Republic of Türkiye
Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Internal Flow
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ASKER
8–5 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent affects wall shear stress.
Turbulent flow is a complex mechanism dominated by fluctuations, and it is still not fully
understood.
We must rely on experiments and the empirical or semi-empirical correlations developed for
various situations.
The intense mixing in turbulent flow brings fluid particles at different
momentums into close contact and thus enhances momentum transfer.
Turbulent flow is characterized by disorderly and rapid fluctuations of swirling
regions of fluid, called eddies, throughout the flow.
These fluctuations provide an additional mechanism for momentum and energy
transfer.
In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass, momentum, and energy to
other regions of flow much more rapidly than molecular diffusion, greatly
enhancing mass, momentum, and heat transfer.
As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much higher values of friction, heat
transfer, and mass transfer coefficients
Water exiting a tube:
(a) laminar flow at low flow rate,
(b) turbulent flow at high flow rate, and
(c) same as (b) but with a short shutter exposure to
capture individual eddies.
Turbulent Velocity Profile
viscous (or laminar or linear or wall) sublayer the very thin layer
next to the wall where viscous effects are dominant is the The
velocity profile in this layer is very nearly linear, and the flow is
streamlined.
buffer layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming significant,
but the flow is still dominated by viscous effects.
Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or transition) layer, also
called the inertial sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are much
more significant, but still not dominant.
Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in the remaining part of
the flow in which turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects.
The velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow is parabolic in laminar flow, but much fuller in turbulent flow. Note that
u(r) in the turbulent case is the time-averaged velocity component in the axial direction (the overbar on u has been
dropped for simplicity).
friction velocity
law of the wall
The thickness of the viscous sublayer is proportional to the kinematic viscosity and
inversely proportional to the average flow velocity.
Viscous length; it is used to nondimensionalize the distance y from the surface.
where k and B are constants whose values are determined
experimentally to be about 0.40 and 5.0, respectively
(8-42)
(8-47)
Comparison of the law of the wall and the logarithmic-
law velocity profiles with experimental data for fully
developed turbulent flow in a pipe.
7
Velocity defect law
The deviation of velocity from the centerline value umax-u is called the velocity defect.
The value n = 7 generally approximates many
flows in practice, giving rise to the term one-
seventh power-law velocity profile.
Power-law velocity profiles for fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe for different exponents,
and its comparison with the laminar velocity profile.
General
𝝆 𝑽 𝑫𝒉
𝐑𝐞 =
𝝁
laminar
Turbulent
Moody Chart or Colebrook Equation
The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation
Colebrook equation (for smooth and rough
pipes)
The friction factor is minimum for
a smooth pipe and increases
with roughness.
Mathematical Expressions for f
Colebrook equation (for smooth and rough pipes)
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D.
Explicit Haaland equation
Estimating f
Graphically
The Moody Chart
In calculations, we should make sure that
we use the actual internal diameter
of the pipe, which may be different than the
nominal diameter.
At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves on the
Moody chart are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors
are independent of the Reynolds number. See Fig. A–12 for a
full-page moody chart.
Observations from the Moody chart
• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it is independent of
surface roughness.
• The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with roughness. The Colebrook equation in
this case ( = 0) reduces to the Prandtl equation.
1/ 𝑓=2.0 log (Re 𝑓) − 0.8
• The transition region from the laminar to turbulent regime is indicated by the shaded area in the Moody
chart. At small relative roughnesses, the friction factor increases in the transition region and approaches the
value for smooth pipes.
• At very large Reynolds numbers (to the right of the dashed line on the Moody chart) the friction factor curves
corresponding to specified relative roughness curves are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are
independent of the Reynolds number. The flow in that region is called fully rough turbulent flow or just fully
rough flow because the thickness of the viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it
becomes so thin that it is negligibly small compared to the surface roughness height. The Colebrook equation
in the fully rough zone reduces to the von Kármán equation.
𝜀
1/ 𝑓=-2.0 log (𝐷)/3.7
Types of Fluid Flow Problems
1. Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the pipe length and diameter
are given for a specified flow rate (or velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a
specified pressure drop (or head loss)
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for
a specified pressure drop (or head loss)
The three types of problems
encountered in pipe flow.
To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter calculations, these explicit
relations that are accurate to within 2 percent of the Moody chart may be used.
Swamee- Jain Formula
16
8–6 MINOR LOSSES
The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings,
valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and
contractions in addition to the pipes.
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause
additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they
induce.
In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared
to the total head loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are called
minor losses.
Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL.
For a constant-diameter section of a pipe
Head loss due to component with a minor loss component, the loss
coefficient of the component (such as the
gate valve shown) is determined by
measuring the additional pressure loss it
causes and dividing it by the dynamic
pressure in the pipe.
When the inlet diameter equals outlet diameter, the loss coefficient
of a component can also be determined by measuring the pressure
loss across the component and dividing it by the dynamic pressure:
KL = PL /(V2/2)
When the loss coefficient for a component is available, the head
loss for that component is
Minor loss
The head loss caused by a
component (such as the angle
Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the equivalent length valve shown) is equivalent to the
Lequiv. head loss caused by a section of
the pipe whose length is the
equivalent length.
24
Total head loss (general)
Total head loss (D = constant)
The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost negligible for well-rounded
inlets (KL = 0.03 for r/D > 0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for sharp-
edged inlets.
The effect of rounding of a pipe
inlet on the loss coefficient.
Graphical representation of flow contraction
and the associated head loss at a sharp-edged
pipe inlet.
All the kinetic energy of the flow is “lost”
(turned into thermal energy) through friction
as the jet decelerates and mixes with ambient
fluid downstream of a submerged outlet.
The losses during changes of direction
can be minimized by making the turn
“easy” on the fluid by using circular
arcs instead of sharp turns.
(a) The large head loss in a partially closed valve is
due to irreversible deceleration, flow separation,
and mixing of high-velocity fluid coming from the
narrow valve passage.
(b) The head loss through a fully-open ball valve,
on the other hand, is quite small.
Multiple Pipe Systems
a) Series and (b) parallel pipe systems.
8–7 PIPING NETWORKS AND PUMP SELECTION
For pipes in series, the flow rate is the same in each For pipes in parallel, the head loss is the same in
pipe, and the total head loss is the sum of the head each pipe, and the total flow rate is the sum of
losses in individual pipes. the flow rates in individual pipes.
The relative flow rates in parallel pipes are established from the requirement that the head loss in each
pipe be the same.
The flow rate in one of the parallel branches is proportional to its diameter to the power
5/2 and is inversely proportional to the square root of its length and friction factor.
36
The analysis of piping networks is based on two simple
principles:
1. Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is done by
requiring the total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out of the
junction for all junctions in the system.
2. Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions must be the same for all
paths between the two junctions. This is because pressure is a point function and it
cannot have two values at a specified point. In practice this rule is used by
requiring that the algebraic sum of head losses in a loop (for all loops) be equal to
zero.
Another type of multiple pipe system called a loop
As can be seen by writing the energy equation between
the surfaces of each reservoir,
the head loss for pipe (2) must equal that for pipe (3),
even though the pipe sizes and flowrates may be
different for each. That is,
for a fluid particle traveling through pipes
(1) and (2)
for a fluid particle traveling through
pipes (1) and (3),
These can be combined to give
The branching system termed the three-reservoir problem is such a system
Three reservoirs at known elevations are connected
together with three pipes of known properties
(lengths, diameters, and roughnesses).
A three-reservoir system.
The problem is to determine the flow rates into or out of the reservoirs.
If valve (1) were closed, the fluid would flow from reservoir B to C, and the flow
rate could be easily calculated. Similar calculations could be carried out if valves
(2) or (3)were closed with the others open.
With all valves open, however, it is not necessarily obvious which direction the fluid
flows.
For the conditions indicated in the figure, it is clear that fluid flows from reservoir A
because the other two reservoir levels are lower.
Whether the fluid flows into or out of reservoir B depends
on the elevation of reservoirs B and C and the properties (length, diameter, roughness)
of the three pipes.
HW
The three water-filled tanks shown in Fig. P8.112 are connected by pipes
as indicated. If minor losses are neglected, determine the flow rate in
each pipe.
Many practical piping systems involve a pump to move a fluid from one reservoir to
another. Taking points 1 and 2 to be at the free surfaces of the reservoirs , the energy
equation is solved for the required useful
pump head, yielding
When a pump moves a fluid from one reservoir to
another, the useful pump head requirement is
equal to the elevation difference between the two
reservoirs plus the head loss.
Once the useful pump head is known, the mechanical power that needs to
be delivered by the pump to the fluid and the electric power consumed by
the motor of the pump for a specified flow rate are determined from
The efficiency of the pump–motor
combination is the product of the
pump and the motor efficiencies.
The head loss of a piping system increases (usually quadratically) with the flow
rate. A plot of required useful pump head h as a function of flow rate is
pump, u
called the system (or demand) curve.
The head produced by a pump is not a constant either. Both the pump head
and the pump efficiency vary with the flow rate, and pump manufacturers
supply this variation in tabular or graphical form
47
These experimentally determined h and h versus V curves are called
pump, u pump, u
characteristic (or supply or performance) curves.
The flow rate of a pump increases as
the required head decreases.
The intersection point of the pump
head curve with the vertical axis
typically represents the maximum
head (called the shutoff head) the
pump can provide, while the
intersection point with the horizontal
axis indicates the maximum flow rate
(called the free delivery) that the
pump can supply.
The efficiency of a pump is highest at a certain combination of head and flow
rate. Therefore, a pump that can supply the required head and flow rate is not
necessarily a good choice for a piping system unless the efficiency of the pump at
those conditions is sufficiently high.
The pump installed in a piping system will operate at the point where the system
curve and the characteristic curve intersect. This point of intersection is called
the operating point
The useful head produced by the pump at this point matches the head
requirements of the system at that flow rate. Also, the efficiency of the pump
during operation is the value corresponding to that flow rate.
Characteristic pump curves for centrifugal pumps, the system curve
for a piping system, and the operating point.
53
54
EXAMPLE 8–9
The bathroom plumbing of a building consists of 1.5-cm-diameter copper pipes with
threaded connectors. (a) If the gage pressure at the inlet of the system is 200 kPa during
a shower and the toilet reservoir is full (no flow in that branch), determine the flow rate of
water through the shower head. (b) Determine the effect of flushing of the toilet on the
flow rate through the shower head. Take the loss coefficients of the shower head and the
reservoir to be 12 and 14, respectively.
Assumptions 1 steady & incompressible.
2 The flow is turbulent and fully developed.
3 The reservoir is open to the atmosphere
4 The velocity heads are negligible
This is a set of four equations with four unknowns, and solving them with EES gives
Therefore, the flow rate of water through the shower head is 0.53 L/s.
59
(b) When the toilet is flushed, the float moves and opens the valve. The discharged
water starts to refill the reservoir, resulting in parallel flow after the tee connection. The
head loss and minor loss coefficients for the shower branch were determined in (a) to
be hL,2= 18.4 m and σ 𝐾 L, 2= 24.7, respectively. The corresponding quantities for the
reservoir branch can be determined similarly to be
60
Flow rate of cold water through a
shower may be affected significantly
by the flushing of a nearby toilet.
Therefore, the flushing of the toilet reduces the flow rate of cold water through the shower
by 21 percent from 0.53 to 0.42 L/s, causing the shower water to suddenly get very hot
If the velocity heads were considered, the flow rate through the shower would be 0.43
instead of 0.42 L/s. Therefore, the assumption of negligible velocity heads is reasonable in
this case. Note that a leak in a piping system will cause the same effect, and thus an
unexplained drop in flow rate at an end point may signal a leak in the system.
61
Problems
8–31 The velocity profile for the fully developed laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid between two large parallel
plates is given by
where 2h is the distance between the two plates, u0 is the velocity at the center plane, and y is the vertical coordinate
from the center plane. For a plate width of b, obtain a relation for the flow rate through the plates.
Water is pumped between two large open tanks as shown in Fig.
P8.95. If the pump adds 50 kW of power to the fluid, what is the
flowrate passing between the tanks? Assume the friction factor
to be equal to 0.02 and minor losses to be negligible
