MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

SUMMARY :

Moving Charges
 Overview: Moving charges refer to charged particles in motion, influenced by electric
and magnetic fields. Their behavior is fundamental in various applications, including
cyclotrons for particle acceleration and mass spectrometers for charge-to-mass ratio
measurement.
 Charged Particles:
o Particles with an electric charge (e.g., electrons, protons).
o Experience forces when moving through electric and magnetic fields.
 Cyclotron:
o A device that accelerates charged particles using crossed electric and magnetic
fields.
o Invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1934.
o Charged particles move in circular paths within two semicircular metal containers
called "dees."
o The frequency of revolution is independent of energy, allowing continuous
acceleration.
 Helical Motion:
o Occurs when a charged particle has a velocity component parallel to the magnetic
field.
o The path consists of circular motion combined with linear motion along the field,
forming a helix.
o The distance moved along the magnetic field per rotation is termed "pitch."
 Velocity Selector:
o A setup using crossed electric and magnetic fields to filter charged particles based
on their speed.
o Only particles with a specific velocity (E/B) pass through undeflected.
o Useful in experiments like measuring the charge-to-mass ratio of electrons and in
mass spectrometry.

Applications of Electromagnetism
 Overview: Electromagnetism has numerous applications in technology and nature,
including particle acceleration, mass spectrometry, and natural phenomena like the aurora
borealis. Key devices such as solenoids and toroids utilize magnetic fields generated by
electric currents for various practical uses.
  Accelerators:
o Devices that use electromagnetic fields to accelerate charged particles to high
speeds.
o Examples include cyclotrons and synchrotrons.
o Essential for research in particle physics and medical applications (e.g., cancer
treatment).
 Mass Spectrometer:
o Instrument used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions.
o Utilizes electromagnetic fields to separate ions based on their mass.
o Important in chemistry and biochemistry for analyzing molecular structures.
 Aurora Borealis:
o Natural light display caused by the interaction of solar wind with Earth's magnetic
field.
o Charged particles from the sun collide with gases in the atmosphere, producing
colorful lights.
o Demonstrates the effects of electromagnetism in atmospheric phenomena.
 Solenoid and Toroid:
o Solenoid: A coil of wire that generates a uniform magnetic field when an electric
current passes through it; commonly used in electromagnets and inductors.
o Toroid: A doughnut-shaped coil that produces a magnetic field similar to a
solenoid but is more compact; used in transformers and inductors.
o Both devices exhibit high symmetry, allowing for simplified calculations of
magnetic fields using Ampere’s law.

Electricity and Magnetism

 Overview: Electricity and magnetism are fundamental physical phenomena that have
been studied for over 2000 years. Their interrelationship was discovered in the early 19th
century, leading to significant advancements in both theoretical understanding and
practical applications, including electromagnetic waves and various technologies.
 Historical Context:
o Both electricity and magnetism known for over 2000 years.
o In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted demonstrated the connection between electric
current and magnetic fields.
o André-Marie Ampère expanded on Oersted's findings with experiments linking
electric currents to magnetic phenomena.
 Oersted's Experiment:
o Demonstrated that a current-carrying wire deflects a nearby compass needle.
o Established that moving charges produce a magnetic field around them.
o Iron filings arranged in concentric circles around the wire, indicating the magnetic
field pattern.
 Maxwell's Equations:
o Formulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864, unifying electricity and magnetism.
o Describes how electric and magnetic fields interact and propagate as
electromagnetic waves.
 o Fundamental equations governing classical electromagnetism.
 Electromagnetic Waves:
o Light is understood as an electromagnetic wave.
o Radio waves were discovered by Heinrich Hertz and later utilized by inventors
like J.C. Bose and G. Marconi.
o Key to modern communication technologies.
 Technological Advances:
o Development of devices for production, amplification, transmission, and detection
of electromagnetic waves.
o Significant impact on technology throughout the 20th century, influencing
telecommunications, medical imaging, and more.
o Understanding of electromagnetism has led to innovations such as cyclotrons and
galvanometers for detecting currents and voltages.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

 Overview: A moving coil galvanometer is an electromechanical device used to measure
electric current and voltage. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
providing a deflection proportional to the current flowing through its coil, making it
suitable for conversion into ammeters or voltmeters.
 Current Measurement:
o Sensitive to small currents (µA range).
o Full-scale deflection occurs at specific current values (e.g., 3 mA).
o Requires shunt resistance for accurate current measurement in series circuits.
 Voltage Measurement:
o Can be converted to a voltmeter by connecting in parallel with the circuit.
o Must draw minimal current to avoid disturbing the circuit's original conditions.
 Sensitivity of Galvanometer:
o Defined as deflection per unit current.
o Increased sensitivity can be achieved by increasing the number of turns (N) in the
coil.
o Doubling N increases current sensitivity but also doubles resistance, leaving
voltage sensitivity unchanged.
 Conversion to Ammeter and Voltmeter:
o To Ammeter:
 Attach a small shunt resistance (rs) in parallel to allow most current to
bypass the galvanometer.
 The effective resistance becomes negligible compared to the rest of the
circuit.
o To Voltmeter:
 Connect in parallel with a known resistor to measure voltage across a
section of the circuit.
 Calibration required to ensure accurate voltage readings within desired
ranges.
Torque on Current Loop
 Overview: The torque on a current loop in a magnetic field arises from the interaction
between the magnetic moment of the loop and the external magnetic field. This torque
can cause the loop to rotate, aligning it with the magnetic field, and is crucial in
applications like galvanometers and electric motors.
 Torque in Magnetic Field:
o Torque (( \tau )) is given by ( \tau = m \times B ), where ( m ) is the magnetic
moment and ( B ) is the magnetic field.
o The direction of torque follows the right-hand rule based on the orientation of the
magnetic moment relative to the magnetic field.
 Magnetic Moment:
o Defined as ( m = NIA ), where ( N ) is the number of turns, ( I ) is the current, and
( A ) is the area of the loop.
o The magnetic moment's direction is determined using the right-hand thumb rule.
 Equilibrium of Current Loop:
o Stable equilibrium occurs when the magnetic moment aligns with the magnetic
field, maximizing magnetic flux.
o Unstable equilibrium happens when the magnetic moment is antiparallel to the
magnetic field; any small rotation increases torque, moving it further from
equilibrium.
 Stable and Unstable Equilibrium:
o Stable Equilibrium: Occurs when the loop's plane is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, allowing it to return to this position after slight disturbances.
o Unstable Equilibrium: Occurs when the loop's plane is parallel to the magnetic
field; any disturbance leads to increasing torque that moves the loop away from
this position.

Magnetic Dipole Moment

 Overview: The magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity that represents the strength
and orientation of a magnetic source, such as a current loop or an electron. It plays a
crucial role in understanding magnetic fields produced by currents and intrinsic
properties of particles.
 Current Loop as Magnetic Dipole:
o A circular current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole at large distances.
o Magnetic moment ( m ) defined as ( m = I \cdot A ), where ( I ) is current and
( A ) is area.
o Produces a magnetic field similar to an electric dipole's field.
o Torque experienced in a magnetic field given by ( \tau = m \times B ).
 Bohr Magneton:
o Represents the magnetic moment of an electron due to its orbital motion around a
nucleus.
o Defined as ( \mu_B = 9.27 \times 10^{-24} , \text{J/T} ).
o Fundamental unit for measuring atomic magnetic moments.
  Intrinsic Magnetic Moment:
o Refers to the inherent magnetic moment associated with elementary particles,
such as electrons and protons.
o Not solely explained by circulating currents; significant in quantum mechanics.
 Gyromagnetic Ratio:
o Ratio of magnetic moment to angular momentum, denoted as ( \frac{\mu}{l} ).
o For electrons, it has a constant value of ( 8.8 \times 10^{10} , \text{C/kg} ).
o Important for understanding the relationship between charge, mass, and magnetic
properties in particles.

Toroid and Magnetic Fields

 Overview: A toroid is a doughnut-shaped coil that generates a magnetic field when an
electric current passes through it. The magnetic field inside a toroid is uniform and
confined, while the field outside is negligible, making it useful for applications requiring
controlled magnetic environments.
 Magnetic Field Inside Toroid:
o The magnetic field (B) inside a toroid is constant in magnitude.
o Direction follows the right-hand rule; clockwise when viewed from one end.
o Formula: ( B = \frac{\mu_0 N I}{2\pi r} ), where ( N ) is the number of turns, ( I )
is the current, and ( r ) is the average radius.
 Ampere's Law:
o Used to derive the magnetic field in toroids and solenoids.
o States that the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop equals the
permeability times the enclosed current.
o For a toroid, Ampere’s law shows that the field outside is zero due to no enclosed
current.
 Magnetic Field Outside Toroid:
o The magnetic field outside the toroid is effectively zero.
o This is because the configuration of the wire turns creates a cancellation effect
beyond the toroidal structure.
 Comparison with Solenoid:
o Both generate magnetic fields but differ in shape and confinement.
o A solenoid produces a uniform magnetic field along its length, while a toroid
confines the field within its circular core.
o The formulas for the magnetic field are similar, reflecting their geometric
similarities.
 Magnetic Confinement:
o Refers to the ability of a toroid to contain magnetic fields within its structure.
o Useful in applications like plasma confinement in fusion reactors.
o Charged particles exhibit helical motion within the magnetic field, enhancing
stability and control.

Magnetic Fields
 Overview: Magnetic fields are regions around magnetic materials or moving electric
charges where magnetic forces can be observed. They play a crucial role in
electromagnetism, influencing the behavior of charged particles and currents.
 Magnetic Force:
o Acts on charged particles moving through a magnetic field.
o Given by the equation ( F = q(v \times B) ), where ( F ) is the force, ( q ) is the
charge, ( v ) is the velocity, and ( B ) is the magnetic field.
 Lorentz Force:
o Total force on a charge in electric and magnetic fields.
o Expressed as ( F = q(E + v \times B) ).
o The magnetic component does no work since it acts perpendicular to the motion.
 Biot-Savart Law:
o Describes the magnetic field generated by a current-carrying conductor.
o Formula: ( dB = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I , dl \times r}{r^3} ), where ( I ) is the
current, ( dl ) is the length element, and ( r ) is the distance from the current
element to the point of interest.
o Used to calculate the total magnetic field by integrating over the entire conductor.
 Ampere's Circuital Law:
o Relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the current passing
through the loop.
o Formula: ( \oint B \cdot dl = \mu_0 I_e ), where ( I_e ) is the net current enclosed
by the loop.
o Holds for steady currents and can be derived from the Biot-Savart law.
 Magnetic Field of a Current Loop:
o A circular coil carrying current produces a magnetic field at its center.
o Magnitude at the center: ( B = \frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R} ), where ( n ) is the number
of turns per unit length, ( I ) is the current, and ( R ) is the radius of the loop.
o The field lines form concentric circles around the wire.