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Control System Toolbox™
User's Guide
R2020a
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The MathWorks, Inc.

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Control System Toolbox™ User's Guide
© COPYRIGHT 2001–2020 by The MathWorks, Inc.
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Revision History
June 2001 Online only New for Version 5.1 (Release 12.1)
July 2002 Online only Revised for Version 5.2 (Release 13)
June 2004 Online only Revised for Version 6.0 (Release 14)
March 2005 Online only Revised for Version 6.2 (Release 14SP2)
September 2005 Online only Revised for Version 6.2.1 (Release 14SP3)
March 2006 Online only Revised for Version 7.0 (Release 2006a)
September 2006 Online only Revised for Version 7.1 (Release 2006b)
September 2007 Online only Revised for Version 8.0.1 (Release 2007b)
October 2008 Online only Revised for Version 8.2 (Release 2008b)
April 2011 Online only Revised for Version 9.1 (Release 2011a)
October 2014 Online only Revised for Version 9.8 (Release 2014b)
Contents
Linear System Modeling
Linear System Model Objects

1
What Are Model Objects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Model Objects Represent Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
About Model Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Control System Modeling with Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Types of Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Dynamic System Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Static Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

Numeric Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Identified LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Identified Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Generalized Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

Generalized and Uncertain LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12
Control Design Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12
Generalized Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Models with Tunable Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15

Tunable Generalized LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Modeling Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Modeling Control Systems with Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Internal Structure of Generalized Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Using Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
v
Model Creation
2
Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Transfer Function Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Commands for Creating Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Create Transfer Function Using Numerator and Denominator
Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Create Transfer Function Model Using Zeros, Poles, and Gain . . . . . 2-3
State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

State-Space Model Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Explicit State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Descriptor (Implicit) State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Commands for Creating State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Create State-Space Model From Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8

Frequency Response Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Commands for Creating FRD Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Create Frequency-Response Model from Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

Continuous-Time PID Controller Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Create Continuous-Time Parallel-Form PID Controller . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Create Continuous-Time Standard-Form PID Controller . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

Continuous-Time 2-DOF PID Controller Representations . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2-DOF Control Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Discrete-Time Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17

Create Discrete-Time Transfer Function Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Other Model Types in Discrete Time Representations . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers

..................................................... 2-18
Discrete-Time PID Controller Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Create Discrete-Time Standard-Form PID Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Discrete-Time 2-DOF PI Controller in Standard Form . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
MIMO Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21

Concatenation of SISO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Using the tf Function with Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
MIMO State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23

MIMO Explicit State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
MIMO Descriptor State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24
State-Space Model of Jet Transport Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
MIMO Frequency Response Data Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
vi Contents
Time Delays in Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
First Order Plus Dead Time Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Input and Output Delay in State-Space Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Transport Delay in MIMO Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Discrete-Time Transfer Function with Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Time-Delay Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36

Time-Delay Approximation in Discrete-Time Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model

..................................................... 2-38
Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model

..................................................... 2-42
Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders

..................................................... 2-46
Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z . . . . . 2-49
Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time Delay . . . . . . . . 2-52
Internal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-54

Why Internal Delays Are Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-54
Behavior of Models With Internal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55
Inside Time Delay Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55
Functions That Support Internal Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56
Functions That Do Not Support Internal Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57
Tunable Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-58
Create Tunable Second-Order Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-59
Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters

..................................................... 2-61
Control System with Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

..................................................... 2-67
Analysis Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
Specify Analysis Points for MATLAB Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
Specify Analysis Points for Simulink Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-68
Refer to Analysis Points for Analysis and Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71
Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75

What Are Model Arrays? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75
Uses of Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75
Visualizing Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75
Visualizing Selection of Models From Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-76
vii
Select Models from Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-78
Query Array Size and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80
Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82

What are Linear Parameter-Varying Models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
Regular vs. Irregular Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-84
Use Model Arrays to Create Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . 2-85
Approximate Nonlinear Systems using LPV Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-85
Applications of Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86
Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics . . . . . . . . . 2-88
Working with Linear Models
Data Manipulation
3
Store and Retrieve Model Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Model Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Specify Model Properties at Model Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Examine and Change Properties of an Existing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Extract Model Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

Functions for Extracting Model Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Extracting Coefficients of Different Model Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Extract Numeric Model Data and Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Extract PID Gains from Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Attach Metadata to Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Specify Model Time Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Interconnect Models with Different Time Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Specify Frequency Units of Frequency-Response Data Model . . . . . . 3-8
Extract Subsystems of Multi-Input, Multi-Output (MIMO) Models . . . 3-9
Specify and Select Input and Output Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Query Model Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Customize Model Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Configure Transfer Function Display Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Configure Display Format of Transfer Function in Factorized Form
................................................. 3-15
viii Contents
Model Interconnections
4
Why Interconnect Models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Catalog of Model Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

Model Interconnection Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable Components

...................................................... 4-7
Multi-Loop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
MIMO Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
MIMO Feedback Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models . . . 4-20
Rules That Determine Model Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . 4-22
Model Transformation
5
Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Explicit Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Automatic Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Recommended Working Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Convert From One Model Type to Another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Get Current Value of Generalized Model by Model Conversion . . . . . 5-5
Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO Components . . . . . . . 5-7
Discretize a Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay . . . . . . . 5-14
Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19

Zero-Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
ix
First-Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Impulse-Invariant Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Tustin Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Zero-Pole Matching Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Upsample Discrete-Time System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Choosing a Resampling Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Model Simplification
6
Model Reduction Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
When to Reduce Model Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Model Reduction Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Choosing a Model Reduction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Balanced Truncation Model Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13

Balanced Truncation in the Model Reducer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Balanced Truncation in Other Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Approximate Model by Balanced Truncation at the Command Line

..................................................... 6-20
Compare Truncated and DC Matched Low-Order Model

Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Approximate Model with Unstable or Near-Unstable Pole . . . . . . . . 6-27
Frequency-Limited Balanced Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-31
Model Reduction in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37
Pole-Zero Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-44

Pole-Zero Simplification in the Model Reducer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-44
Pole-Zero Cancellation at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-49
Mode-Selection Model Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52

Mode Selection in the Model Reducer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52
Mode Selection at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56
Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App . . . . . 6-60

Error Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60
Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-61
Plot Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63
Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-64
x Contents
Linear Analysis
Time Domain Analysis

7
Plotting System Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Time-Domain Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18
Time-Domain Response Data and Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19
Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21
Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics . . . . . . . . 7-24
Time-Domain Responses of Discrete-Time Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25
Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27
Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29
Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31
Response from Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35
Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-38

Simulate LTI Model in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-38
Import MIMO LTI Model into Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-39
Analysis of Systems with Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-42

Considerations to Keep in Mind when Analyzing Systems with Internal
Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-44
Frequency Domain Analysis

8
Frequency-Domain Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Frequency Response of a SISO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Frequency Response of a MIMO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model

..................................................... 8-11
Pole and Zero Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
xi
Assessing Gain and Phase Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15
Analyzing Control Systems with Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26
Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
Sensitivity Analysis
9
Model Array with Single Parameter Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
Sensitivity of Control System to Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
Passivity and Conic Sectors

10
About Passivity and Passivity Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7
Passivity Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14
Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18
Series Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20
Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23
Control Design
PID Controller Design

11
PID Controller Design at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11
xii Contents
Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
PID Controller Types for Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26

Specifying PID Controller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26
1-DOF Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-28
2-DOF Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-29
2-DOF Controllers with Fixed Setpoint Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
PID Controller Tuning in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-33
Design PID Controller Using Estimated Frequency Response . . . . 11-42
Design Family of PID Controllers for Multiple Operating Points . 11-50
Design PID Controller Using Simulated I/O Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56
PID Controller Design in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-72
Tune PID Controller from Measured Plant Data Using Live Editor
Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-79
Classical Control Design

12
Choosing a Control Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2
Control System Designer Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4

Graphical Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
Automated Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
Effective Plant for Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
Select a Tuning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6
Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8

Add Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
Edit Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11
Root Locus and Pole-Zero Plot Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12
Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Bode Diagram Requirements . . . . . . 12-13
Open-Loop Nichols Plot Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13
Step and Impulse Response Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14
Feedback Control Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16
Design Multiloop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-18
Multimodel Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-27

Control Design Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-27
Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-27
Nominal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-29
Frequency Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-30
Design Controller for Multiple Plant Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-31
xiii
Bode Diagram Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-38
Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Bode Diagram Graphical
Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-38
Root Locus Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-51

Tune Electrohydraulic Servomechanism Using Root Locus Graphical
Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-51
Nichols Plot Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-63

Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Nichols Plot Graphical Design
................................................ 12-63
Edit Compensator Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-76

Compensator Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-76
Graphical Compensator Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-78
Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-79
Lead and Lag Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-79
Notch Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-80
Design Compensator Using Automated Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . 12-82

Select Tuning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-82
Select Compensator and Loop to Tune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-83
PID Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-83
Optimization-Based Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-88
LQG Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-89
Loop Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-90
Internal Model Control Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-92
Analyze Designs Using Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-95

Analysis Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-95
Editor Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-97
Plot Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-98
Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-100
Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-101
Compare Performance of Multiple Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-104
Design Hard-Disk Read/Write Head Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-108
Design Compensator for Plant Model with Time Delays . . . . . . . 12-119
Design Compensator for Systems Represented by Frequency

Response Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-126
Design Internal Model Controller for Chemical Reactor Plant . . 12-130
Design LQG Tracker Using Control System Designer . . . . . . . . . 12-142
Export Design to MATLAB Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-150
Generate Simulink Model for Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 12-152
Tune Simulink Blocks Using Compensator Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-154
Single Loop Feedback/Prefilter Compensator Design . . . . . . . . . 12-161
xiv Contents
Cascaded Multiloop Feedback Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-169
Reference Tracking of DC Motor with Parameter Variations . . . 12-179
State-Space Control Design

13
Extended and Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithms for Online State
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Extended Kalman Filter Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
Generate Code for Online State Estimation in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . 13-8

Tunable and Nontunable Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
Validate Online State Estimation at the Command Line . . . . . . . . 13-11

Examine Output Estimation Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
Examine State Estimation Error for Simulated Data . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
Validate Online State Estimation in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13

Examine Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
Examine State Estimation Error for Simulated Data . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
Compute Residuals and State Estimation Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-14
Troubleshoot Online State Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-16
Nonlinear State Estimation Using Unscented Kalman Filter and

Particle Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
Estimate States of Nonlinear System with Multiple, Multirate

Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-33
Regulate Pressure in Drum Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-43
Control System Tuning
Control System Tuning

14
Automated Tuning Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3
Choosing an Automated Tuning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4
Automated Tuning Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
xv
Specify Control Architecture in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
About Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
Predefined Feedback Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
Arbitrary Feedback Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-8
Control System Architecture in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-9
Open Control System Tuner for Tuning Simulink Model . . . . . . . . 14-10

Command-Line Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-10
Specify Operating Points for Tuning in Control System Tuner . . . 14-11

About Operating Points in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-11
Linearize at Simulation Snapshot Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-11
Compute Operating Points at Simulation Snapshot Times . . . . . . . 14-13
Compute Steady-State Operating Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15
Specify Blocks to Tune in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-17
View and Change Block Parameterization in Control System Tuner

.................................................... 14-19
View Block Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-19
Fix Parameter Values or Limit Tuning Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-21
Custom Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-22
Block Rate Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-23
Setup for Tuning Control System Modeled in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . 14-26
How Tuned Simulink Blocks Are Parameterized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-27

Blocks With Predefined Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-27
Blocks Without Predefined Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-28
View and Change Block Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-28
Specify Goals for Interactive Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-29
Quick Loop Tuning of Feedback Loops in Control System Tuner . 14-34
Quick Loop Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-42

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-42
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-42
Feedback Loop Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-42
Desired Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-43
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-44
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-44
Step Tracking Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-45

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-45
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-45
Step Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-45
Desired Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-46
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-47
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-48
Step Rejection Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-50

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-50
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-50
Step Disturbance Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-51
xvi Contents
Desired Response to Step Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-51
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-52
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-53
Transient Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-54

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-54
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-54
Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-54
Initial Signal Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-55
Desired Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-56
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-56
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-57
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-57
LQR/LQG Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-59

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-59
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-59
Signal Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-59
LQG Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-60
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-61
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-61
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-61
Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-63

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-63
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-63
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-64
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-64
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-65
Variance Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-67

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-67
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-67
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-68
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-69
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-69
Reference Tracking Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-71

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-71
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-71
Tracking Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-72
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-73
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-74
Overshoot Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-76

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-76
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-76
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-77
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-78
Disturbance Rejection Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-80

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-80
xvii
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-80
Disturbance Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-81
Rejection Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-82
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-82
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-83
Sensitivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-85

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-85
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-85
Sensitivity Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86
Sensitivity Bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-87
Weighted Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-89

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-89
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-89
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-90
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-90
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-91
Weighted Variance Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-93
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-93
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-94
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-94
Minimum Loop Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-96

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-96
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-96
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-97
Desired Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-97
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-98
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-99
Maximum Loop Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-101

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-101
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-101
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-102
Desired Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-102
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-103
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-104
Loop Shape Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-106

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-106
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-106
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-107
Desired Loop Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-108
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-108
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-109
xviii Contents
Margins Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-111
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-111
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-111
Feedback Loop Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-112
Desired Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-112
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-112
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-113
Passivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-115

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-115
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-115
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-116
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-116
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-117
Conic Sector Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-120
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-121
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-122
Weighted Passivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-125
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-126
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-126
Poles Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-128

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-128
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-128
Feedback Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-129
Pole Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-129
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-130
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-130
Controller Poles Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-132

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-132
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-132
Constrain Dynamics of Tuned Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-133
Keep Poles Inside the Following Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-133
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-133
Manage Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-135
Generate MATLAB Code from Control System Tuner for Command-

Line Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-136
Interpret Numeric Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-139

Tuning-Goal Scalar Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-139
Tuning Results at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-139
Tuning Results in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-140
xix
Improve Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-141
Visualize Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-143

Tuning-Goal Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-143
Difference Between Dashed Line and Shaded Region . . . . . . . . . 14-144
Improve Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-148
Create Response Plots in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-149
Examine Tuned Controller Parameters in Control System Tuner 14-155
Compare Performance of Multiple Tuned Controllers . . . . . . . . . 14-157
Create and Configure slTuner Interface to Simulink Model . . . . 14-161
Stability Margins in Control System Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-165

Gain and Phase Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-165
Combined Gain and Phase Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-166
Interpreting the Gain and Phase Margin Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-167
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-167
Tune Control System at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-169
Speed Up Tuning with Parallel Computing Toolbox Software . . . 14-170
Validate Tuned Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-171

Extract and Plot System Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-171
Validate Design in Simulink Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-172
Extract Responses from Tuned MATLAB Model at the Command Line

................................................... 14-175
Loop-Shaping Design
15
Structure of Control System for Tuning With looptune . . . . . . . . . . 15-2
Set Up Your Control System for Tuning with looptune . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3

Set Up Your Control System for looptunein MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
Set Up Your Control System for looptune in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
Tune MIMO Control System for Specified Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
Tuning Feedback Loops with LOOPTUNE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
Decoupling Controller for a Distillation Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
Tuning of a Digital Motion Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-26
xx Contents
Gain-Scheduled Controllers
16
Gain Scheduling Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Gain Scheduling in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Tune Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Model Gain-Scheduled Control Systems in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4

Model Scheduled Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4
Gain-Scheduled Equivalents for Commonly Used Control Elements
................................................. 16-6
Custom Gain-Scheduled Control Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-9
Tunability of Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-10
Tune Gain Schedules in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12

Workflow for Tuning Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12
Plant Models for Gain-Scheduled Controller Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . 16-14

Obtaining the Family of Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-15
Set Up for Gain Scheduling by Linearizing at Design Points . . . . . 16-15
Sample System at Simulation Snapshots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-18
Sample System at Varying Parameter Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-18
Eliminate Samples at Unneeded Design Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-19
LPV Plants in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-19
Multiple Design Points in slTuner Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20

Block Substitution for Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20
Multiple Block Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20
Substituting Blocks that Depend on the Scheduling Variables . . . . 16-21
Resolving Mismatches Between a Block and its Substitution . . . . . 16-22
Block Substitution for LPV Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-23
Parameterize Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-24

Basis Function Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-24
Tunable Gain Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-26
Tunable Gain with Two Independent Scheduling Variables . . . . . . 16-27
Tunable Surfaces in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-29
Tunable Surfaces in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-31
Change Requirements with Operating Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-33

Define Variable Tuning Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-33
Enforce Tuning Goal at Subset of Design Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-35
Exclude Design Points from systune Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-35
Validate Gain-Scheduled Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-36

Examine Tuned Gain Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-36
Visualize Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-36
Check Linear Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-39
Validate Gain Schedules in Nonlinear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-39
Gain-Scheduled Control of a Chemical Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-41
Tuning of Gain-Scheduled Three-Loop Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-55
xxi
Trimming and Linearization of the HL-20 Airframe . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-68
Angular Rate Control in the HL-20 Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-75
Attitude Control in the HL-20 Autopilot - SISO Design . . . . . . . . . 16-81
Attitude Control in the HL-20 Autopilot - MIMO Design . . . . . . . . 16-91
MATLAB Workflow for Tuning the HL-20 Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-99
Control System Tuning Examples - Generalized LTI Models

17
Tuning Control Systems with SYSTUNE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
Building Tunable Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-9
Active Vibration Control in Three-Story Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-15
Vibration Control in Flexible Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-25
Passive Control with Communication Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-34
Control System Tuning Examples

18
Tuning Multiloop Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
PID Tuning for Setpoint Tracking vs. Disturbance Rejection . . . . 18-11
Time-Domain Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-20
Frequency-Domain Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-26
Loop Shape and Stability Margin Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-34
System Dynamics Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-40
Configuring Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-42
Validating Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-43
Tune Control Systems in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-51
Tune a Control System Using Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . 18-59
Using Parallel Computing to Accelerate Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-75
xxii Contents
Control of a Linear Electric Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-79
Control of a Linear Electric Actuator Using Control System Tuner

.................................................... 18-89
Multi-Loop PI Control of a Robotic Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-114
Control of an Inverted Pendulum on a Cart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-129
Digital Control of Power Stage Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-136
MIMO Control of Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-145
Tuning of a Two-Loop Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-158
Multiloop Control of a Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-173
Fixed-Structure Autopilot for a Passenger Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-180
Fault-Tolerant Control of a Passenger Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-191
Passive Control of Water Tank Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-200
Tuning for Multiple Values of Plant Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-213
Customization
Preliminaries
19
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
Property and Preferences Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
Ways to Customize Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
Setting Toolbox Preferences

20
Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Overview of the Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Opening the Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5
SISO Tool Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5
xxiii
Setting Tool Preferences
21
Linear System Analyzer Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Opening the Linear System Analyzer Preference Editor . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
Parameters Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5
Customizing Response Plot Properties

22
Customize Response Plots Using the Response Plots Property Editor
..................................................... 22-2
Opening the Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Overview of Response Plots Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
Labels Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-4
Limits Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-4
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-12
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-13
Editing Subplots Using the Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-16
Customizing Response Plots Using Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17

Properties You Can Customize Using Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
Opening and Working with Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
Example of Changing Line Color Using Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
Customizing Response Plots from the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . 22-19

Overview of Customizing Plots from the Command Line . . . . . . . . 22-19
Obtaining Plot Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-21
Obtaining Plot Options Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-22
Examples of Customizing Plots from the Command Line . . . . . . . . 22-23
Properties and Values Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-26
Build GUI With Interactive Response-Plot Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-36
Design Case Studies

23
Design Yaw Damper for Jet Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Overview of this Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Creating the Jet Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Computing Open-Loop Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-3
Open-Loop Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-4
Root Locus Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-7
Washout Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-10
xxiv Contents
LQG Regulation: Rolling Mill Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
Overview of this Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
Process and Disturbance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
LQG Design for the x-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-16
LQG Design for the y-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-20
Cross-Coupling Between Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-21
MIMO LQG Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-24
Kalman Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-27
Canonical State-Space Realizations

24
Canonical State-Space Realizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Modal Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Companion Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Observable Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-3
Controllable Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-3
Reliable Computations
25
Scaling State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Why Scaling Is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
When to Scale Your Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Manually Scale Your Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Linear System Analyzer

26
Linear System Analyzer Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Using the Right-Click Menu in the Linear System Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . 26-4

Overview of the Right-Click Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
Setting Characteristics of Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
Importing, Exporting, and Deleting Models in the Linear System Analyzer

......................................................... 26-8
Importing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-8
Exporting Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-8
Deleting Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9
Selecting Response Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11

Methods for Selecting Response Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11
Right Click Menu: Plot Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11
Plot Configurations Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11
xxv
Line Styles Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12
Analyzing MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15

Overview of Analyzing MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15
Array Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15
I/O Grouping for MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-16
Selecting I/O Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-17
Customizing the Linear System Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19

Overview of Customizing the Linear System Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19
Linear System Analyzer Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19
xxvi Contents
Linear System Modeling
27
1
Linear System Model Objects
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2

• “Control System Modeling with Model Objects” on page 1-3
• “Types of Model Objects” on page 1-5
• “Dynamic System Models” on page 1-7
• “Static Models” on page 1-9
• “Numeric Models” on page 1-10
• “Generalized Models” on page 1-12
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-15
• “Using Model Objects” on page 1-18
• “References” on page 1-19
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swimming across, and since their family existed there has been no land
passage round the southern edge of the Pacific. So, if we would find the
ancient tapir range which once connected Malaya with Mexico and Brazil,
we are driven to search for a pathway round the North Pacific.
The map of the ocean floor shows the Pacific Deep as reaching
northward to the sixtieth parallel. Beyond that lie the new shoals of Bering
Sea, with a ground-swell so terrific in winter that I have seen a hard-bitten
middle-aged seaman driven mad with fear. This is the site of Bering Land,
an ancient country about the size of Scandinavia, which joined the
mainlands of Asia and North America. The latitudes of this land were those
of Norway, and it formed the basin of the lower Yukon.
Before there was any polar cold on Earth, when the magnolia
blossomed in Greenland, this cloudy rain-swept country was warm enough
for tapirs. As the sky cleared it managed to harbour camels, and became a
pasturage for animals of the horse family. Let us see then whether these
were of the actual species we call the horse.
The landscape THE LANDSCAPE. Warm lands with little sunlight,

such as Ireland, have green turfed grasses. The polar
summer which is one long day covers all pastures with a blaze of flowers.
The bushes also yield a bounty of blossom and wild fruit. The mosquito
season is the great event of the year.
So we may see the meadows beside the lower Yukon, green pasture
starred with flowers, bushed, wet, mosquito-stricken range for the bearded
Celtic pony, utterly unlike the sun-baked golden steppe of the Dun horse.
We must cast back to earlier times when Bering Land was clouded, torrid,
range for ancestors of our modern horses, the pasture which changed the
brown tapir of Brazil into the skewbald tapir of Malaya. At that time pre-
glacial America had seven species of three-toed horse-ancestors, some of
which may have ranged westward across Bering Land into Asia, and there
given birth to the stock of the Old World.
With the onset of the Great Ice Age the growing weight of the American
Ice-cap seems to have strained the loose skin of the Earth, which, in the
Columbia Basin cracked, pouring forth floods of lava to overwhelm a
region nine hundred miles in length, eight hundred wide. A series of rock
waves folded, forming the coast or island ranges from California northward
and culminating in the stupendous Alps of St. Elias. There gathered a lesser
Ice-cap, pouring its glaciers down the Alaskan and British Columbian
fjords.
It was this barrier of ice which put an end to all migrations of animals.
The Alps of St. Elias closed the path-way between those two groups of
continents which so far had been the common breeding ground for beasts
and men. Within the narrowed breeding ground of the Americas the horse
together with the camel, and many other species, became extinct.
The deluge Old Bering Land had become sub-Arctic, the home of
the Mammoth, a maned roan elephant. Then the Pacific
flooded the plains of the Lower Yukon, and formed the shoals of Bering
Sea. Both in Asia and in America faint memories remain of a drowned
world. In Assyria and in British Columbia the legend tells us of a hero, and
of rescued folk in a fleet of three hundred canoes.
So the two groups of continents were finally cut apart at Bering Straits.
And now a ring of flaming craters girdles the Pacific, the fit finale to a
tremendous drama.
PART V. THE MARKINGS OF THE HORSE.
Markings Darwin wrote of the probable "descent of all existing

races from a single dun-coloured, more or less striped
primitive stock to which our horses occasionally revert."
The stories of the Great Ice Age and of Bering Land have shown us a
variety of swiftly changing climates in which the original three-toed dun
striped ancestors begat a special type of horse for each kind of habitat. The
high lands and high latitudes, the low lands and low latitudes, the tall
grasses, the short grasses, the open woodlands, the northern downs and
valleys, bred each their special type of the wild horse.
EVIDENCE OF THE WIND. It is not so very long since the last clumps
of timber vanished from the steppes. Still on the North American range one
finds the trunks and roots of forest trees, which silicate swamps have
changed into masses of jaspar onyx and chalcedony; and these have not had
time to sink as stones do into the soil. In a seven hundred mile ride across
the Canadian plains, I found a living clump of three pines distant a hundred-
and-fifty miles from the edge of the shrunken forest. Such shelters have
indeed so lately disappeared that the horse has not yet learned the trick of
wind endurance. If his ears and nostrils were not so fearfully sensitive, he
need only face up wind, and the hair of his body would be blown down flat
to protect him. As it is, the extreme sensitiveness of his face compels him to
stand or drift with buttocks turned to the gale, tail tucked, head down. It is
only in that position that the hair is blown up from the skin and fails to give
him protection. We may conclude then that he was inured to torrid summers
and even to polar winters before he had to encounter strong gales away
from shelter. Long after the three-toed ancestor had become a horse, the
steppes had abundant tree clumps for wind breaks in heavy weather.
African bays THE AFRICAN BAY. In every striped horse it seems a

general rule that the body stripes are curved in such a way as
to point to a spot on the ground midway between the four legs. The leg
bands merely cut the upright lines of the limbs so that these disappear.
Some natural process of colour photography has made the body stripes a
bold copy of the upward and outward spread of the tussock grass. It was for
concealment then among the rich forage of the tussocks that some of the
parent species wore a gorgeous livery which passed on to the Zebra.
The Saharan From all accounts the Sahara is the bed of a recent sea,
range but, possibly along its eastern side, a horse range extended
from the Soudan to the shores of the Mediterranean. Such
range had not less than ten inches a year of rainfall, carried by the sea
breezes from surrounding waters. There was moisture enough for trees, and
there are abundant traces of quite recent timber.
The winds were drying, the clouds were burned out, the light was
increasing to a terrific strength, and the tussocks began to fail. On the
American range I have noticed that these tall grasses, abundant only thirty
years ago, have become quite rare since the pasture was overstocked. As the
tall grasses perished and streaks of naked desert crept into the dying
pasture, all hope of concealment for horses was at an end, the brilliant
striping ceased to have any value, and the need for speed outweighed the
need for sleep. Three and a half hours for sleep, standing, suffices the
modern horse.
And as the cover vanished, every possible military precaution became

imperative against surprise by lions. The gay striped painting had become a
danger, and whole colour was the last chance of concealment for purposes
of rest. Close herding by the stallions, a single line formation with

vedettes and flankers, signals by cries and stamping, and, above all things,
speed, were needed to save the horse under the new conditions. The arched
markings on the face of the striped horse changed to a star, the leg bands to
stockings: white marks to identify members of the herd on the darkest
nights. Such markings are very common among horses of desert descent.
Painted horses As the deadly actinic rays of light poured into the body
between its bars of painting, the natural dye secreted in the
skin began to fill the bright streaks with strong colour. So the striped Dun
became the desert Bay, with black points and white markings, gifted with
the intelligence needed in family and tribal life, but above all things
endowed with a speed which was the despair of lions and is the glory of all
honest horsemen. So entirely was the danger from lions overcome that the
Bay horse has forgotten the art of bucking, which once was needed in
fighting beasts of prey. Speed has given the steel-hard hoofs, the steel-
strong limbs, delicate modelling to cut the resistance of the air, the tail set
and carried high for the finest steering, and almost every other trait of our
Barbs and Arabs. So intense is the light in his native pasture that even the
refracted glow from the ground has had to be met by dark colouring of the
under surfaces, wherein he differs from the horses of higher latitudes.
Zebra, quagga, ZEBRA AND QUAGGA. Southward from the great

ass Desert the forest of Equatorial Africa is bordered to the
eastward and the south by grass lands. In these a few
patches of jungle and tussock grasses have preserved the colouring of
striped horses down to our own time. Their painting is most brilliant
towards the Equator, fades in the higher latitudes, and in Cape Colony only
the neck and shoulder stripes remained in the Quagga breed. The land does
not continue into the latitude of the Dun horse. It is quite possible that with
the coming of the Boers tame cattle ate off the Quagga pasturage, but rifles
have put the wild stock to an end with the advance of human settlement.
THE ASSES. These creatures of mountainous deserts are coloured like

the boulders of a hillside, but rely for their safety rather on high intelligence
and sure-footed speed. Being desert animals of course they are dry inside,
so that their efforts to produce the most beautiful music merely rub leather
against leather like the sole of a creaking boot. They should be petted like
operatic tenors, and indeed there are no animals in the world who improve
so rapidly in response to decent treatment.
There is a legend that the ass who carried the Cross of our Lord Christ
upon the way to Calvary had ever afterwards its shadow on his back, still
worn by the African breed as a special badge of honour. It is called the
endurance mark, and this with the same leg bands is the special brand of the
Dun horse of Asia.
Dun horses THE DUN HORSE. It was in the Yellowstone Park that
I paid ten dollars for a thirteen hand pony called Buck, a
bright Dun with the endurance cross and leg bands. Below the black knees
and hocks he wore white stockings, and had black mane, tail and points. He
taught me the real protective colour for short grass. His upper and lower
body lines were the curves of prairie ridges, while the limbs were so cross-
coloured that the upright lines became invisible, save when he moved, at
about two hundred yards. It was lucky that he always came at my call,
because so far as my poor eyesight went, he was lost to me every evening
so soon as I sent him off to graze. His wall eye and game knee were
acquired from meeting Christians, but an odd trick of carrying the lower
jaw sideways while he was thinking, an unusual sweetness of character, and
most uncommon pluck, may have been primitive traits. He trotted with my
pack a thousand miles, until in Utah I gave him to a cowboy rather than
take him on into the desert ahead, where he might die of thirst. I did not
know in those days that he was a desert horse who knew a deal more about
finding water than ever I shall learn.
Wild species The horse became extinct in the Americas, the Quagga
dying in South Africa, the wild Bay in Northern Africa. The
numbers of the wild asses and of the zebras are shrinking
rapidly. The wild Dun, or Tarpan, whose range was the whole steppe of
Russia and North Asia, is now represented in three small districts of
Mongolia by the Prejevalski herds. So far, then, as wild horses are
concerned, the species is dying out.
Among tame horses, to judge from what one sees in the larger stables,
there must be at least one hundred Bays, Browns and Chestnuts to every
real Dun. All breeders select from the Bay type as distinguished from the
Dun, whose only special value is in endurance. In the run-wild or feral
herds, however, the Duns have a fair chance, and form a large proportion of
the stock. They are not only hardy but also fertile. If man became extinct,
the steppes and prairies would breed Duns, and gradually kill out the other
types.
Dun and Bay From the fierce dry heat of the Gobi Desert to the utmost
rigors of Siberian cold, the Dun will thrive wherever there is
grass. His coat is warm and cool for any climate, greasy enough to shed
rain, and proof against every weather except wet driving snow or a strong
gale. Through the longest winters he keeps alive by grubbing through the
snow to get at grass. The droughts of summer may so increase the journey
between food and water that he gets very little time for rest, but somehow
he manages to pull through, the last of all horses to yield to difficulties.
Lacking the speed and beauty of the Bay, he lives where the Bay will die. In
danger or difficulty the Bay is a fool in a panic, while the Dun keeps cool,
reasons, and uses common sense with a strong, hearty valour. One would
select the Bay for pleasure, but the Dun for serious work under the saddle,
for road endurance, for long and rapid marches, and all that makes mounted
troops of value in campaigns.
Just as the working man may be rendered irritable and even vicious by
unfair treatment in our social life, the working horse is made ill-tempered
and dangerous to handle by bad horse-mastership. So the Dun has a terrible
reputation, and in his defence I am a sort of Devil's advocate. He is the
typical range horse whose manners and customs will be the theme of the
next chapter.
PART VI. CLOUDLAND.
Cloudland We have seen the close resemblance of warm winds and

seas between the North Atlantic and the North Pacific; but it
was only in the North Atlantic region that the great Ice Age, in long
pulsations, widened and shrank its Icefields. Ten thousand years ago
(Wright) in the Niagara District, and seven thousand years ago (de Geer) in
Finland, the edges of the Icefield were withdrawn for the last time, and the
climate began to get warm and comfortable.
In America and in Europe, as the ice retreated, a belt of tundra crept

closely in its wake, and in the rear of that a belt of green turfed grasses.
In Eastern Canada, and North-western Europe these green turfed

pastures are varied with woodlands of such trees as cast their leaves in
winter. Amid these changes the horse had vanished from North America,
but survived in Asia, and slowly extended his range as the ice retreated
from Europe. In Europe as in America, man also widened his hunting
grounds in the wake of the melting Icefield.
In the big region of the south-west wind the lands which surround the
North Sea and the Baltic are different from all others, being under a low
sun, cloudy, with only one day's sunshine out of seven. And Cloudland
breeds a special type of man with blue eyes, a ruddy skin, and hair of
chestnut, bay, brown, or dun, colours like those of horses.
Under the grey skies of Cloudland, man lacks the protective colour
which in all other regions of the world defends the body from actinic light. I
think we shall find this true of the horse also.
The original striped colouring of the Bays and Duns never developed in
Western Europe with its climate of cloudy skies and verdant pastures.
The white THE WHITE HORSE. Now let us study the conditions
horse following the Ice Age in Southern Russia. Here the Dun
horse has a white coat for sunny snowy winters. Rumour
says that foals are not born white, and it must be remembered that snowy
winters are recent even as grassy plains.
This whiteness is not, like the summer colouring, a paint issued by the
body to tint the hair, but a mere absence of any colouring matter. It is as
though the animal saved his stores to paint his inside to a warm red during
the cold season instead of wasting it in mere vanity upon his outer clothing.
At the same time nothing could be more reasonable than a white coat for
concealment against a snowy background. Hares, Eskimo, and lots of other
tribes are most particular in this matter, and among the best people of all
snowy regions a white suit is the correct mode for winter. It may be that
some tribes of ponies neglected to change in the spring, and so became
conspicuous in summer, a fatal error where there are wolves about. These
were not likely to prosper and raise children except under man's protection,
so one suspects that white coats for summer wear date only from the human
period. Men had a feeling, too, that the white horse was so beautiful that he
must be sacred, a special gift of the gods. Without any special merit, being
indeed of lower stamina and endurance than any other horses, the white
stock were favoured by breeders. Left to themselves, they would die out
rapidly in any sunny climate. One notes, however, that the Persian wild ass
has a silvery white coat, the hue of his native desert. There are many
animals whose dark hair is white at the tips, so that they are really brunettes
who masquerade as blondes.
Bearded horses BEARDED HORSES. The ancient horse-eating artist-

savages of France have left us portraits of ponies strongly
bearded under the lower jaw. In the earliest portrait we have of the Celtic
pony (Ewart), Odin's eight-legged Sleipnir shows the coarse bearded cut of
jaw. The Celtic pony types are bearded to the northward, clean-shaven
towards the southward parts of their wide range. The Prejevalski, who is the
Tarpan of Asia, is slightly bearded. So is the Kiang or wild ass of Asia. One
finds the beard bristles in all the northern breeds of horses, not in the desert
stocks to the south. Why then should northern horses want to grow a beard?
A horse has so small a stomach that his day's work to get sufficient
grass is seven hours. Up to about fifty degrees of north latitude, he gets
seven hours of daylight even in mid-winter. Northward of that he needs
beard bristles to aid him in feeling and selecting grass in the darkness.
Southward of that, if he is hunted by wolves or tigers, he needs a few beard
bristles for night grazing except in cloudless regions where there is always
starlight. So, roughly, the range of bearded horses is that of long dark
nights.
Size THE REGISTER OF SIZE. The size of horses varies

with their nourishment.
On the scattered but rich bunch grasses of the desert, where there is
much travel for a little food, the pasture registers the stature of the Bay as
about fourteen hands two inches.
The scattered but rich bunch grass of the American steppe makes horses
prosperous in summer but famished in the winter, so that the pasture
registers a smaller horse than that of the desert—up to thirteen hands. Under
the same conditions we may take the register of the Dun in Asia as up to
thirteen hands.
The poor grass of the British moors registers a pony of ten to eleven
hands.
Strong feeding of grain and hay registers stabled horses up to nineteen

hands.
The great abundance of green turfed grass the year round in North-
western Europe should, under its best conditions, register as large a horse as
either steppe or desert.
The three THE THREE PASTURES. The Bay pasture and the Dun
pastures pasture are each of continental size, whereas the green
pasture is only a small province. In the same way, the rock
formations of the Bay and the Dun pastures are each continuous for several
thousands of miles. In sharp contrast is that little ragged edge of a great
continent known as North-western Europe, a district which has many times
been flooded by the sea, each bath making new beds of rock.
The lowlands of Great Britain, for example, have been frequently

submerged, and the island shows samples of almost every rock formation
known upon the earth. This European pasture then is not only small, but
also varied in its rock formations, its soils, and its landscape. One may get a
standard horse of registered size in the Bay range or the Dun range, but
would expect to find on the green range of Europe not only many colours,
but also many types derived from the primitive stock, strains of all sorts and
sizes. A glance at three formations will show how much the build and size
of a horse is varied by the rocks.
GRANITE. In North-western Europe the granitic or speckled

formations form upstanding moorlands. The poor but abundant grass
maintains ponies both light and heavy of build, derived from several kinds
of ancestors. They are so secured from attack by beasts of prey that they do
not need to run far and fast on ground where running would be dangerous.
These are grouped under the general name of Celtic pony.
Limestone and LIMESTONE. Allowing for some districts, like the

clay central plain of Ireland, where the Ice-sheet has left the
country very badly drained, a limestone formation usually
makes dry soil. The vegetable mould may hold a little water and make mud,
as on the chalk downs, but the rock is so porous that most of the rain soaks
down, and the waters run mainly underground. Moreover, the vegetable
mould gives chemical qualities to this water, which is enabled to dissolve
the rocks and form caverns on the underground water courses. At the same
time the water becomes 'hard' with lime in solution, so that the springs will
petrify moss and twigs.
The dryness of the ground tends to make horses sound of bone. The
carbonate of lime in the water supplies them with the material for bone. As
the result the bones are very light in proportion to their strength. So this
pasture registers a well-built and very light horse. If such an animal is of
Bay blood, he is larger and swifter than the Arab, lacking only in soundness
and in travel endurance.
CLAY. As clay holds water, its soils provide abundance to the grass
roots, and so produce thick turf with a great weight of green forage to the
acre. Such heavy feeding without any exercise in search of water, would,
after the killing out of the wolves, tend to produce a large, heavy, slow-
going gentle horse with steady nerves such as our draught stock, lacking in
that soundness of feet and legs which is limited to the breeds of arid
regions.
Horses of So far, the argument presents for the green pastures of

Cloudland cloudland horses of several colours; and, for the varied rock
formations in the North Sea and Baltic basins, horses of
many types.
Forest varieties Professor Ewart traces among the ancient wild horses of
the forest species three very distinct types:
1. At the time when the glacial drift of the Rhine and Weser valleys had
a climate like that of the Outer Hebrides of to-day, the conditions of cold
and damp matured the Diluvial horse (Equus Caballus occidentalis). This
animal stood fifteen hands, had a longer face than the general forest type,
was coarsely built, had heavy fetlocks, a short upright pastern, a broad
round foot. This is the cart horse breed.
2. The Grimaldi Grottoes in the Riviera preserve remains of a forest-

upland horse, large, coarse, heavy in build, with a short, broad face, and a
flat profile.
3. The Solutré Caverns of France preserve paintings made by ancient

savages of a small stout, chunky, bearded horse, rather like a long, low
Iceland pony, with a short broad face, elk-like nose, and low-set tail, rough-
haired towards the root. He stood from twelve to thirteen hands in height.
From these three forest varieties our draught horses are mainly
descended; but there were also in Ancient Europe two other species besides
that of the woodlands.
A. Siwalik type. A fifteen-hand horse, lightly built like the modern

thoroughbred. The forehead recedes at an angle from the line of the face,
and there is a prominence between the eyes. The limbs are long, withers
high, and tail set on high.
B. Prejevalski Tarpan steppe type, the Dun of Northern Asia. The face is
long, narrow and straight. The nasal chambers are large, causing a Roman
nose. The limbs are clean, with close hocks and narrow feet. Height twelve
to thirteen hands.
We must think then of such types as the Forest and Siwalik adapting
themselves to the soils of North-western Europe.
PART VII. THE CHANGING LAND.
The North Sea is only a recent flood in an old river valley. We must
consider it not as a tract of permanent water, but as a lost hunting ground of
our own ancestors, a pasturage for horses not very long ago.
A valley in In the year 5200 B.C. the Scandinavian glaciers,

Cloudland shrinking at the rate of about one mile a year (the rate of
shrinkage in the Alps of St. Elias), withdrew from the
province of Finland and the Baltic Lake. Let us suppose that, in that year a
traveller from civilised Egypt made his way down the Rhine, and so entered
the valley of North River, which is now flooded by the North Sea. At first
this river wound its level way between low chalk downs, but presently the
Thames came in from the West, and forested swampy clay-lands extended
northward. Abreast of Aberdeen came the last chalk downs, and beyond
that lay Arctic tundras where the delta widened to an ice-drifted sea nearly
abreast of Faroe.
The whole valley was as varied in rock and soil as Eastern England,
with little lakes, ridges of boulder clay, and downs of gorse and bracken.
Northward across this verdant land crept succeeding waves of the fir, the
oak, and the beech.
Out on the delta coast, far to the right, beyond a deep sea channel, rose
the white Ice-cap of Sweden, whose Ice-flood filled the Norway fjords with
berg-breeding glaciers. Far to the left rose the ice-clad Grampians.
The Delta people and those of the Baltic Lake were poor savages living
upon shell fish, and making mounds of shell refuse round their hearths.
Inland were stronger peoples who had lake villages or trenched
encampments on headlands of the downs.
Cloudland As the grass followed the advancing fir woods, the

horses primitive stock of Cloudland returned to pastures from
whence it had been driven by the cold. These were not
Duns, Bays, or striped, but native Cloudland horses adapted to this region
of little sunshine. Strong Dun was not needed to guard them from the
actinic rays of sunlight, so their dull colour had yellowish, brownish and
reddish tones which blended with the landscape, such colours as are worn
by the Celtic ponies of Britain and other Atlantic isles.
The wild horses were evolving three utterly different types. On the
chalk downs, and on the limestone tracts north of the Humber, there were
lightly built, slender, graceful horses of fair height. On the clays there were
horses, heavy, coarse, and slow. On the Breton, British and Scandinavian
moors there were Celtic ponies.
The deluge in It needed but little sinking of this land to flood the Delta,
Cloudland and open a long channel up the North River valley. The sea
washed out the clay foundations of the forests. The sea
breakers wielded boulders of the glacier-drift and hurled them like battering
rams against the dissolving limestone of low cliffs. The tide swung gravels
to tear out bays in the foreshores. Winter frosts cracked the headlands, and
summer rains melted the ice cracks so that the capes fell into the sea in
landslides. Thus the sea widened, biting its way deep into Europe until men
began their losing fight with dykes for the saving of doomed netherlands.
The North Sea cut its way through chalk downs into the English channel.
The tribes who held fortified headlands of the chalk downs and set up
temples at Stonehenge and Avebury on the mainland of Europe, about 1800
B.C. found that their country had become an island.
The old horse pasture of North-western Europe was split into sundered
provinces by the advancing sea, but the breeds, native to a lost valley are
still almost identical on either shore. The Breton and British moors have
one type of Celtic pony whose ancestral range extended across the Straits of
Dover. The clay fens of Lincolnshire and of Holland still have draught
horses alike in build and in colour. The limestone districts north of the
Humber have the same tall horses as the similar provinces across the water
in Schleswig, Holstein and Jutland. The granitic lands of Scotland and
Norway have one type of the Celtic pony. (Low's Domesticated Animals.)
It is none of my business, but I cannot help feeling that the flooding at

about the same period of the Lower Yukon and North River Valleys is
something more than a coincidence. The Geological people are always
cocksure that the sea cannot rise, that an hemisphere—the Southern, for
example, cannot be flooded, and they assume quite blandly that lands have
sunk, without explaining why. Their theories never seem really to fit that
mighty wilderness, to which I have seen them come as visitors or strangers.
Science will never understand until it learns to love.
PART VIII. THE HUMAN INFLUENCE.
The human We have now reached a stage of the argument which

influence shows for Europe no continental type like the Bay or the
Dun, but a horse stock of varied colouring, of diverse
heights and builds, and most curious dispersions as native to the green
pastures of Cloudland.
Shuffling of The problem in nature was intricate as a jigsaw puzzle,

the horse pack before man's interference broke that puzzle into little pieces.
Our ancestors were not such fools as to import Duns from
Asia for purpose of breeding, but in their wars and migrations drifted
Asiatic Duns and South Russian white horses across the face of Europe. No
wars of invasion brought Bay horses out of Africa; but as each tribe needed
a better strain of horseflesh, the Bays were carried in the courses of trade to
Europe.
THE HUMAN INFLUENCE IN CROSSING HORSE STRAINS.
Scale of colour THE CHESTNUT. This colour is possibly bright Bay

values from African blood crossed with a slight proportion of
golden Dun. Both in the humans and the horses, chestnut
hair goes with a certain temper described as sanguine, generous or fiery if
we happen to be in a good temper, or untrustworthy and vicious if we
dislike the person. Setting aside the cold sorrel, or light chestnut, which in
my own mind is associated with commonplace horses and with one or two
very bad women, the real chestnut, with its red-gold glory, makes most of
us catch our breath with its beauty. In human hair it so appeals to artists as
to be generally reserved for the most sacred portraiture. In horses, it so
appeals to horsemen as to rank next bright Bay in the scale of values.
THE BROWN HORSE. This is a colder, washed-out tone of Bay.
THE BLACK HORSE. Among feral and range horses, those of the very
darkest bay and brown become brown-black under the summer sunlight.
True black is unknown among outdoor horses, and can only be due to
special selective breeding.
THE GREY HORSE. All greys are obviously crossed between white
and the various whole colours.
The primary horse colours are Dun and Bay.
The secondary colours are white, black, grey, chestnut, and brown,
whole colours shared by human and horse folk.
The tertiary colours are crosses of white with Bay, Dun, black, chestnut,
brown, which produce the various roans. Beyond that the human hair
withdraws from competition.
The quarternary colours are crosses of white with whole roans,

producing strawberry and cream roans, and roan-balds; while a peculiar
mixture of white with black, bay or chestnut, gives us the piebalds and
skewbalds.
The white horse has been saved from the wolves by man, but the
secondary, tertiary and quarternary colours are also very largely the result of
man's work in crossing the primitive strains of Europe with the imported
African Bay within the last couple of thousand years.
MIGRATION. The Romans imported millions of negro slaves who have

not left a trace of their blood in Europe. Wave after wave of Blonde
Migration from the Baltic has conquered the Mediterranean states, but left
no fair descendants. The negroes become extinct in Europe. The blondes
become extinct on the Mediterranean.
Correcting by And so with horses. Imported horses fail to breed

sunlight healthfully in the damp provinces of India and Brazil, while
horse sickness makes a clean sweep of them in many parts
of Africa. It is probable, with horses as with men, that no sudden
importation to regions outside their native zone of sunlight results in
permanent healthy breeding. The imported strain dies out unless it is
constantly renewed. Hordes of Asiatics with Dun horses have swept from
time to time into Europe, and into India, but Dun horses are scarce in both
regions, and do not exist in large numbers except in Scandinavia and in
Katywar.
So the strong action of man in sudden floodings of Europe with Bays

from the desert, Duns from the steppe, is outweighed by a stronger law of
nature. With strains of horses as with tribes of man, the penalty for sudden
migration from their native zone of light is gradual extinction.
Yet is there one difference between Bays and Duns. The Dun is not
worth renewing, and so dies out unnoticed. The Bay is worth breeding and
so persists.
PART IX. THE BRAND OF EUROPE.

The brand of In nature's immense and gentle processes, throughout
Europe the amazing story of the Europe horse, the bewildering
actions of forgotten tribes of men, and the sun's own slow
adjustments, a single force persists in branding the stock with a sign of
ownership.
A partial eclipse of the sun had made his figure that of the crescent
moon. Standing under some oak trees, beside the road puddles made by
recent rain, I noticed that the bars of reduced sunlight which came down
through the leafage shone upon the little patches of water. The image of the
crescent sun was reflected upside down.
The bar of sunlight coming down through leafage acts as a lens to the
sun's image. The woodland glade is a camera. The coat of a woodland
animal is coloured by the direct action of light, is sensitive to light, is a
sensitized film for colour photography. To the peculiar reversed and
condensed rays shining through leafage into the woodland camera, the coat
of the horse responds, forming rings of deeper colour limited to the parts of
the animal which are exposed to direct light. In the course of many
generations, the rings become permanent and are known as dapples. The
dappling in the dappled light of woodlands gives concealment both to
hunting leopards and to hunted horses.
Since dapples have not been traced to any other country, and may well
be native to woodlands of Western Europe, it seems fair reasoning which
gives that special quality of colour to a type we will now define as the
European horse. I do not contend that the woodlands were more extensive
than the open downs, or that any large proportion of European horses
developed dapples. I do contend that a certain stocky build and well
conditioned heaviness of type more or less dappled is characteristic of
Western Europe, just as a more or less striped Dun is typical of Asia, and
more or less striped Bay typical of Northern Africa.
Professor I am nothing more than an old rough-neck. My poor

Ridgeway's little theories about the Europe horse have the impudence to
theories contradict a great authority. Professor Ridgeway brings
historic proof that the Tarpan, who is the Prejevalski, the
wild Dun of Asia, inhabited the green pasture of Europe, that he was a
small scrawny and foul-tempered person unfit to ride, and that his crossings
with the slender imported Bay produced our gigantic sturdy and gentle
draught horse. I have ridden so many Duns, packed so many, loved them so
much, that I am sure they would agree with me in bucking hard against
Professor Ridgeway. I do not believe that the Dun wore his tawny colour in
green pastures where he would be a target. I do not believe that the wild
Dun in an average district was small, scrawny or vicious. I do not believe
that a horse of the Dun type could be an ancestor to draught stock. History
is the lens through which we see the past—out of focus.
Against the evidence of history and the proofs of science, I have nothing
to offer except the common heritage of sight and reason, with that
experience which trains a fellow to interpret landscape and to care for
horses. I cannot expect others to ride as I have through the green pasturage
of Cloudland seeing as I do under the combed, trim countryside of to-day
the fierce rough wilderness of prehistoric times and of outlandish frontiers.
It is not by asking the way or reading sign-posts that one reasons out the
route of a day's journey, but by a vivid sense of light, form, colour and
atmospheric distance, the old familiar structure of the rocks, the slopes of
drainage, the course of running waters, the shape of woods and trees as
fashioned by the wind, the ancient dangers deflecting trails and roads, and
the phenomena which result in forts and churches, villages and towns.
Sensing the So one senses the radiant perfumed land and sees how it
country shaped and coloured its native horses. It was from that raw
material the breeder wrought just as a sculptor models clay
into his statuary. Under his hands the wild traits disappeared, the short-
sighted pony grew into a long-sighted hunter, sound hoofs and limbs were
softened to unsoundness, the language of signs gave place to understanding
of human speech, while discipline of the harem and the herd became
obedience in the fields of sport, of labour, or soldier service.
The dapple I would not have my reading take the place of thinking,
sign but rather use books to inspire thought and be thankful to
them for correcting blunders. Thus, aiming at the truth, no
matter what I hit, I see in Western Europe a horse-currency which is of
striped extraction, and, like a coinage in bronze, silver and gold, has
evolved its moorland ponies, its lowland draught stock, and its upland
running breeds. The measure of Bay blood stamps out its values; and, where
one can decipher a device, it is to read the dapple sign for one of the sun's
own kingdoms.
CHAPTER III.
HABITS OF OUTDOOR HORSES.
I. THE RANGE.
The North American range of the run-wild herds enlarges northward out
of Mexico and covers the region between the Mississippi and the Pacific
Ocean up to the edge of the Northern Forest in Canada. This gives an area
of three million square miles, a range much the same size as Europe, the
United States, Australia, Brazil, or Canada. The eastern half is a prairie, the
western a desert shaped like a swell of the sea about eight thousand feet
high at the top, and laced all over with a skein of mountain ranges thrown
like fisherman's net and broken all to pieces. Moreover, the southern or
higher half of this desert is cleft to the roots by sheer abysmal chasms
known as the Cañons.
It has been my good fortune to ride from the edge of the Canadian forest
along the general line of the Rocky Mountains to a place just twenty miles
south of Zacatecas in Mexico, which is the southern boundary of the Stock
Range, on the Tropic of Cancer. I have also ridden from Regina in
Saskatchewan to Red Bluff in California. These two routes cross the grass
from north to south, and nearly from east to west, making a rough total of
seven thousand miles.
The wilderness The land as I knew it first had just been stripped naked
by the hunters who swept away almost the whole of its
native stock of bison, deer, and antelope, wild sheep and goats, together
with the hunting animals, such as wolves and panthers who earned a living
there. The land as I saw it next was overstocked with ponies, cattle and
sheep, so that the grass was poor. The land as I saw it last was being fenced,
watered and ploughed by pioneer settlers. In thirty years I witnessed the
passing of the wilderness and its frontiersmen.
A meadow gives a totally false idea of the herbage which built up the
strength and vigour of the ancient pony herds. It is a mixture of many
grasses and other plants all closely turfed together so that a horse cannot
readily select what he likes best. The grass contains a deal of water, stays
green throughout the year and tastes sour between the teeth. One finds
turfed pasture in forests and their outskirts, and usually where there is
rainfall enough for crops, as in Western Europe and on the eastern half of
South Africa. That, I think, is not the pasture which made the hardy range
horse.
The natural Where there is less than eight inches of rain one finds
pastures the range grass, of separate plants with the bare earth
between. The three American kinds are the bunch grass of
the hollows, a tall tussock with tap roots reaching down to moisture; the
little buffalo grass from two to four inches high; and the gramma grass of
the same size which inhabits Mexico.
One may presume that the tussock fed the oldest herds and that, as it
failed, the pony took to eating the shorter grasses.
The horse in a meadow pasture does not eat the ranker growths, but
grazes the shorter, smaller kinds of grass. From this we may reason that the
little buffalo grass of the ranges is the typical food of the species. The
leaves of this plant are green in the spring but soon cure to a golden tawny
colour, which changes to brown in the autumn, and a washed-out, greyish
brown in winter. As they cure, the leaves curl downwards one by one until
the plant becomes a ball or tuft exceedingly springy underfoot, sweet as a
nut in taste, and equal in food value to standing oats.
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Linear System Modeling

Linear System Model Objects

Control System Modeling with Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Types of Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Dynamic System Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Static Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

Generalized Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

Models with Tunable Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15

Using Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18

State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

Discrete-Time Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17

Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers

MIMO Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21

MIMO State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23

MIMO Frequency Response Data Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27

Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29

Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34

Time-Delay Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model

Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders

Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z . . . . . 2-49

Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time Delay . . . . . . . . 2-52

Internal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-54

Tunable Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-58

Create Tunable Second-Order Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-59

Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters

Control System with Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62

Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64

Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75

Query Array Size and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80

Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82

Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics . . . . . . . . . 2-88

Working with Linear Models

Extract Model Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

Attach Metadata to Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Query Model Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12

Customize Model Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Catalog of Model Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3