Unit 1

Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculations

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to

• explain the importance of chemistry in different

spheres of life.
• classify different substances into elements,
We think there is colour, we compounds and mixtures.
think there is sweet, we think
• define atomic mass and molecular mass.
there is bitter, but in reality
there are atoms and a void. • define the amount of substance using SI unit
– Democritus 'mole'.
• describe Avogadro number.
• explain the relationship among mass, moles and
Natural Fibre
(Cotton)

number of atoms (or) molecules and perform

calculations relating to the conversions.
• define equivalent mass and calculate equivalent
mass of acid, base and oxidising/reducing agents.
Synthetic Fibre

• deduce empirical and molecular formula of a

(Nylon)

compound from experimental data.

• solve numerical problems based on stoichiometric
calculations.
(Malathion)

• identify the limiting reagent and calculate the

Pesticide

amount of reactants and products in a reaction.

• define the terms oxidation, reduction, oxidant
and reductant.
Pharmaceutical

• predict the oxidation states of elements in various

(Tablets)

compounds.
• explain the process involved in a redox reaction
and describe the electron transfer process.
• classify redox reactions into different types.
Refinery
(Oil)

• formulate a balanced redox reaction from two

half-reactions.
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 1.1 Chemistry - the Centre of Life

'Unna unavu, udukka udai, irukka infection, and people with HIV infection
idam' - in Tamil classical language means have longer and better life.
food to eat, cloth to wear and place to
The understanding of chemical
live. These are the three basic needs of
principles enabled us to replace the non
human life. Chemistry plays a major role
eco friendly compounds such as CFCs in
in providing these needs and also helps us
refrigerators with appropriate equivalents
to improve the quality of life. Chemistry
and increasing number of green processes.
has produced many compounds such as
There are many researchers working in
fertilizers, insecticides etc. that could
different fields of chemistry to develop new
enhance the agricultural production. We
drugs, environment friendly materials,
build better and stronger buildings that
synthetic polymers etc. for the betterment
sustain different weather conditions with
of the society.
modern cements, concrete mixtures and
better quality steel. We also have better As chemistry plays an important
quality fabrics. role in our day-to-day life, it becomes
essential to understand the basic principles
Chemistry is everywhere in the
of chemistry in order to address the
world around us. Even our body is
mounting challenges in our developing
made up of chemicals. Continuous bio-
country.
chemical reactions occurring in our
body are responsible for human activities. 1.2 Classification of Matter:
Chemistry touches almost every aspect of
our lives, culture and environment. The Look around your classroom. What
world in which we are living is constantly do you see? You might see your bench,
changing, and the science of chemistry table, blackboard, window etc. What are
continues to expand and evolve to meet these things made of ? They are all made of
the challenges of our modern world. matter. Matter is defined as anything that
Chemical industries manufacture a broad has mass and occupies space. All matter
range of new and useful materials that are is composed of atoms. This knowledge of
used in every day life. matter is useful to explain the experiences
that we have with our surroundings. In
Examples : polymers, dyes, alloys,
order to understand the properties of
life saving drugs etc.
matter better, we need to classify them.
When HIV/AIDS epidemic began There are different ways to classify matter.
in early 1980s, patients rarely lived longer The two most commonly used methods
than a few years. But now many effective are classification by their physical state
medicines are available to fight the and by chemical composition as described
in the chart.

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 Matter or heterogeneous mixtures based on their
physical appearance.
Physical classification
Pure substances are composed
of simple atoms or molecules. They
Solid Liquid Gas are further classified as elements and
compounds.

Ice Water Water Vapour Element :

Chemical Classification An element consists of only one
type of atom. We know that an atom is the
Mixtures
smallest electrically neutral particle, being
made up of fundamental particles, namely
homogeneous heterogeneous
electrons, protons and neutrons.

Green tea Oil and Water

Element can exist as monatomic or
polyatomic units.

Pure Substances Example : Monatomic unit - Gold

(Au), Copper (Cu); Polyatomic unit -
Elements Compounds Hydrogen (H2), Phosphorous (P4) and
Sulphur (S8)

Copper Copper Sulphate Compound:

Compounds are made up of

Fig. 1.1 Classification of Matter
molecules which contain two or more
1.2.1 Physical Classification of Matter : atoms of different elements.

Matter can be classified as solids, Example : Carbon dioxide

liquids and gases based on their physical (CO2), Glucose (C6H12O6), Hydrogen
state. The physical state of matter can be Sulphide (H2S), Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
converted into one another by modifying
the temperature and pressure suitably. Properties of compounds are
different from those of their constituent
1.2.2 Chemical Classification : elements. For example, sodium is a shiny
metal, and chlorine is an irritating gas.
Matter can be classified into But the compound formed from these
mixtures and pure substances based on two elements, sodium chloride, shows
chemical compositions. Mixtures consist different characteristics as it is a crystalline
of more than one chemical entity present solid, vital for biological functions.
without any chemical interactions. They
can be further classified as homogeneous
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 Relative atomic mass (Ar)
Evaluate Yourself 1.1?
Average mass of the atom
1) By applying the knowledge of =
Unified atomic mass
chemical classification, classify
each of the following into elements, For example,
compounds or mixtures.
Relative atomic mass of hydrogen (Ar)H
(i) Sugar
Average mass of H-atom (in kg)
(ii) Sea water =
(iii) Distilled water 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
(iv) Carbon dioxide
1.6736 × 10–27 kg
(v) Copper wire =
(vi) Table salt 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
(vii) Silver plate
= 1.0078 ≈ 1.008 u.
(viii) Naphthalene balls
Since most of the elements consist
1.3 Atomic and Molecular Masses of isotopes that differ in mass, we use
average atomic mass. Average atomic mass
1.3.1 Atomic Masses is defined as the average of the atomic
masses of all atoms in their naturally
How much does an individual occurring isotopes. For example, chlorine
atom weigh? As atoms are too small consists of two naturally occurring
with diameter of 10–10 m and weigh isotopes 17Cl35 and 17Cl37 in the ratio 77
approximately 10–27 kg, it is not possible : 23, the average relative atomic mass of
to measure their mass directly. Hence it is chlorine is
proposed to have relative scale based on a (35 × 77) + (37 × 23)
=
standard atom.
100

The C-12 atom is considered as = 35.46 u
standard by the IUPAC (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), 1.3.2 Molecular Mass
and its mass is fixed as 12 amu (or) u. Similar to relative atomic mass,
The amu (or) unified atomic mass unit relative molecular mass is defined as the
is defined as one twelfth of the mass of a ratio of the mass of a molecule to the
Carbon-12 atom in its ground state. unified atomic mass unit. The relative
molecular mass of any compound can be
i.e. 1 amu (or) 1u ≈ 1.6605 × 10–27 kg. calculated by adding the relative atomic
masses of its constituent atoms.
In this scale, the relative atomic
For example,
mass is defined as the ratio of the average
atomic mass to the unified atomic i) Relative molecular mass of hydrogen
mass unit. molecule (H2)

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 = 2 × (relative atomic mass of hydrogen atom) roses means 12 roses and one quire paper
means 24 single sheets. We can extend
= 2 × 1.008 u this analogy to understand the concept of
mole that is used for quantifying atoms
= 2.016 u. and molecules in chemistry. Mole is the
SI unit to represent a specific amount of a
ii) Relative molecular mass of glucose
(C6H12O6) substance.

= (6 × 12) + ( 12 ×1.008) + (6 ×16) To understand the mole concept,

let us calculate the total number of atoms
= 72+12.096+96 present in 12 g of carbon -12 isotope
or molecules in 158.03 g of potassium
= 180.096 u permanganate, 294.18 g of potassium
dichromate and 180 g of glucose.
Table 1.1 Relative atomic masses of some
elements
12 Numbers = 1 Dozen
Relative Relative
Element atomic Element atomic
mass mass
H 1.008 Cl 35.45
C 12 K 39.10
N 14 Ca 40.08 12 Roses 12 Balls
O 16 Cr 51.99
Na 23 Mn 54.94
Mg 24.3 Fe 55.85
S 32.07 Cu 63.55

Evaluate Yourself ?
12 Apples
2) Calculate the relative molecular mass
of the following. 1 Mole ≡ 6.023 × 1023 entities
(i) Ethanol(C2H5OH)
(ii) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
(iii) Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
(iv) Sucrose (C12H22O11)

1.4 Mole Concept

158.03g of KMnO4 294.18g of K2Cr2O7
Often we use special names to
express the quantity of individual items Fig. 1.2 Mole Concept
for our convenience. For example, a dozen
5

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 Table 1.2 Calculation of number of entities in one mole of substance.
Mass of single atom
Mass of the
or molecule (gram) No. of atoms or molecules =
Name of substance
S. No. = Atomic mass Mass of substance ÷ Mass of
substance taken
or Molar mass / single atom or molecule
(gram)
Avovadro Number
(1) (2) (3) (2)÷(3)

Elemental 12
1. 12 1.9926 x 10-23 = 6.022 × 1023
Carbon (C-12) 1.9926 × 10-23

Glucose 180
2. 180 29.89 x 10-23 = 6.022 × 1023
(C6H12O6) 29.89 × 10-23

Potassium 294.18
3. dichromate 294.18 48.851 x 10-23 = 6.022 × 1023
(K2Cr2O7) 48.851 × 10-23

Potassium 158.03
4. permanganate 158.03 26.242 × 10-23 = 6.022 × 1023
(KMnO4) 26.242 × 10-23

From the calculations we come to know that 12 g of carbon-12 contains 6.022x1023

carbon atoms and same numbers of molecules are present in 158.03 g of potassium
permanganate and 294.18 g of potassium dichromate. Similar to the way we use the term
‘dozen’ to represent 12 entities, we can use the term ‘mole’ to represent 6.022 x 1023 entities
(atoms or molecules or ions)
One mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many
elementary particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope. The elementary
particles can be molecules, atoms, ions, electrons or any other specified particles.

Gastric acid and antacids: Antacids used to treat acidity

contain mostly magnesium hydroxide or
Antacids are commonly aluminium hydroxide that neutralises the
used medicines for treating excess acid. The chemical reactions are as
heartburn and acidity. Do follows.
you know the chemistry behind it?
3 HCl + Al(OH)3→ AlCl3 + 3 H2O
Gastric acid is a digestive
fluid formed in the stomach and it 2 HCl + Mg(OH)2→MgCl2 + 2 H2O
contains hydrochloric acid. The typical
From the above reactions we know
concentration of the acid in gastric acid is
that 1 mole of aluminium hydroxide
0.082 M. When the concentration exceeds
neutralises 3 moles of HCl while 1 mole of
0.1 M it causes the heartburn and acidity.
magnesium hydroxide neutralises 2 moles
of HCl.
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 Let us calculate the amount of acid One tablet of above composition will
neutralised by an antacid that contains neutralise 0.0182 mole of HCl for a person
250 mg of aluminium hydroxide and with gastric acid
250 mg of magnesium hydroxide. content of 0.1
mole. One tablet Acidity &
Compound

moles OH-
compound
Molecular

(g mol-1)
Heart burn

of active
can be used
Mass in
Active

No. of

No. of
moles
mass
(mg)

to neutralize
the excess acid
Al(OH)3 250 78 0.0032 0.0096
which will bring the concentration back
Mg(OH)2 250 58 0.0043 0.0086
to normal level. (0.1 – 0.018 = 0.082 M)
Total no. of moles of OH- ion from one tablet 0.0182

1.4.1 Avogadro Number:

The total number of entities present Lorenzo Romano

in one mole of any substance is equal Amedeo Carlo
to 6.022 x 1023. This number is called Avogadro (1776-1856)

Avogadro number which is named after

the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro
He is known for the Avogadro's
who proposed that equal volume of hypothesis. In honour of his contributions,
all gases under the same conditions of the number of fundamental particles
temperature and pressure contain equal in a mole of substance was named as
number of molecules. Avogadro number Avogadro number. Though Avogadro
does not have any unit. didn't predict the number of particles in
equal volumes of gas, his hypothesis did
In a chemical reaction, atoms or lead to the eventual determination of the
molecules react in a specific ratio. Let us number as 6.022 x 1023 Rudolf Clausius,
with his kinetic theory of gases, provided
consider the following examples
evidence for Avogadro's law.
Reaction 1 : C + O2→ CO2
molecules. Because of this reason it is
Reaction 2 : CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O beneficial to use 'mole' concept rather
In the first reaction, one carbon than the actual number of molecules to
atom reacts with one oxygen molecule to quantify the reactants and the products.
give one carbon dioxide molecule. In the We can explain the first reaction as one
second reaction, one molecule of methane mole of carbon reacts with one mole of
burns with two molecules of oxygen to oxygen to give one mole of carbon dioxide
give one molecule of carbon dioxide and and the second reaction as one mole of
two molecules of water. It is clear that the methane burns with two moles of oxygen
ratio of reactants is based on the number to give one mole of carbon dioxide and
of molecules. Even though the ratio is two moles of water. When only atoms are
based on the number of molecules it is involved, scientists also use the term one
practically difficult to count the number of gram atom instead of one mole.
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 1.4.2 Molar Mass: 1.5 Gram Equivalent Concept:

Molar mass is defined as the mass of Similar to mole concept gram

one mole of a substance. The molar mass equivalent concept is also widely used
of a compound is equal to the sum of the in chemistry especially in analytical
relative atomic masses of its constituents chemistry. In the previous section, we
expressed in g mol-1. have understood that mole concept is
based on molecular mass. Similarly gram
Examples: equivalent concept is based on equivalent
• relative atomic mass of one hydrogen mass.
atom = 1.008 u
• molar mass of hydrogen atom Definition:
= 1.008 g mol-1
• relative molecular mass of glucose Gram equivalent mass is defined
= 180 u as the mass of an element (compound or
• molar mass of glucose = 180 g mol-1 ion) that combines or displaces 1.008 g
hydrogen or 8 g oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.
1.4.3 Molar Volume:
Consider the following reaction:
The volume occupied by one mole
of any substance in the gaseous state at a Zn+H2SO4 → ZnSO4+H2
given temperature and pressure is called
molar volume. In this reaction 1 mole of zinc (i.e. 65.38 g)
displaces one mole of hydrogen molecule
Volume occupied
by one mole of any (2.016 g).
Conditions
gaseous substances (in
litre) Mass of zinc required to displace 1.008 g
273 K and 1 bar
22.71 hydrogen is
pressure (STP)
65.38
= × 1.008
273 K and 1 atm pressure 22.4 2.016
65.38
298 K and 1 atm pressure =
(Room Temperature & 24.47 2
pressure (SATP)
The equivalent mass of zinc = 32.69
Evaluate Yourself ?
The gram equivalent mass of zinc
3a) Calculate the number of moles
= 32.69 g eq-1
present in 9 g of ethane.
Equivalent mass has no unit but
3b) Calculate the number of molecules
gram equivalent mass has the unit g eq-1
of oxygen gas that occupies a volume
of 224 ml at 273 K and 3 atm pressure.
It is not always possible to apply
the above mentioned definition which is
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 based on three references namely hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine, because we can not
conceive of reactions involving only with those three references. Therefore, a more useful
expression used to calculate gram equivalent mass is given below.
Molar mass (g mol-1)
Gram equivalent mass =
Equivalence factor (eq mol-1)

On the basis of the above expression, let us classify chemical entities and find out
the formula for calculating equivalent mass in the table below.

1.5.1 Equivalent Mass of Acids, Bases, Salts, Oxidising Agents and Reducing Agents
Chemical

Equivalent Formula for calculating

entity

Example
Factor(n) equivalent mass (E)

H2SO4 basicity     = 2 eq mol–1

basicity
(no. of Molar mass of H2SO4
moles of            = (2 × 1) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16)
ionisable
Acids

Molar mass of the acid            = 98 g mol-1

H+ ions E=
Basicity of the acid 98
present in Gram equivalent mass of H2SO4    =
1 mole of 2
the acid)
           = 49 g eq–1

Acidity
(no. of KOH acidity      = 1 eq mol–1
moles of Molar mass of KOH         =   (1 × 39)+(1 × 16)+(1 ×1)
ionisable
Bases

Molar mass of the base            = 56 g mol-1

OH– ion E=
Acidity of the base Gram equivalent mass of KOH
present in
1 mole of 56
           = = 56 g eq–1
the base) 1

KMnO4 is an oxidising agent,

Oxidising agent (or) reducing agent

No. of Molar mass of KMnO4

moles of Molar mass of the
electrons oxidising (or)         = (1 × 39) +(1 × 55) + (4 ×16)         
gained (or) reducing agent            = 158 g mol-1
lost by one E=
No. of moles of In acid medium permanganate is reduced during oxidation
mole of the electrons gained or and is given by the following equation,
reagent lost by one mole of
during MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O
the oxidising (or)
redox reducing agent ∴n = 5 eq mol–1.
reaction 158
Gram equivalent mass of KMnO4 = = 31.6 g eq–1.
5

Mole concept requires a balanced chemical reaction to find out the amount
of reactants involved in the chemical reaction while gram equivalent concept does not

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 require the same. We prefer to use mole 1.6 Empirical Formula
concept for non-redox reactions and gram and Molecular Formula
equivalent concept for redox reactions.

For example, Elemental analysis of a compound

gives the mass percentage of atoms
If we know the equivalent mass of present in the compound. Using the
KMnO4 and anhydrous ferrous sulphate, mass percentage, we can determine the
without writing balanced chemical empirical formula of the compound.
reaction we can straightaway say that Molecular formula of the compound can
31.6 g of KMnO4 reacts with 152 g of be arrived at from the empirical formula
FeSO4 using gram equivalent concept. using the molar mass of the compound.

The same can also be explained Empirical formula of a compound

on the basis of mole concept. The is the formula written with the simplest
balanced chemical equation for the above ratio of the number of different atoms
mentioned reaction is present in one molecule of the compound
as subscript to the atomic symbol.
10 FeSO4 + 2 KMnO4 + 8 H2SO4 Molecular formula of a compound is the
↓ formula written with the actual number
K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 5 Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O of different atoms present in one molecule
as a subscript to the atomic symbol.
i.e. 2 moles (2 × 158 = 316 g) of
potassium permanganate reacts with 10 Let us understand the empirical
moles (10 × 152 = 1520 g) of anhydrous formula by considering acetic acid as an
ferrous sulphate. example.

∴ 31.6 g KMnO4 reacts with The molecular formula of acetic

1520 acid is C2H4O2
× 31.6 = 152 g of FeSO4
316 The ratio of C : H : O is 1 : 2 : 1 and hence
the empirical formula is CH2O.
Evaluate Yourself ?
4a) 0.456 g of a metal gives 0.606 g of its 1.6.1 Determination of Empirical
chloride. Calculate the equivalent Formula from Elemental Analysis Data :
mass of the metal.
4b) Calculate the equivalent mass Step 1: Since the composition is
of potassium dichromate. The expressed in percentage, we
reduction half-reaction in acid can consider the total mass of
medium is, the compound as 100 g and the
percentage values of individual
Cr2O72- + 14H+ +6e- → 2 Cr3+ +7H2O elements as mass in grams.

10

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 Step 2: Divide the mass of each element 2. An organic compound present in
by its atomic mass. This gives vinegar has 40 % carbon, 6.6 %
the relative number of moles hydrogen and 53.4 % oxygen. Find the
of various elements in the empirical formula of the compound.
compound.

Simplest ratio

Simplest ratio
(in whole no)
Atomic Mass

no. of moles
Percentage
Step 3: Divide the value of relative

Element

Relative
number of moles obtained in the
step 2 by the smallest number of
them to get the simplest ratio.
40 3.3
Step 4: (only if necessary) in case the C 40 12 12
= 3.3
3.3
=1 1
simplest ratios obtained in the
step 3 are not whole numbers 6.6 6.6
then they may be converted into H 6.6 1 1
= 6.6
3.3
=2 2
whole number by multiplying by
a suitable smallest number. 53.4 3.3
O 53.4 16 16
= 3.3
3.3
=1 1
Example:
The empirical formula is CH2O
1. An acid found in Tamarind on analysis
shows the following percentage
composition: 32 % Carbon; 4 %
Evaluate Yourself ?
Hydrogen; 64 % Oxygen. Find the 5) A Compound on analysis gave the
empirical formula of the compound. following percentage composition
C=54.55%, H=9.09%, O=36.36%.
Determine the empirical formula of the
(in whole nos)
Simplest ratio

Simplest ratio
no. of moles
molar mass
Percentage

compound.
Element

Relative

Molecular formula of a compound is a

32 2.66 whole number multiple of the empirical
C 32 12 = 2.66 =1 2 formula. The whole number can be
12 2.66
calculated from the molar mass of the
4 4 compound using the following expression
H 4 1 =4 = 1.5 3
1 2.66
Molar mass of the
64 4
O 64 16 =4 = 1.5 3 compound
16 2.66 Whole number (n) =
Calculated
empirical formula
The empirical formula is C2H3O3
mass

11

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 1.6.2 Calculation of Molecular Formula Molar mass 60
n= = =2
from Empirical Formula: calculated empirical 30
Empirical Formula formula mass

Molecular formula
Whole number (n)
∴ Molecular formula

Formula mass
= (CH2O)2
Molar mass
Compound

Empirical
= C2H4O2
(acitic acid)
Calculation of molecular formula
Acetic acid

60 (CH2O) x 2 for the compound present in sour milk.

CH2O

60 30 =2
30 C2H4O2
Molar mass 90
n= = =3
30 30
Hydrogen
Peroxide

34 (HO) x 2
=2
HO

34 17 Molecular formula = (CH2O)3

17 H2O2
= C3H6O3
90
CH2O

(CH2O) x 3
Lactic
acid

90 30 =3
30 C3H6O3 (lactic acid)

Evaluate Yourself ?
C2H3O3
Tartaric

150
= 2 (C2H3O3) x 2
acid

150 75
75 C4H6O6
6) Experimental analysis of a
compound containing the elements
Benzene

78 (CH) x 6
=6 x,y,z on analysis gave the following
CH

78 13
13 C6H6
data. x = 32 %, y = 24 %, z = 44 %.
The relative number of atoms of x, y
Let us understand the calculations of molecular
and z are 2, 1 and 0.5, respectively.
formula from the following example.
(Molecular mass of the compound is
Two organic compounds, one present in 400 g) Find out.
vinegar (molar mass: 60 g mol–1), another i) The atomic masses of the element
one present in sour milk (molar mass x,y,z.
: 90 g mol–1) have the following mass ii) Empirical formula of the
percentage composition. C-40%, H-6.6% compound and
; O-53.4%. Find their molecular formula.
iii) Molecular formula of the
Since both compounds have compound.
same mass percentage composition, 1.7 Stoichiometry
their empirical formula are the same as
worked out in the example problem no 2 Have you ever noticed the
. Empirical formula is CH2O. Calculated preparation of kesari at your home? In one
empirical formula mass (CH2O) = 12 + of the popular methods for the preparation
(2×1) + 16 = 30 g mol–1. of kesari, the required ingredients to
prepare six cups of kesari are as follows.
Formula for the compound present
in vinegar
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 1) Rava - 1 cup ingredients that are required for the
2) Sugar - 2 cups preparation of 3 cups of kesari as follows
1 1 cup rava 1
3) Ghee - cup × 3 cups kesari = cup rava
2 6 cups kesari 2
1
4) Nuts and Dry fruits - cup 2
4
Otherwise, Alternatively, we can calculate the
1 amount of kesari obtained from 3 cups
1 cup rava + 2 cups sugar + cup
2 rava as below.
1
ghee + cup nuts and dry fruits 3
4 6 cups kesari
× 3 cups rava = 18 cups kesari
→ 6 cups kesari. 1 cup rava
From the above information, we
will be able to calculate the amount of Similarly, we can calculate the
required quantity of other ingredients too.

We can extend this concept to

perform stoichiometric calculations for
1 cup of Rava a chemical reaction. In Greek, stoicheion
means element and metron means measure
that is, stoichiometry gives the numerical
relationship between chemical quantities
2 cups of Sugar in a balanced chemical equation. By
applying the concept of stoichiometry,
we can calculate the amount of reactants
required to prepare a specific amount of
½ cup of Ghee a product and vice versa using balanced
chemical equation.

Let us consider the following

chemical reaction.
¼ cup of Nuts

C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

From this equation, we learnt that

1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of
oxygen molecule to form 1 mole of carbon
dioxide.

1 mole of C ≡ 1 mole of O2

≡ 1 mole of CO2

The symbol '≡' means 'stoichiometrically

6 cups of Kesari equal to'
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 1.7.1 Stoichiometric Calculations:

Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in

a balanced chemical equation in moles. The quantity of reactants and products can be
expressed in moles or in terms of mass unit or as volume. These three units are inter
convertible.

Volume
divided by molar mass Number multiplied by 22.4 litres
Mass at 0o C
(m) of moles and 1 atm
(n) divided by 22.4 litres pressure
multiplied by molar mass
(V)

Let us explain these conversions by considering the combustion reaction of methane

as an example. The balanced chemical equation is,

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O(g)

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O(g)

Content Reactants Products

CH4 (g) O2 (g) CO2 (g) H2O (g)

Stoichiometric coefficients 1 2 1 2

Mole-mole relationship 1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 2 moles

1 mol × 2 mol × 1 mol × 2 mol ×

Mass-mass relationship = no. of
16 g mol–1 32 g mol–1 44 g mol–1 18 g mol–1
mole × molar mass
16 g 64 g 44 g 36 g

mass - volume relationship 16 g 64 g 22. 4 L 44.8 L

mass of reactants = No. of moles ×
molar mass of reactants
Volume of product (1 mole of any
gas occupy a volume of 22.4 litre
at 273 K and 1 atm pressure)

Volume - volume 1 × 22.4 L 2 × 22.4 L 1 × 22.4 L 2 × 22.4 L

relationship 22.4 L 44.8 L 22. 4 L 44. 8 L

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 Calculations based on Stoichiometry 36 g H2O 2
× 32 g CH4 = 72 g of water
1. How many moles of hydrogen is 16 g CH4
required to produce 10 moles of
ammonia ? 3. How much volume of carbon dioxide
is produced when 50 g of calcium
The balanced stoichiometric equation carbonate is heated completely under
for the formation of ammonia is standard conditions?

N2(g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g) The balanced chemical equation is,

Δ
As per the stoichiometric equation, CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

to produce 2 moles of ammonia, 3 As per the stoichiometric equation,

moles of hydrogen are required
1 mole (100g) CaCO3 on heating
∴ to produce 10 moles of ammonia, produces 1 mole CO2

3 moles of H2 5 CaCO3
× 10 moles of NH3
2 moles of NH3
(40) + (12) + (3 × 16) = 100 g mol–1
= 15 moles of hydrogen are required.
At STP, 1 mole of CO2 occupies a
2. Calculate the amount of water volume of 22.7 litres
produced by the combustion of 32 g of
methane. ∴ At STP, 50 g of CaCO3 on heating
produces,
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) 22.7 litres of CO2
× 50 g CaCO3
100g CaCO3
As per the stoichiometric equation, 2
= 11.35 litres of CO2
Combustion of 1 mole (16 g) CH4
produces 2 moles (2 × 18 = 36 g) of 4. How much volume of chlorine is
water. required to form 11.2 L of HCl at 273 K
and 1 atm pressure ?
CH4
(12) + (4 ×1) = 16 g mol–1 The balanced equation for the formation
of HCl is
H2O
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2 HCl (g)
(2×1) + (1 ×16) = 18 g mol–1
As per the stoichiometric equation,
Combustion of 32 g CH4 produces
under given conditions,

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 To produce 2 moles of HCl, 1 mole of MgCO3
chlorine gas is required (24) + (12) + (3 × 16) = 84 g mol–1

To produce 44.8 litres of HCl, 22.4 litres

of chlorine gas are required. ∴ 100 g MgCO3 contain

12 g C 1.19
∴ To produce 11.2 litres of HCl, × 100 g MgCO3
84 g MgCO3
22.4 L Cl2
× 11.2 L of HCl = 14.29 g of carbon.
44.8 L of HCl
4
∴ Percentage of carbon
= 5.6 litres of chlorine are required.

5. Calculate the percentage composition = 14.29 %.

of the elements present in magnesium
carbonate. How many kilogram of CO2 84 g MgCO3 contain 48 g of oxygen
can be obtained by heating 1 kg of 90 %
pure magnesium carbonate. ∴ 100 g MgCO3 contains

The balanced chemical equation is 48 g O 1.19

× 100 g MgCO3
∆ 84 g MgCO3
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
= 57.14 g of oxygen.
Molar mass of MgCO3 is 84 g
mol–1. ∴ Percentage of oxygen

84 g MgCO3 contain 24 g of = 57.14 %.

Magnesium.
As per the stoichiometric equation,
∴ 100 g of MgCO3 contain

24 g Mg 1.19 84 g of 100 % pure MgCO3 on heating gives

× 100 g MgCO3
84 g MgCO3 44 g of CO2.

= 28.57 g Mg. ∴ 1000 g of 90 % pure MgCO3 gives

i.e. percentage of magnesium 44 g

= × 90 % × 1000 g
84 g × 100 %
= 28.57 %.
= 471.43 g of CO2
84 g MgCO3 contain 12 g of
carbon = 0.471 kg of CO2

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 1.7.2 Limiting Reagents:
Evaluate Yourself ?
Earlier, we learnt that the 7) The balanced equation for a reaction
stoichiometry concept is useful in is given below
predicting the amount of product formed
2x+3y → 4l + m
in a given chemical reaction. If the
reaction is carried out with stoichiometric When 8 moles of x react with 15
quantities of reactants, then all the moles of y, then
reactants will be converted into products. i) Which is the limiting reagent?
On the other hand, when a reaction is
ii) Calculate the amount of products
carried out using non-stoichiometric
formed.
quantities of the reactants, the product
yield will be determined by the reactant iii) Calculate the amount of excess
that is completely consumed. It limits the reactant left at the end of the
further reaction from taking place and is reaction.
called as the limiting reagent. The other
reagents which are in excess are called the As per the stoichiometry,
excess reagents.
1 mole of sulphur reacts with
Recall the analogy that we used
3 moles of fluorine to form 1 mole of
in stoichiometry concept i.e. kesari
sulphur hexafluoride and therefore 3
preparation,
moles of sulphur reacts with 9 moles
As per the recipe requirement, 2 of fluorine to form 3 moles of sulphur
cups of sugar are needed for every cup of hexafluoride. In this case, all available
rava. Consider a situation where 8 cups sulphur gets consumed and therefore it
of sugar and 3 cups of rava are available limits the further reaction. Hence sulphur
(all other ingredients are in excess), as is the limiting reagent and fluorine is the
per the cooking recipe, we require 3 cups excess reagent. The remaining three moles
of rava and 6 cups of sugar to prepare 18 of fluorine are in excess and do not react.
cups of kesari. Even though we have 2
more cups of sugar left, we cannot make Urea, a commonly used nitrogen
any more quantity of Kesari as there is no based fertilizer, is prepared by the reaction
rava available and hence rava limits the between ammonia and carbon dioxide as
quantity of Kesari in this case. Extending follows.
this analogy for the chemical reaction in O
which three moles of sulphur are allowed ||
to react with twelve moles of fluorine to 2 NH3 (g)+ CO2 (g) → H2N–C–NH2 (aq)+H2O(l)
Urea
give sulfur hexafluoride.

The balanced equation for this In a process, 646 g of ammonia is

reaction is, S + 3F2 → SF6 allowed to react with 1.144 kg of CO2 to
form urea.

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 1) If the entire quantity of all the ammonia is the limiting reagent.
reactants is not consumed in the Some quantity of CO2 remains
reaction unreacted, so CO2 is the excess
reagent.
which is the limiting reagent ?
2) Quantity of urea formed
2) Calculate the quantity of urea formed
and unreacted quantity of the excess = number of moles of urea formed
reagent. × molar mass of urea
= 19 moles × 60 g mol–1
The balanced equation is = 1140 g = 1.14 kg

2 NH3 + CO2 Excess reagent leftover at the end of

↓ the reaction is carbon dioxide.
H2NCONH2 + H2O Amount of carbon dioxide leftover
Answer : = number of moles of CO2 left
over × molar mass of CO2
1. 
The entire quantity of ammonia
is consumed in the reaction. So = 7 moles × 44 g mol–1
= 308 g.

Reactants Products
NH3 CO2 Urea H2O
Stoichiometric coefficients 2 1 1 1
Number of moles of reactants al-
lowed to react 646 1144
Mass = 38 moles = 26 moles – –
17 44
n=
Molar mass
Actual number of moles
consumed during reaction Ratio 38 moles 19 moles – –
(2 : 1)
No. of moles of product thus
– – 19 moles 19 moles
formed
No. of moles of reactant left at the
– 7 moles – –
end of the reaction

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 1.8 Redox Reactions 3) Oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids, etc.
into CO2 and H2O to produce energy
When an apple is cut, it turns brown in the living organisms.
after sometime. Do you know the reason
behind this colour change? It is because of All oxidation reactions are
a chemical reaction called oxidation. We accompanied by reduction reactions
come across oxidation reactions in our
and vice versa. Such reactions are called
daily life. For example 1) burning of LPG
gas 2) rusting of iron redox reactions. As per the classical
concept, addition of oxygen (or) removal
of hydrogen is called oxidation and the
reverse is called reduction.

Fig. 1.4 Oxidation reactions in daily life

Haemoglobin and oxygen transport

Even a small amount of oxygen Cyanide poisoning: While oxygen binds
present in air leads to the rusting reversibly to haemoglobin, cyanide binds
of iron, i.e. iron is oxidised to Fe3+. irreversibly to haemoglobin and blocks oxygen
2+
But the Fe present in haemoglobin which binds binding. As a result the transport of oxygen
oxygen during transport of oxygen from lungs to from the lungs to tissues is stopped. It leads to
tissues never gets oxidised. Do you know why? the quick death of the person.

The answer lies in the structural features

of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin contains four sub
units each with a porphyrin ring (heme) attached
to the protein (globin) molecule. In this structure,
the iron (Fe2+) forms a co-ordination complex
with an octahedral geometry. The four positions
of the octahedron are occupied by porphyrin
rings, fifth position is filled by imidazole ring of a
histidine residue and the sixth position is utilized
for binding the oxygen molecule. Generally the
Fe2+ in heme is susceptible to oxidation. Since
the Fe2+ ion in haemoglobin is surrounded by the
globin protein chain that provides a hydrophobic
environment, the oxidation of Fe2+ becomes
difficult. However, 3% of haemoglobin is oxidised
to methemoglobin (haemoglobin where the iron is
present in Fe3+ state and oxygen does not bind to
this) daily. The enzyme methemoglobin reductase
reduces it back to haemoglobin.

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 Consider the following two reactions. 1.8.1 Oxidation Number:

Reaction 1 : 4 Fe + 3O2 → 2 Fe2O3 It is defined as the imaginary charge

left on the atom when all other atoms of
Reaction 2 : H2S + Cl2 → 2 HCl + S the compound have been removed in their
usual oxidation states that are assigned
Both these reactions are oxidation
according to set of rules. A term that is
reactions as per the classical concept.
often used interchangeably with oxidation
In the first reaction which is number is oxidation state
responsible for the rusting of iron, the
oxygen adds on to the metal, iron. In the 1) The oxidation state of a free element
second reaction, hydrogen is removed (i.e. in its uncombined state) is zero.
from Hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Identity
Example : each atom in H2, Cl2, Na, S8 have
which species gets reduced.
the oxidation number of zero.
Consider the following two
2) For a monatomic ion, the oxidation
reactions in which the removal of
state is equal to the net charge on the
oxygen and addition of hydrogen take
ion.
place respectively. These reactions are
called reduction reactions as per the
Example : The oxidation number of sodium
classical concept.
in Na+ is +1.
CuO + C → Cu + CO (Removal of oxygen
The oxidation number of chlorine in Cl– is –1.
from cupric oxide)
3) The algebric sum of oxidation states
S + H2 → H2S (Addition of hydrogen to
of all atoms in a molecule is equal to
sulphur).
zero, while in ions, it is equal to the
Oxidation-reduction reactions i.e. net charge on the ion.
redox reactions are not always associated
with oxygen or hydrogen. In such cases, Example:
the process can be explained on the basis
In H2SO4 ; 2 × (oxidation number of
of electrons. The reaction involving loss of
hydrogen) + (oxidation number of S) + 4
electron is termed oxidation and gain of
(oxidation number of oxygen) = 0.
electron is termed reduction.
In SO42– ; (oxidation number of S) + 4
For example,
(oxidation number of oxygen) = –2.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e– (loss of electron-oxidation).
4) Hydrogen has an oxidation number
Cu2++ 2e– → Cu (gain of electron-reduction) of +1 in all its compounds except in
metal hydrides where it has –1 value.
Redox reactions can be better explained
using oxidation numbers.
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 Example:
Oxidation number of hydrogen in hydrogen chloride (HCl) is + 1.
Oxidation number of hydrogen in sodium hydride (NaH) is –1.
5) Fluorine has an oxidation state of – 1 in all its compounds.
6) The oxidation state of oxygen in most compounds is –2. Exceptions are peroxides,
super oxides and compounds with fluorine.
Example : Oxidation number of oxygen,

i) in water (H2O) is –2.

ii) in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is –1.
2 (+ 1) + 2x = 0; ⇒ 2x = –2 ; ⇒ x = –1
1
iii) in super oxides such as KO2 is –
2
1
+1 + 2x = 0 ; 2x = – 1 ; x =–
2
iv) in oxygen difluoride (OF2) is + 2.
x + 2 (–1) = 0; x=+2

7) Alkali metals have an oxidation state of + 1 and alkaline earth metals have an
oxidation state of + 2 in all their compounds.
Calculation of oxidation number using the above rules.

Oxidation number of
Sl.No In the compound Calculation
the element
x + 2 (– 2) = 0
1 C CO2
x = +4
2 (+ 1) + x + 4 (– 2) = 0
2 S H2SO4 2+x–8 = 0
x = +6

2x+ 7(-2) = -2
3 Cr Cr2O72– 2x-14 = -2
x = +6

x+ 2(+1)+2(-1) = 0
4 C CH2F2
x = 0

x+ 2(-2) = 0
5 S SO2
x = +4

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 Redox reactions in terms of oxidation numbers

During redox reactions, the oxidation number of elements changes. A reaction in

which oxidation number of the element increases is called oxidation. A reaction in which
it decreases is called reduction.

Consider the following reaction

oxidation number increases - oxidation

+2 +3
+7 +2
2 KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 K2SO4 + MnSO4 + 5 Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
oxidation number decreases
reduction

In this reaction, manganese in potassium permanganate (KMnO4) favours the

oxidation of ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) into ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3 by gaining electrons
and thereby gets reduced. Such reagents are called oxidising agents or oxidants. Similarly
, the reagents which facilitate reduction by releasing electrons and get oxidised are called
reducing agents.

1.8.2 Types of Redox Reactions

Redox reactions are classified into the following types.

1. Combination reactions:

Redox reactions in which two substances combine to form a single compound

are called combination reaction.

Example:
oxidation

0 +4
C + O2 CO2
0 -2
Reduction

2. Decomposition reactions:

Redox reactions in which a compound breaks down into two or more components
are called decomposition reactions. These reactions are opposite to combination reactions.
In these reactions, the oxidation number of the different elements in the same substance
is changed.
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 Example: ii) Non-metal displacement
Oxidation Oxidation

-2 Δ 0 0 +1 +2 0
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2 Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
+5 -1
Reduction Reduction

3. Displacement reactions: 4. Disproportionation reaction (Auto

redox reactions)
Redox reactions in which an ion (or
an atom) in a compound is replaced by an In some redox reactions, the same
ion (or atom) of another element are called compound can undergo both oxidation and
displacement reactions. They are further reduction. In such reactions, the oxidation
classified into (i) metal displacement state of one and the same element is both
reactions (ii) non-metal displacement increased and decreased. These reactions
reactions. are called disproportionation reactions.

(i) Metal displacement reactions: Examples:

Place a zinc metal strip in an Oxidation

aqueous copper sulphate solution taken
in a beaker. Observe the solution, the -1 -2 0
intensity of blue colour of the solution 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
slowly reduced and finally disappeared. Reduction

The zinc metal strip became coated Oxidation

with brownish metallic copper. This is
due to the following metal displacement 0 -1 +5
reaction. 3 Cl2 + 6KOH 5KCl + KClO3 +3H2O
Reduction

5. Competitive electron transfer reaction

In metal displacement reactions,

we learnt that zinc replaces copper from
copper sulphate solution. Let us examine
Oxidation whether the reverse reaction takes place or
not. As discussed earlier, place a metallic
+2 0 0 +2
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) Cu(s) + ZnSO4 (aq) copper strip in zinc sulphate solution. If
copper replaces zinc from zinc sulphate
Reduction solution, Cu2+ ions would be released into
the solution and the colour of the solution
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 would change to blue. But no such change This kind of competition for
is observed. Therefore, we conclude that electrons among various metals helps us
among zinc and copper, zinc has more to design (galvanic) cells. In XII standard
tendency to release electrons and copper we will study the galvanic cell in detail.
to accept the electrons.
1.8.3. Balancing (the Equation) of Redox
Let us extend the reaction to copper Reactions
metal and silver nitrate solution. Place a
strip of metallic copper in sliver nitrate The two methods for balancing the
solution taken in a beaker. After some equation of redox reactions are as follows.
time, the solution slowly turns blue. This
is due to the formation of Cu2+ ions, i.e. i) The oxidation number method
copper replaces silver from silver nitrate. ii) Ion-electron method / half reaction
The reaction is, method.
Both are based on the same principle:
In oxidation - reduction reactions the
total number of electrons donated by the
reducing agent is equal to the total number
of electrons gained by the oxidising agent.

Oxidation number method

In this method, the number of

electrons lost or gained in the reaction is
Oxidation calculated from the oxidation numbers
of elements before and after the reaction.
0 +1 +2 0 Let us consider the oxidation of ferrous
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) +2Ag (s)
sulphate by potassium permanganate in
Reduction acid medium. The unbalanced chemical
equation is,
It indicates that between copper and
silver, copper has the tendency to release FeSO4 + KMnO4+H2SO4→Fe2(SO4)3 +
electrons and silver to accept electrons.
MnSO4+ K2SO4+H2O
From the above experimental
Step 1
observations, we can conclude that among
the three metals, namely, zinc, copper and Using oxidation number concept,
silver, the electron releasing tendency is in identify the reactants (atom) which
the following order. undergo oxidation and reduction.
Zinc > Copper > Silver

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 Oxidation 10FeSO4+2KMnO4+H2SO4 → 5Fe2(SO4)3
+ 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O
+2 +7 +3
FeSO4 + KMnO4+H2SO4→Fe2 (SO4)3 Step 4 Balance the other elements except
+2 H and O atoms. In this case, we have to
+ MnSO4+ K2SO4+H2O
Reduction
balance K and S atoms but K is balanced
automatically.
a) The oxidation number of Mn in
Reactant Side : 10 'S' atoms (10 FeSO4)
KMnO4 changes from +7 to +2 by
gaining five electrons. Product Side : 18 'S' atoms
b) The oxidation number of Fe in FeSO4 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4
changes from +2 to +3 by loosing 15S + 2S + 1S = 18S
one electron.
Therefore the difference 8-S atoms
Step 2 in reactant side, has to be balanced by
multiplying H2SO4 by '8' The equation
Since, the total number of electrons
now becomes,
lost is equal to the total number of
electrons gained, equate, the number of 10FeSO4+2KMnO4+8H2SO4 →5Fe2(SO4)3
electrons, by cross multiplication of the
respective formula with suitable integers + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O
on reactant side as below. Here, the product
Step 5
Fe2(SO4)3 contains 2 moles of iron, So, the
Coefficients 1e- & 5e- are multiplied by the Balancing 'H' and 'O' atoms
number '2'
+2 +7 +3 Reactant side '16'-H atoms (8H2SO4 i.e. 8
FeSO4 + KMnO4+H2SO4→ Fe2(SO4)3 x 2H = 16 'H')
+2
+ MnSO4 Product side '2' - H atoms (H2O i.e. 1 x 2H
1e- × 2 5e- × 2 + K2SO4+H2O = 2 'H')
2 10
Therefore, multiply H2O molecules in the
product side by '8'
10 FeSO4+2 KMnO4+H2SO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 +
MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O 10 FeSO4+2 KMnO4+8 H2SO4 →
5 Fe2(SO4)3 + 2 MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
Step 3 Balance the reactant / Product -
Oxidised / reduced The oxygen atom is automatically
balanced. This is the balanced equation.
Now, based on the reactant side,
balance the products (ie oxidised and
reduced).The above equation becomes
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 Ion - Electron method The two half reactions are,
This method is used for ionic redox
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + 1e- ------------------------ (1)
reactions.
and
Step 1
MnO−4 + 5e- → Mn2+ -------------------- (2)
Using oxidation number concept,
find out the reactants which undergo
oxidation and reduction. Balance the atoms and charges on both
Step 2 sides of the half reactions.

Write two separate half equations Equation (1)⇒ No changes i.e.,

for oxidation and reduction reaction,
Fe2+→ Fe3+ + 1e- ------------------------- (1)
Let us consider the same example which
we have already discussed in oxidation Equation (2)⇒ 4'O' on the reactant side,
number method. therefore add 4H2O on the product side,
to balance 'H' - add, 8H+ in the reactant
KMnO4 +FeSO4 + H2SO4 → side

MnSO4+Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4+H2O MnO−4 + 5e- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O---- (3)

The ionic form of this reaction is, Step 3

Oxidation
Equate both half reactions such
+7 that the number of electrons lost is equal
-
MnO4 + Fe 2+ + H+ Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2O to number of electrons gained.
Reduction
Addition of two half reactions gives
the balanced equation represented by
equation (6).

(1) x 5 ⇒ 5Fe2+ → 5Fe3+ + 5e- --------------------- (4)

(3) x 1 ⇒ MnO−4 + 5e- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O ------------------(5)

(4) + (5) 5Fe2++ MnO−4 + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O------------(6)

Evaluate Yourself ?
8) Balance the following equation using oxidation number method
As2S3 + HNO3 + H2O → H3AsO4+H2SO4+NO

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 SUMMARY

Chemistry plays a major role in g mol-1. One mole of an ideal gas occupies
providing needs of human life in our day- a volume of 22.4 litre at 273 K and 1 atm
to-day life. All things that we come across pressure. Similar to the mole concept, the
in life are made of matter. Anything that has concept of equivalent mass is also used
mass and occupies space is called matter. in analytical chemistry. Gram equivalent
Matter is classified based on the physical mass is the mass of an element (compound/
state and by chemical composition. An ion) that combines or displaces 1.008 g
element consists of only one type of atom. hydrogen, 8 g oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.
Compounds contain two or more atoms Elemental analysis of a compound gives
of same or different elements and their the mass percentage of atoms from
properties are different from those of its which empirical and molecular formula
constituent elements. are calculated. Empirical formula is the
simplest ratio of the number of different
Atoms are too small to measure their
atoms present in one molecule of the
masses directly. The IUPAC introduced
compound. Molecular formula is the
relative scale of mass based on a standard
formula written with the actual number of
atom C-12. One twelfth of the mass of a
different atoms present in one molecule.
Carbon-12 atom in its ground state is
A quantitative relationship between
called as Unified atomic mass. 1 amu (or)
reactants and products can be understood
1u ≈ 1.6605 × 10–27 kg. Relative atomic
from stoichiometry. Stoichiometry gives
mass is defined as the ratio of the average
the numerical relationship between
atomic mass to the unified atomic mass
chemical quantities in a balanced equation.
unit. Average atomic mass of an element is
When a reaction is carried out using non-
the average of the atomic masses of all its
stoichiometric quantities of the reactants,
naturally occurring isotopes. Molecular
the product yield will be determined by
mass is the ratio of the mass of a molecule
the reactant that is completely consumed
to the unified atomic mass unit. Relative
and is called the limiting reagent. It limits
molecular mass is obtained by adding the
the further reaction to take place. The
relative atomic masses of its constituent
other reagent which is in excess is called
atoms.
the excess reagent.
Amounts of substances are usually
The reaction involving loss of
expressed in moles. A mole is the amount
electron is oxidation and gain of electron
of substance which contains as many
is reduction. Usually both these reactions
elementary entities as there are in 12 gram
take place simultaneously and are called
of Carbon- 12 isotope. Avogadro number
as redox reactions. These redox reactions
is the total number of entities present in
can be explained using oxidation number
one mole of any substance and is equal
concept. Oxidation number is the
to 6.022 x 1023. Molar mass is the mass of
imaginary charge left on the atom when
one mole of that substance expressed in
all other atoms of the compound have
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 been removed in their usual oxidation states. A reaction in which oxidation number of
the element increases is called oxidation and decreases is called reduction.
Redox reactions in which

• two substances combine to form compound are called combination reaction.

• a compound breaks down into two (or) more components is called decomposition
reaction

• an ion (or atom) in a compound is replaced by an atom (or ion) of another element are
called displacement reactions

• the same compound can undergo both oxidation and reduction and the oxidation state
of one and the same element is both increased and decreased called disproportionate
reactions.

• competition for electrons occurs between various metals is called competitive electron
transfer reactions.

The equation of redox reaction is balanced either by oxidation number method or

by ion-electron method.

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 EVALUATION

I. Choose the best answer.

1. 40 ml of methane is completely burnt using 80 ml of oxygen at room temperature

The volume of gas left after cooling to room temperature is
(a) 40 ml CO2 gas (b) 40 ml CO2 gas and 80 ml H2O gas

(c) 60 ml CO2 gas and 60 ml H2O gas (d) 120 ml CO2 gas

2. An element X has the following isotopic composition 200X = 90 %, 199X = 8 % and

202X = 2 %. The weighted average atomic mass of the element X is closest to

(a) 201 u (b) 202 u

(c) 199 u (d) 200 u

3. Assertion : Two mole of glucose contains 12.044 × 1023 molecules of glucose

Reason : Total number of entities present in one mole of any substance is equal
to 6.02 × 1022
(a) both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of
assertion

(b) both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of
assertion

(c) assertion is true but reason is false

(d) both assertion and reason are false

4. Carbon forms two oxides, namely carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. The
equivalent mass of which element remains constant?
(a) Carbon (b) oxygen

(c) both carbon and oxygen (d) neither carbon nor oxygen

5. The equivalent mass of a trivalent metal element is 9 g eq-1 the molar mass of its
anhydrous oxide is
(a) 102 g (b) 27 g (c) 270 g (d) 78 g

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 6. The number of water molecules in a drop of water weighing 0.018 g is
(a) 6.022 × 1026 (b) 6.022 × 1023

(c) 6.022 × 1020 (d) 9.9 × 1022

7. 1 g of an impure sample of magnesium carbonate (containing no thermally

decomposable impurities) on complete thermal decomposition gave 0.44 g of carbon
dioxide gas. The percentage of impurity in the sample is
(a) 0 % (b) 4.4 % (c) 16 % (d) 8.4 %
8. When 6.3 g of sodium bicarbonate is added to 30 g of acetic acid solution, the residual
solution is found to weigh 33 g. The number of moles of carbon dioxide released in
the reaction is
(a) 3 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.075 (d) 0.3
9. When 22.4 litres of H2 (g) is mixed with 11.2 litres of Cl2 (g), each at 273 K at 1 atm
the moles of HCl (g), formed is equal to
(a) 2 moles of HCl (g) (b) 0.5 moles of HCl (g)

(c) 1.5 moles of HCl (g) (d) 1 moles of HCl (g)

10. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a moderately strong oxidising agent. Which of the
following reactions does not show oxidising behaviour?
(a) Cu+ 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2+2H2O

(b) C+ 2H2SO4 → CO2+2SO2+2H2O

(c) BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4+2HCl

(d) none of the above

11. Choose the disproportionation reaction among the following redox reactions.

(a) 3Mg (s) + N2 (g) → Mg3N2 (s)

(b) P4 (s) + 3 NaOH+ 3H2O → PH3(g) + 3NaH2PO2 (aq)

(c) Cl2 (g)+ 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2

(d) Cr2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Cr(s)

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 12. The equivalent mass of potassium permanganate in alkaline medium is
MnO4- + 2H2O+3e- → MnO2 + 4OH-
(a) 31.6 (b) 52.7 (c) 79 (d) None of these

13. Which one of the following represents 180g of water?

(a) 5 Moles of water (b) 90 moles of water
6.022 x 1023
(c) molecules of water (d) 6.022x1024 molecules of water
180

14. 7.5 g of a gas occupies a volume of 5.6 litres at 0o C and 1 atm pressure. The gas is
(a) NO (b) N2O (c) CO (d) CO2

15. Total number of electrons present in 1.7 g of ammonia is

22
(a) 6.022 × 1023 (b) 6.022 × 10
1.7
24
(c) 6.022 × 10
23
(d) 6.022 × 10
1.7 1.7
16. The correct increasing order of the oxidation state of sulphur in the anions
SO42-, SO32- , S2O42-, S2O62- is

(a) SO32- < SO42- < S2O42-< S2O62- (b) SO42- < S2O42- < S2O62-< SO32-

(c) S2O42- < SO32- < S2O62-< SO42- (d) S2O62- < S2O42- < SO42-< SO32-

17. The equivalent mass of ferrous oxalate is

molar mass of ferrous oxalate molar mass of ferrous oxalate

(a) (b)
1 2
molar mass of ferrous oxalate
(c) (d) none of these
3
18. If Avogadro number were changed from 6.022 × 1023 to 6.022 x 1020, this would
change

(a) the ratio of chemical species to each other in a balanced equation

(b) the ratio of elements to each other in a compound

(c) the definition of mass in units of grams

(d) the mass of one mole of carbon

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 19. Two 22.4 litre containers A and B contains 8 g of O2 and 8 g of SO2 respectively at 273 K
and 1 atm pressure, then
(a) Number of molecules in A and B are same
(b) Number of molecules in B is more than that in A.
(c) The ratio between the number of molecules in A to number of molecules in B is
2:1
(d) Number of molecules in B is three times greater than the number of molecules
in A.
20. What is the mass of precipitate formed when 50 ml of 8.5 % solution of AgNO3 is
mixed with 100 ml of 1.865 % potassium chloride solution?
(a) 3.59 g (b) 7 g (c) 14 g (d) 28 g

21. The mass of a gas that occupies a volume of 612.5 ml at room temperature and
pressure (250 C and 1 atm pressure) is 1.1g. The molar mass of the gas is
(a) 66.25 g mol-1 (b) 44 g mol-1

(c) 24.5 g mol-1 d) 662.5 g mol-1

22. Which of the following contain same number of carbon atoms as in 6 g of carbon-12.
(a) 7.5 g ethane (b) 8 g methane

(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these

23. Which of the following compound(s) has /have percentage of carbon same as that in
ethylene (C2H4)
(a) propene (b) ethyne

(c) benzene (d) ethane

24. Which of the following is/are true with respect to carbon -12.
(a) relative atomic mass is 12 u

(b) oxidation number of carbon is +4 in all its compounds.

(c) 1 mole of carbon-12 contain 6.022 × 1022 carbon atoms.

(d) all of these

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 25. Which one of the following is used as a standard for atomic mass.
(a) 6C12 (b) 7C12 (c) 6C13 (d) 6C14

II. Write brief answer to the following questions.

26) Define relative atomic mass.

27) What do you understand by the term mole.

28) Define equivalent mass.

29) What do you understand by the term oxidation number.

30) Distinguish between oxidation and reduction.

31) Calculate the molar mass of the following compounds.

i) Urea [CO(NH2)2]

ii) Acetone [CH3COCH3]

iii) Boric acid [H3BO3]

iv) Sulphuric acid [H2SO4]

32) The density of carbon dioxide is equal to 1.965 kgm-3 at 273 K and 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the molar mass of CO2.

33) Which contains the greatest number of moles of oxygen atoms

i) 1 mol of ethanol

ii) 1 mol of formic acid

iii) 1 mol of H2O

34) Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occurring magnesium using the
following data

Isotope Isotopic atomic mass Abundance (%)

Mg24 23.99 78.99
Mg25 24.99 10.00
Mg26 25.98 11.01

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 35) In a reaction x + y + z2 → xyz2 identify the Limiting reagent if any, in the following
reaction mixtures.

(a) 200 atoms of x + 200 atoms of y + 50 molecules of z2

(b) 1mol of x + 1 mol of y+3 mol of z2

(c) 50 atoms of x + 25 atoms of y+50 molecules of z2

d) 2.5 mol of x +5 mol of y+5 mol of z2

36) Mass of one atom of an element is 6.645 x 10-23 g. How many moles of element are
there in 0.320 kg.

37) What is the difference between molecular mass and molar mass? Calculate the
molecular mass and molar mass for carbon monoxide.

38) What is the empirical formula of the following ?

i) Fructose (C6H12O6) found in honey

ii) Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) a substance found in tea and coffee.

39) The reaction between aluminium and ferric oxide can generate temperatures up to
3273 K and is used in welding metals. (Atomic mass of Al = 27 u Atomic mass of
O = 16 u)

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 +2Fe; If, in this process, 324 g of aluminium is allowed to react
with 1.12 kg of ferric oxide.

i) Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

ii) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the reaction?

40) How many moles of ethane is required to produce 44 g of CO2 (g) after combustion.

41) Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidising agent. It oxidises ferrous ion to ferric ion and
reduced itself to water. Write a balanced equation.

42) Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a compound containing 76.6%
carbon, 6.38 % hydrogen and rest oxygen its vapour density is 47.

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 43) A Compound on analysis gave Na = 14.31% S = 9.97% H= 6.22% and O= 69.5%
calculate the molecular formula of the compound, if all the hydrogen in the compound
is present in combination with oxygen as water of crystallization. (molecular mass of
the compound is 322).

44) Balance the following equations by oxidation number method

i) K2Cr2O7 + KI + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 +I2+H2O

ii) KMnO4 + Na2SO3 → MnO2 + Na2SO4 + KOH

iii) Cu+ HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO2+ H2O

iv) KMnO4+H2C2O4 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + MnSO4 + CO2 + H2O

45) Balance the following equations by ion electron method.

i) KMnO4 + SnCl2+HCl → MnCl2 + SnCl4 + H2O + KCl

_ _
ii) C2O42 + Cr2 O72 → Cr3+ + CO2 (in acid medium)

iii) Na2S2O3 + I2 → Na2S4O6 + NaI

_
iv) Zn +NO3 → Zn2+ + NO (in acid medium)

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 CONCEPT MAP

Chemistry – The centre of life

Chemical substances (matter)

Mole concept
Elements Compounds
Molar mass
Atomic mass
Molar volume
Chemical reactions Percentage composition
Gram atomic mass

Empirical formula

Molecular formula

Stoichiometry Redox reactions

Limiting Equivalent Oxidation Types of redox reactions

reagent mass concept number 1. combination reaction
concept 2. decomposition
reaction
Equivalent mass of 3. displacement reaction
Balancing redox
1. acids reaction 4. disproportionation
1. oxidation reaction
2. bases 5. competitive electron
number method
3. oxidant / reductant 2. ion-electron transfer reaction
method

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 ICT Corner

Calculation of Empirical and Molecular Formula

By using this tool you will be Please go to the URL

able to calculate the empirical https://ggbm.at/FbUwkmUw
and molecular formula from (or)
the percentage composition Scan the QR code on the
of elements right side
Step – 1
Open the Browser and type the URL given (or) Scan the QR Code. You can see a GeoGebra Work book named
“11th Standard Chemistry”. Open the worksheet named “Empirical Formula”. You will see a webpage as shown
in the figure.
Step – 2
Find the serial number of the elements of the compound under examination from the table present on the
right side of the page and enter it in the space provided (1). And enter their percentage of composition in the
corresponding space (2)
Step – 3
Now you can see the molar mass, relative no. of moles and the simplest ratio all automatically calculated and
filled in the corresponding boxes. If the simplest ratio contains fractions then use the slider (3) to choose a
smallest number to bring the simplest ratio to whole number.
You can now see the calculated empirical formula (4)
Step – 4
In order to calculate the Molecular formula, enter the molar mass in the corresponding box (5). Now the ‘n’
will be displayed (6) and Molecular formula is displayed at the bottom (7)

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