purpose of the exploration programme is to determine, within practical limits,

– the stratification and

– engineering properties of the soils

• The principal properties of interest will be the

– strength,

– deformation, and

– hydraulic characteristics.

• The programme should be planned so that the maximum amount of information can be
obtained at minimum cost.

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The purpose of a soil investigation programme
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a given
structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for example, expansive
soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining walls,
sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

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Steps of subsurface exploration programme
Preliminary site investigation

• In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened to establish in a general manner

– the stratification,

– types of soil to be expected, and possibly

– the location of the groundwater table.

• One or more borings should be taken to rock, or competent strata, if the initial borings
indicate the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.

• This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the site investigation for small structures.

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Assembly of all available information about the proposed structure:

• dimensions,

• column spacing,

• type and use of the structure,

• basement requirements, and

• any special architectural considerations of the proposed building.

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Preliminary Investigation Stage

• During the conceptual planning of a project, a preliminary geotechnical investigation is to be

carried out.

• Attend periodic meetings with the Design Manager and the Consultant team to obtain the
instructions regarding project requirements.

• In the preliminary investigation stage, provide the following:

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Preliminary investigation stage
1. Air photo Interpretation
Where air photographs are available, map the site and surrounding area terrain to
indicate some or all of the following:

•general drainage patterns

•general slopes and ranges or gradient

•bedrock outcrops, where present

•general surficial soil types

•poorly drained or bog areas (peat or muskeg)

•erosion features

•old or potential slope failure areas.

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Preliminary investigation stage
2. Literature Search
• Review the geology of the area from known data, either to supplement the air
photo interpretation, or to replace it where air photos are not available.

• Search all available physiographical data and previous site investigation data,
along with any available well water records.

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Preliminary investigation stage
3. Site Reconnaissance
Following air photo interpretation and/or literature search, carry out a preliminary site
reconnaissance to physically examine

•land forms,

•drainage,

•erosion features, etc.

In addition, hand auger holes or rod soundings may be put down, or shallow test pits
excavated to confirm the general surficial soil, bedrock and groundwater conditions.

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Preliminary investigation stage
3. Site Reconnaissance
• This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal information on the
type and behavior of adjacent structures such as

– cracks,
– noticeable sags, and possibly
– sticking doors and windows.

• The type of local existing structures may influence, to a considerable extent, the

– exploration programme and

– The best foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure.

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4. Preliminary Investigation Report

• Present the findings of the work in the preliminary investigation report.

• Present the data in a form that enables the client to assess the economic effect
which the soil, bedrock and groundwater may have on the viability of the project.

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Detailed Geotechnical Investigation
Upon completion of the preliminary investigation, meet with the Design Manager and the
Consultant team to review other relevant planning concept design information. The detailed
geotechnical investigation shall include:

1.Field Exploration

2.Field Sampling

3.Field Testing

4.Groundwater Records

5.Laboratory testing of samples

6.Classification tests

7.Strength tests
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Where the preliminary site investigation has established the feasibility of
the project, a more detailed exploration program is undertaken.

The preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for locating
additional borings, which should be confirmatory in nature, and
determining the additional samples required.

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Field Exploration
• The pattern of borehole drilling and/or test pit excavation should be agreed between
the geotechnical consultant and the Consultant's design engineer.

• The nature of the project to be designed and the known subsurface

conditions of the area usually dictate the

– location,

– spacing and

– depth of the test holes.

• Carry out the drilling of boreholes by an experienced drill crew using the

type of equipment best suited for the terrain and anticipated soil conditions.

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Field Sampling
• The frequency and type of sampling may be varied by the requirements of the project, but should be
under the control of the geotechnical consultant.

• Normally, standard sampling intervals below the 4.5 m or 6 m depth if conditions warrant such
increase.

• Types of samples normally used include

• soils carried out at 0.75 m intervals initially, with a spacing often increased to 1.5 m spoons and

– thin wall Shelby tubes.

• Other types of samplers which may be required in certain types of soil are piston and
Oesterberg samplers and foil samplers.

• In test pit excavations, representative bulk samples may be recovered from the different stratigraphy
units as necessary.
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Field Testing
Types of tests normally done include
• insitu vane,
• standard penetration,
• dynamic cone penetration,
• pressure meter
• Other tests depending on soil conditions may include
– static cone penetrometer,
– flat dilatometer,
– plate load tests, etc.

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Groundwater Records
• Fluctuations in the elevation of the groundwater occur over a period of time.

• The existing groundwater level should be monitored by piezometers or other methods as a

routine part of any investigation.

• The installation of such equipment should be in accordance with recognized standards.

• Such installations usually require additional visits to the site to make field observations until
conditions have reached equilibrium.

• Record all observations of the encountering of seepage water or initial water percolation
into test pits.

• Record the rate of inflow and rise of water levels at the time of the initial observations in
order to assess correctly the apparent influence which the water condition may have on the
design project as well as on construction procedures.
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Laboratory Testing of Samples
• Test representative samples from the detailed site investigation in the laboratory for the
determination of soil properties essential to the preparation of the geotechnical report.

• Determine natural moisture content of samples at the time of the investigation.

• Base the report and recommendations on the laboratory results obtained.

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Classification Tests
• Classification testing of samples is frequently carried out to identify soil type.

• Such classification tests include

– grain size analysis,

– Atterberg limits,

– moisture content determinations

• and is to be carried out in accordance with recognized practice such as

recommended by ASTM.

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Engineering Behaviour
• Strength and consolidation tests should be carried out on undisturbed samples if
conditions warrant such testing.

• Such tests may be carried out in a variety of ways, depending upon the parameters
required and the soil type being examined, but all such tests are to be carried out in
accordance with recognized practice, e. g. ASTM.

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Depth of Boring
• The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined.

• The estimated depths can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on
the subsoil encountered.

• To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring, engineers may use the
following rule:

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Depth of Boring
1. Determine the net increase of stress,  under a foundation with depth as shown in the
Figure on the next slide.

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ', with depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase  is equal to (1/10) q
(q = estimated net stress on the foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just
determined is the approximate minimum depth of boring required.

Table shows the minimum depths of borings for buildings based on the preceding rule.

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Depth of Boring

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

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Depth of Boring
Number of storeys

Building
width (m) 1 2 3 8 16
Boring Depth (m)
30.5 3.4 6.1 10.1 16.2 24.1

61.0 3.7 6.7 12.5 20.7 32.9

122.0 3.7 7.0 13.7 24.7 41.5

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Depth of Boring
For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule could be use to
determine boring depth

• Db= 3S0.7 (for light steel or narrow concrete buildings)

• Db= 6S0.7 (for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings)

where,

• Db= Depth of boring (m)

• S= Number of storeys

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Depth of Boring

• When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth of boring should be at, least
1.5 times the depth of excavation.

• Sometimes subsoil conditions are such that the foundation load may have to be
transmitted to the bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock
is about 3m.

• If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings may have to be

extended to greater depths.

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Spacing of Boring

• There are no hard and fast rules for the spacing of the boreholes.

• The following table gives some general guidelines for borehole spacing.

• These spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the subsoil

condition.

• If various soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, the number of
boreholes can be reduced.

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Spacing of Boring

Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

Type of project Spacing (m)

Multistorey building 10-30
One-storey industrial plant 20-60
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivision 250-500
Dams and dykes 40-80

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Soil Boring
• The earliest method of obtaining a test hole was to excavate a test pit
using a pick and shovel.

• Because of economics, the current procedure is to use power-excavation

equipment such as a backhoe to excavate the pit and then to use hand
tools to remove a block sample or shape the site for in situ testing.

• This is the best method at present for obtaining quality undisturbed

samples or samples for testing at other than vertical orientation.

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Soil Boring

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Boring tools
Auger boring

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Boring tools
Power drills

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Boring tools

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Soil Sampling
• Two types of soil samples can be obtained during sampling: disturbed and undisturbed.

• The most important engineering properties required for foundation design are strength,
compressibility, and permeability.

• Reasonably good estimates of these properties for cohesive soils can be made by laboratory
tests on undisturbed samples which can be obtained with moderate difficulty.

• It is nearly impossible to obtain a truly undisturbed sample of soil; so in general usage the
term "undisturbed" means a sample where some precautions have been taken to minimize
disturbance or remolding effects.

• In this context, the quality of an "undisturbed" sample varies widely between soil
laboratories..

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Disturbed vs. Undisturbed

Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10% O.D. − I .D.

2 2
AR = 2
 100 (%)
soil I .D.

area ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

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Disturbed vs. Undisturbed

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Boring tools

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Boring tools

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Rock coring

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Preparation of Boring Logs
1. Name and address of the drilling company
2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual observation of the soil
brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the actual length of
coring, length of core recovery, and RQD

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Ground Water Table Level
• Groundwater conditions and the potential for groundwater seepage are
fundamental factors in virtually all geotechnical analyses and design studies.

• Accordingly, the evaluation of groundwater conditions is a basic element of

almost all geotechnical investigation programs.

• Groundwater investigations are of two types as follows:

– Determination of groundwater levels and pressures.

– Measurement of the permeability of the subsurface materials.

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Insitu Tests
The following are the major field tests for determining the soil strength:

1. The Plate Load Test (PLT).

2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).

3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).

4. Vane shear test (VST).

5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).

6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).

7. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).

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The Plate Load Test (PLT)

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• Since a load test is of short duration, consolidation settlements can not be predicted.

• The test gives the value of immediate settlement only.

• If the underlying soil is sandy in nature, immediate settlement may be taken as the total
settlement.

• If the soil is a clayey type, the immediate settlement is only a fraction of the total settlement.

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• According to the procedure of Plate Load Test (ASTM D1194-94), the load is applied to the
soil in cumulative equal increments of not more than 95 kPa, or of not more than one tenth of
the estimated bearing capacity of the area being tested.

• Load increments are appliesd in such a manner that the entire load reaches the soil as a
static load, without impact, fluctuation, or eccentricity.

• After the application of each load increment, the cumulative load is maintained for a selected
time interval of not less than 1 hour.

• Continuous record of all settlement measurements are taken as soon as possible before and
after the application of each load increment while load is held constant.

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Load (kN) or Pressure (kPa)

Curve I is typical for loose to medium non-cohesive soils. It

can be seen that initially this curve is a straight line, but as
the load increases it flattens out. There is no clear point of
shear failure.

Curve II is typical for cohesive soils. This may not be quite

straight in the initial stages and leans towards settlement axis
as the settlement increases.

Curve III is typical for partially cohesive soils.

Curve IV is typical for purely dense non-cohesive soil.

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Field Strength Tests

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Corrections are normally applied to the SPT blow count to account for
differences in:

• energy imparted during the test (60% hammer efficiency)

• the stress level at the test depth

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
The following equation is used to compensate for the testing factors (Skempton, 1986):

N60 = 1.67 Em Cb Cr N

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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Subsoil Exploration Report
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been
conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage
conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any other
features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of borings, types of
borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil specimens and
from related laboratory tests, standard penetration resistance and cone penetration
resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation
recommended, the allowable hearing pressure, and any special construction procedure
that may he needed; alternative foundation design procedures should also be discussed
in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
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Geotechnical Report
The Geotechnical Report should

• outline the terms of reference of the investigation,

• summarize the findings of the field investigation and the supplementary laboratory testing
and

• then present the conclusions and recommendations based on these findings.

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Factual Data
The factual data comprises

• the terms of reference,

• the details of the field investigation procedures,

• the results of the field investigation,

• the results of the field testing,

• records of groundwater observations,

• laboratory test results,

• site plan and inferred soil stratigraphy, etc.

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Report Recommendations
Recommendations may cover a variety of activities, such as

• alternative founding depths with recommended design bearing values,

• pile design considerations,

• estimates of potential settlements,

• recommended safe slopes of banks or excavation walls,

• earth pressures for shoring design,

• dewatering requirements, soil stabilization, etc.

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Subsoil Exploration Report
The following graphical presentations should he attached to the report:

1. A site location map

2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the proposed structures
and those nearby

3. Boring logs

4. Laboratory test results

5. Other special graphical presentations

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Example Table
of Contents for
a Geotechnical
Investigation
Report

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