WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

Language is a complex, dynamic, and multifaceted system of communication that enables

humans to convey meaning, express thoughts, and connect with others. It is a set of symbols,
rules, and conventions used to convey information, express emotions, and establish relationships.
According to the American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager, “Language is a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.”

Language is systematic because it has an organized structure with rules for combining sounds,
words, and sentences. These rules allow us to create and understand a vast range of expressions.
The system is shared within a community, making communication effective and predictable.

The symbols (words or sounds) used in language are generally arbitrary because there is no
inherent or natural connection between the word and its meaning. For instance, there’s nothing
inherently "cat-like" about the sound of the word "cat." This lack of natural connection allows
languages to vary widely; different languages assign different sounds or symbols to the same
concept (e.g., "gato" in Spanish for "cat").

Language primarily uses vocal sounds (though it can include written forms and gestures) to
represent ideas, objects, and actions. These sounds, combined into words and sentences, act as
symbols for the things they represent. In this way, language serves as a system of symbols that
convey meaning.

Language is inherently social. It is developed, maintained, and modified within communities,

enabling individuals to share thoughts, express emotions, and perform cultural and social
functions. This social aspect of language makes it a crucial tool for building relationships and
sustaining cultural identity.

Language enables cooperation within a social group by allowing individuals to share

information, coordinate actions, and align their behavior. Through shared understanding,
language facilitates cooperation, making collective activities, such as trade, governance, and
cultural rituals, possible.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. Arbitrariness: Arbitrariness means that there’s no natural connection between a word
(or symbol) and the object or concept it represents. For example, there’s nothing about
the word "dog" that inherently resembles a dog; different languages use entirely different
sounds to refer to the same animal (e.g., "chien" in French, "perro" in Spanish). This
arbitrariness allows languages to develop independently, with sounds and symbols
varying widely across cultures.
2. Creativity: Language’s creativity refers to its ability to generate an endless variety of
new sentences and ideas. Using the finite set of words and grammatical rules, speakers
can create sentences they have never heard before and still be understood. This creativity
also enables us to express complex ideas, tell stories, or invent new words for concepts or
technologies as they emerge (like “selfie” or “podcast”).
3. Displacement: Displacement is the ability of language to talk about things beyond the
immediate moment and place. We can refer to past experiences, make plans for the
future, or describe hypothetical situations. For instance, we can talk about ancient history,
speculate about future events, or discuss abstract ideas like "justice" or "freedom," none
of which are immediately present in the physical environment. This is a unique feature of
human language compared to animal communication, which is usually tied to the present.
4. Cultural Specificity: Language is closely tied to culture and reflects the values, beliefs,
and norms of the people who speak it. Different languages emphasize what is important
to a culture. For example, Yoruba has many honorifics, such as “Baba” (father) or “Iya”
(mother), to show respect when addressing elders or people in positions of authority. This
structure reflects the high value Yoruba culture places on respecting elders.
5. Dynamism: Language is not static; it constantly evolves. New words are added,
meanings change, and grammar can shift over generations. Factors like technological
innovation, cultural contact, and social change influence language evolution. For
example, the rise of the internet has introduced words like “emoji” and “streaming.”
Additionally, meanings of words can shift over time — the word “awful” used to mean
“awe-inspiring” but now means something bad. Language adapts to meet the needs and
experiences of its speakers, showing its dynamic nature.
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

Language serves a wide range of functions in society, and scholars have identified several key
functions that capture its importance in human interaction. Here are some major functions of
language:

1. Communicative Function: The primary function of language is to convey information.

Language allows people to share ideas, emotions, knowledge, and instructions with
others. This exchange of information is essential for building relationships, solving
problems, and coordinating activities.
2. Expressive Function: Language provides a way to express thoughts, emotions, desires,
and perspectives. Through words, people can convey joy, anger, sadness, or excitement.
For example, phrases like "I'm thrilled" or "I'm disappointed" allow individuals to
communicate their inner emotional states to others.
3. Phatic Function: The phatic function refers to the social or relational aspect of language.
Small talk, greetings, and casual expressions like “How are you?” or “Nice to see you”
serve to build and maintain social connections rather than to exchange information. This
function of language is crucial for establishing a sense of community and rapport.
4. Directive Function: Language is used to influence the actions or behavior of others.
Commands, requests, instructions, and suggestions (e.g., "Please sit down," "Close the
door," or "You should try this") are examples of the directive function. This function is
often used in educational, legal, or family settings to guide or instruct.
5. Aesthetic Function: The aesthetic function involves using language for artistic and
creative expression, such as in literature, poetry, song lyrics, and other forms of art.
Through storytelling and creative works, language becomes a medium for beauty,
rhythm, and imagination. This function allows for the exploration of complex ideas and
emotions in a memorable way.
6. Metalinguistic Function: The metalinguistic function is the ability to use language to
discuss language itself. This function is used when people analyze grammar, debate word
meanings, or learn new words and language structures. It enables people to study and
reflect on language, helping to understand its structure, rules, and evolution.
 7. Referential Function: The referential function of language is used to refer to things,
people, actions, or concepts in the world. This function is central to descriptive or factual
communication, as in sentences like “The Earth orbits the Sun” or “The book is on the
table.” It focuses on providing information that describes or explains.
8. Performative Function: The performative function of language involves using words to
perform an action or bring about a change. Certain phrases, such as "I apologize," "I
promise," or "I declare," are actions in themselves. In formal settings like legal or
religious ceremonies, performative language (e.g., "I now pronounce you husband and
wife") has binding or ceremonial power.

METAFUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

The concept of metafunctions in language was developed by the linguist Michael Halliday in his
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory. According to Halliday, language has three primary
metafunctions, each representing a different aspect of meaning. These metafunctions help explain how
language functions in different contexts and fulfill the needs of human interaction. The metafunctions
include:

1. Ideational Metafunction
The ideational metafunction refers to how language represents the world around us,
including our experiences, thoughts, and perceptions. It allows us to talk about real or
imaginary things, actions, and relationships. There are two key aspects:

 Experiential Function: This involves expressing who did what, when, where, and how.
It enables us to talk about actions, events, and situations. For instance, in a sentence like
“The cat chased the mouse,” the ideational function helps represent this event.
 Logical Function: This aspect connects ideas logically, allowing us to express
relationships such as cause-effect, sequence, and contrast. Words like “because,” “if,”
and “although” help connect ideas logically within sentences.

The ideational metafunction, therefore, allows us to construct meaning about the external
world and internal thoughts.