MODULE-5

QUANTUM PHYSICS

PREREQUISITES (No questions on prerequisites in university exam, only for knowledge)

Dual nature of light: - All objects in the universe are composed of matter. Any kind of
matter is composed of atoms and molecules.

A wave is disturbance spread out over a large region of space. It cannot be located at a
particular space and mass cannot attach to a wave. It is specified by amplitude, frequency,
wavelength, phase and intensity. Whereas particle is located at some definite point and it has
mass. It can move from place to place. A particle gains the energy when accelerated and loss
energy when slowed down. It is specified by mass, momentum, velocity, energy. Looking at
the above fact it appears difficult to accept the concept of wave particle duality however
sometimes the acceptance become essential because radiation some time behave as a wave
and other time as a particle. Ex. light in some expt like a interference, diffraction behave as
wave where as in some other expt like photoelectric effect, Compton effect behave as a
particle. So wave particle dualism is universally accepted. But radiation cannot
simultaneously exhibit its particle and wave properties. Wave theory of light and quantum
theory of light complement each other. Either of two theories by themselves cannot give the
complete nature of light.

Photo electric effect: The photoelectric effect is based on the idea that electromagnetic
radiation is made of a series of particles called photons. When a photon hits an electron on a
metal surface, the electron can be emitted. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.

Davisson Germer Expt.

Experimental verification of Debroglie theory:-

According to Debroglie hypothesis a beam of material particle must possess wave like
characteristics and should undergo phenomenon like reflection, refraction, Interference,
diffraction, polarization as the ordinary light wave do. The first expt. Verification of wave
nature of atomic particle was provided by Davisson & Germer.

Expt. Setup consists of an e- gun. The e- emitted by cathode is accelerated by voltage and
then it strikes a target made of a single nickel crystal. The e- are scattered off the crystal in all
directions. The number of scattered e- in all direction can be recorded with the help of an e
detector that rotates on a circular graduated scale.
For an accelerating voltage V, a scattering curve shows a peak in a particular direction. It is
found that for an acceleration voltage of 54 V a very large no. of e- are scattered at a
particular angle Ф = 500

It is assumed that the e- undergoes diffraction and the peak represents the first order spectrum
at an angle of 500

2d sinθ = n λ

λ = 2 x 0.91 x sin650

λ = 1.65 A0

we know that λ = h/ √2meV, On substituting the values of h,m,e and V,

we get

λ = 1.66A0

Both are in agreement.

 SYLLABUS

Q1. Explain Debroglie hypothesis for matter waves?

ANS:

In1924, Louis debroglie a French physicist suggested that the wave particle dualism need not
be the special feature of light alone. But the material particle must also exhibit such a dual
behaviour. waves and particles are the only two modes through energy can propagate in
nature. Since nature is symmetric, so matter and waves must be symmetric.

On the basis of this argument he suggested that if radiation displays waves like as well as
particle like properties. This is known as debroglie hypothesis.

Debroglie deduced the connection between particle and wave properties basing on Planck
Einstein expression for energy.

Acc to Einstein E = mc2 ................... 1

Acc to Planck E = hν............... 2

From 1 & 2

mc2 = hν

mc2 = hc/λ

Therefore λ = h/mc

λ = h/p where p = mc

According to Debroglie λ = h/p must be universal relation applicable to photon as well as to

any material particle. Hence particle of mass m moving with velocity v carries a momentum
mv.

λ = h/mc

λ is Debroglie wavelength

According to Debroglie, moving particle has always got a wave associated with it called as
matter waves

Whose wavelength is λ = h/p

λ = h/mv

From the relation, it is seen that as mass of the body increases its λ decreases. The
wavelength of macroscopic bodies is insignificant in comparism to the size of the bodies even
at very low velocities.

E.g Take a cricket ball of mass 500 gms flying with velocity 50 Km/Hr λ = h/mv
 λ = 6.634 x 10-34

0.5 x 50 x 5/18 therefore λ = 10-24 A0

This is insignificant. Consequently wave process do not affect the interaction between
macroscopic bodies on the other hand, Debroglie wavelength associated with micro particle
say electron is large & significant.

Q2. State the Properties of matter waves.

ANS:

a. As mass increases ,wavelength decreases.

The waveprocess does not affect the macroscopic bodies
b. Matter wave do not carry any electrical charge. They are not electromagnetic wave nor
are they mechanical wave.
c. They do not have any similarity to any known wave.
d. They are probability wave related to the probability of finding the particle in various
places.
e. They are associated with the moving particle.
f. The velocity of matter wave is not constant but depends on the velocity of the particles
generating them.
Wave velocity Vw = ν λ
= mc2 /h x h/mv
= c2/v v is velocity of particle
No particle can travel greater than speed of light
Vw = matter wave travel faster.
g. Wave velocity is inversely proportional to wavelength when a particle is accelerated
to some potential V then
½ mv2 = eV
E = eV
h ν = eV
λ = h / √ 2meV
λ2 = h2 /2meV
eV = h2 /2m λ2
hν = h2 /2m λ2 , ν = h /2m λ2
Vw = ν λ
Vw = h/2m λ
Velocity of light depends directly on λ i.e C = ν λ
Velocity of matter wave depends inversely.
Q3. Derive an expression for Debroglie’s Wavelength in terms of K.E

ANS: We know, K.E = ½ m v2

E = ½ m2 v2/m m2 v2 = 2mE
p2 = 2mE
h2 / λ2 = 2mE
λ2 = h2 /2mE
λ = h /√2mE

Q4. Derive an expression for Debroglie Wavelength in terms of accelerating

potential ?

Consider a charged particle say electron of charge e, mass m, moving with velocity v
accelerated by a potential difference of V Volts. therefore, its KE = PE

½ m v2 = eV
m2 v2/ 2m = eV
P2 = 2meV
h2/ λ2 = 2meV
λ = √2meV
λ = √V

Q.5. Explain Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle? State its physical significance.

ANS:
Classically, the state of particle can be defined by specifying its positions and
momentum at any given time t. If a body is moving along a x direction with velocity v
then its position
x = vt and momentum P = mv can be found out.
At each instance, the position and momentum can be measured to a very high degree
of accuracy, but when a moving particle is conceptualised as Debroglie wave such a
precision becomes restricted. We know, Debroglie wave travel in the form of wave
packet let ∆x be the linear speed of a wave packet.
The probability of finding the particle is maximum at the centre of wave packet and
nearly zero at its ends.
 Therefore there is an uncertainty ∆x in the position of the particle. Further, the wave
packet is constructed by wave of slightly different frequency (ie. diff wavelength).
The momentum is associated with the wavelength P = h/ λ there gives uncertainty in
the momentum ∆p
The two uncertainty ∆x & ∆p are interrelated because the spread in momentum
depends on spread in λ which in turn depends on spread of the wave packets.
This situation is summarized into mathematical relation known as Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. It states that, it is not possible to make simultaneous
measurements of the position and momentum of a particle to an unlimited
accuracy.

Mathematically it is expressed as
∆x ∆Px = h
∆x ∆ Px ≥ђ
∆x ∆ Px ≥ h/2π

It means that is impossible to know simultaneously the exact position and exact
momentum of a particle.

If the wave packet is large, the momentum can be determined but it is difficult to
locate the particle and vice versa. If the wave packet is small, then ∆x↓∆p↑.
We can never fully know the momentum of a particle or its location but can at best
say that certain momentum is more probable than other or a particle is likely to be
here than there.

The uncertainty principle can be extended to other pairs of entities like

∆E ∆t ≥ h/2π
∆L ∆θ ≥ h/2π

Physical Significance:
HUP does not apply to a single measurement on a single particle. It is statement
about a statistical average over lots of measurement of position and momenta.
 Q6. Show that electron does not exist in the nucleus.
ANS:
Non existence of electron in the nucleus: -
The radius of the nucleus is of the order of one Fermi ie10-15 m. If electron were to be
in the nucleus, the uncertainty in the position will be equal to the diameter of the
nucleus.
∆X = 2x10-15m
∆X. ∆P ≥ ћ
∆P ≥ h/2π∆X
∆Pmin ≥ 0.52 x 10-19 kg m/s
Since the e- is microscopic we take relativistic equation for energy
E = mc2
E = mc.c
E = p.c
E = 0.52 x 10-19x3x 108
=1.56 x10-11J
Emin = 1.56 x 10-11/1.6x10-19 = 100Mev. (approx)
If electron is to be in nucleus, then its minimum energy should be 100 Mev. But the
maximum energy possessed by the electron given by B decay expt. is approx 100
Kev.
Therefore, electron cannot reside in the nucleus.

Q.7. Define Wave packet, group velocity and phase velocity:

ANS:

Let us assume that the particle like an electron can be described by a pure sine wave that has
no beginning and no end. It is of infinite extent and completely non localised. Hence
monofrequency wave cannot represent a particle which is an entity confined to a very small
volume. This means that Debroglie waves are not harmonic waves but could be the
combination of several waves.A superposition of several waves having different frequencies
give rise to a wave packet which posses both wave and particle properties. This wave packet
travel with velocity called as group velocity.(Vg) the velocity of individual Debroglie wave is
called as phase velocity (Vp)
 Phase velocity Vp = ω / k

Group velocity Vg = dω / dk

The particle can be therefore represented by wave packet.

Though the phase velocity that is velocity of Debroglie wave travel faster than light. But the
group velocity ie. The velocity of entire packet moves with the velocity of that moving
particle.

Q8. Show that debroglie group velocity associated with the wave packet is equal to the
velocity of the particle Vg = v.

ANS:

Consider a micro particle of mass m moving with velocity v since it is a micro particles, we
can take the relativistic mass which is
𝑚𝑜
m= 2
� 1−V
𝑐2

Let ω be angular frequency and k is wave number

We know

ω = 2πν

ω = 2πmc2/h
2𝜋𝑚𝑜c2
ω= V 2
ℎ�1−
𝑐2

ω= 2πc2mo(1- v2/c2)-1/2
ℎ

k = 2π/λ k = 2πmv/h
2𝜋𝑚𝑜v
k= V2
ℎ � 1− 2
𝑐

Vg = d ω/dk = 𝑑ω/dv
𝑑𝑘/𝑑𝑣

dω/dv = 2πc2mo( 1- v2/c2)-3/2 ( -1/2 ) (-2v/c2)

ℎ

= 2πmo(1- v2/c2)-3/2 v ................. 1

ℎ

2𝜋𝑚𝑜v
k= V2
ℎ � 1− 2
𝑐
 k = 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 v (1- v2/c2)-1/2
ℎ

dk /dv = 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 ( 1- v2/c2)-1/2 + 2πmov( 1- v2/c2)-3/2 ( -1/2 ) (-2v/c2)

ℎ ℎ

2
2𝜋𝑚𝑜 2 2 -3/2
= (1- v2/c2)-1/2 + 2πmo (1- v /c ) 𝑉2
ℎ ℎ 𝑐
2 2

=
2𝜋𝑚𝑜 (1- v2/c2)-3/2 (1 - 𝑉 + 𝑉 )
ℎ 𝑐2 𝑐2

dk/dv = 2𝜋𝑚𝑜 ( 1- v2/c2)-3/2............................ 2

ℎ

From eq 1& 2

Vg = dω / dk = 𝑑ω/dv
𝑑𝑘/𝑑𝑣

From equation 1 & 2, Vg = v

Q9. What is Wave function ψ and mention its physical significance?

ANS:

Wave represents the propagation of a disturbance in a medium. Light waves are represented
by Electromagnetic field variation; sound waves are represented by pressure variation. The
Debroglie wave is represented by quantity ψ just as electric vector represent a light waves.
The quantity ψ is called as wave function.

It is a function of position and time co-ordination ψ (x,y,z,t). It represents the position of

particle at sometime‘t’. However it is not possible to locate a particle precisely at a position
x,y,z. There is only a probability of a particle being at the specific point. Ψ as such does not
have any significance. Further it is complex quantity. It is not an observable quantity. On the
other hand, the square of the absolute value of the wave function │Ψ│2 has physical
significance.

Physical significance: - In Electromagnetic wave, if A is the amplitude of the wave then

energy density is A2. If ψ is the amplitude of matter wave at any point in the space, then the
particle density at the point may be proportional to ψ2

Thus ψ2 is a measure of particle density.

According to Max born, ψ ψ‫│ = ٭‬Ψ│2 gives the probability of finding the particle in the state
Ψ. The probability of finding particle in volume

dv = dx.dy.dz is given by │Ψ│2 dx.dy.dz.

if ψ (x,y,z) represent a particle, then │Ψ(x,y,z)│2is the probability per unit volume that the
particle will be found at given point
P α │Ψ│2dv

Q10. What is normalization condition and State the requirement of an acceptable wave
function.

ANS:

Normalization condition: -

If at all particle exists, it must be found somewhere in the universe therefore the probability
of finding particle somewhere in the universe is unity.

The sum of probabilities over all values of x,y,z in elemental volume should be 1.
∞
∭−∞ │Ψ│2 dx. dy. dz =1

This called as Normalization condition. A wave function satisfying the above condition is
said to be normalised.

Besides being normalised, a wave function must be acceptable.

Requirement of an acceptable wave function

1. Ψ must be finite everywhere.

(If ψ is infinite, large probability of finding the particle at that point. This will violate
HUP.)

2. Ψ must be single valued.

3. It must be continuous and must have a continuous first derivate everywhere.

Physical significance of ψ:-

1. It relates the particle and wave nature of matter statistically.

2. It is a complex quantity and hence we cannot measure it.
3. It must be well behaved, single valued and continuous.
4. If the particle is certainly to be found somewhere in space, then the probability value
is 1.
Q11. Derive one dimensional Schrodinger`s Time Dependent Equation for matter
waves?

ANS:

Erwin Schrodinger`s developed the wave equation for matter waves known as Schrodinger`s
wave equation. It plays the same role in quantum mechanics as Newton`s law play in
classical mechanics. The motion of an atomic particle can be determined using Schrodinger`s
wave equation

For 1D classical wave equation

δ2𝜉𝜉 1 δ2𝜉𝜉
=
δx2 𝑣2 δt2

Solution of which is 𝜉 (x, t) = A ei ( kx – ωt)

K = wave number = 2π / λ

ω = angular frequency = 2πν

Now let us consider a micro particle, let ψ be the wave function associated with the motion of
this micro particle.

We will replace k and ω by E and p and 𝜉 ( x,t ) by ψ(x,t)

2
ω = 2πν, ω = 2π𝑚𝑐
ℎ

h ω /2π = mc2
E = ћω or ω = E/ ћ

k = 2π/λ k = 2πmv/h
h /2π k = mv therefore p = ћk , k = p/ћ

ψ = A ei( px – Et )/ћ
ψ = A e-i( Et – px )/ћ ............................. 1

Differentiate w.r.t ‘t’

𝛛𝜕𝜕
= (-iE/ћ) A e-i (Et – px)
𝛛𝑡
𝛛𝜕𝜕
= −𝑖𝑖𝑖Ψ ......................... 2
𝛛𝑡 ћ

Differentiate eq 1 w.r.to x
𝛛Ψ 𝑖𝑝
= A e-i (Et – px)/ћ
𝛛𝑥 ћ
 𝛛Ψ 𝑖𝑝
= Ψ
𝛛𝑥 ћ

𝛛2Ψ 𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑝
=( )( ) A e-i (Et – px)/ћ
𝛛2𝑥 ћ ћ
2
𝛛2Ψ = −𝑝 Ψ ............................. 3
𝛛2𝑥 ћ2

K.E = p2/2m

E = K.E + P.E

E =P2/2m + V
2
E (Ψ) = 𝑃 (Ψ) + V (Ψ)
2𝑚

−ћ 𝛛Ψ −ћ2 𝛛2Ψ + V (Ψ)

=
𝑖 𝛛𝑥 2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥

𝛛Ψ −ћ2 𝛛2Ψ
-i ћ = + VΨ
𝛛𝑥 2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥

−ћ2 𝛛2Ψ 𝛛Ψ
+ VΨ = -i ћ
2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥 𝛛𝑥

This is one dimensional Schrodinger time dependent equation.

Q12. Obtain Time independent Schrodinger equation from dependent form?

ANS:

In many cases the P.E ‘V’ of a particle does not depend on time. It varies only with position
of particle.

In this case Schrodinger time independent equation is used.

In this case the wave function is written as product of Ψ(x) ɸ (t)

Ψ(x,t) = Ψ(x) ɸ (t)

−ћ2 2Ψ(x) 𝛛ɸ(t)
ɸ (t) 𝛛 = V Ψ(x) ɸ (t) = -i ћ ψ(x)
2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥 𝛛𝑡

Divide equation by Ψ(x) ɸ (t)

−ћ2 𝛛2Ψ 𝑖ћ 𝛛ɸ(t)

+V=
2𝑚𝜕𝜕(𝑥) 𝛛2𝑥 ɸ(𝑡) 𝛛𝑡
 The R.H.S of the above equation is only‘t’ and L.H.S is only in ‘x’. The equation must be
valid for any x and t only if the two sides of the equation are equal to constant. Let the
constant be

−ћ2 𝛛2Ψ +V=E

2𝑚𝜕𝜕(𝑥) 𝛛2𝑥

Multiply the above equation with ψ(x)

−ћ2 𝛛2Ψ + V ψ(x) = E ψ(x)
2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥

This is Schrodinger time independent equation.

Q13.With the Schrodinger’s equation, Show that for a free particles energy levels are
continuous

ANS:

Free Particle :-

Consider an electron moving freely in a space in the ‘x’ direction and not acted upon
by any force. Since no force is acting on electron its P.E is zero
−ћ2 𝛛2Ψ +0 = E (ψ)
2𝑚 𝛛2𝑥

𝛛2Ψ
+ 2𝑚 Eψ = 0
𝛛2𝑥 ћ2

𝛛2Ψ 8𝜋2𝑚
+ Eψ = 0
𝛛2𝑥 h2

𝛛2Ψ
+ k2 ψ = 0
𝛛2𝑥

8𝜋2𝑚
k2 = h2
E

ℎ2𝑘2
E = 8𝜋2𝑚

Since electron is moving freely there are no boundary conditions and hence no restriction on
k. All values of energy are allowed.

The allowed values of energy forms continuum and are given

ℎ2𝑘2
E = 8𝜋2𝑚

E α k2
The graph between E and k is parabola

Physical interpretation;-
2 2
i) E= ℎ 𝑘
8𝜋2𝑚

E = ћ2k2/2m

K2 = 2mE/ ћ2

K = √2𝑚𝐸
ћ

K = p/ ћ

K = p/h 2π

K = 2π/λ

The particle of mass m is represented by a wave number.

K = 2π/λ which is in consistent with Debroglie hypothesis

ii) the solution of differential equation is

ψ = A eikx + B e-ikx

Where A and B is constant

The particle has definite momentum given by p = ћk but since it is represented by a plane
wave extending from ∞ to - ∞. Its position becomes completely indeterminate which is in
consistent with HUP.

Q14.Show that energy of an electron trapped in a 1D potential well varies as square of

the natural numbers.

ANS:

Consider a motion of electron in 1D deep potential well bounded by high potential barrier.
Electron can propagate along x axis and can get reflected from the wall at x = 0 and x = L.
And thus it can propagate both in +ve and –ve ‘x’ direction. Within the well, P.E is zero and
at boundaries PE is high say ∞
 𝛛2Ψ 8𝜋2𝑚
+ Eψ = 0
𝛛2𝑥 h2

𝛛2Ψ
+ k2 ψ = 0
𝛛2𝑥

Solution of above equation is ψ = A eikx + B e-ikx

Where A and B is constant to be determined with the help of boundary condition,

i,e at x = 0 ψ=0

at x = L ψ=0

0=A+B A = -B or B = - A

A eikL + B e-ikL = 0

A (eikL – e-ikL) = 0

2iAsinkL = 0

sinkL = 0

kL = nπ

2π/λ L = nπ

L = nλ/2

This equation suggests that wave equation has a solution only when the whole number of
half the wavelength is formed over the length L
8𝜋2𝑚
k2 = h2
E
8𝜋2𝑚
E = n2π2/L2
h2

𝑛2ℎ2
E = 8𝑚𝐿2
 The above equation shows that only those energy are possible for which n is an integer and
are allowed energy states.

The wave function for the above allowed energy state can be obtained as

Ψ = 2Aisinkx
𝐿
∫0 ∣ Ψ∣2dx = 1
𝐿
∫0 ∣ 2Ai∣ sin2kx dx = 1

(2iA)2 ∫𝐿 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑘𝑥 L
(2iA)2 [𝑥 − ] =1
2 4𝑘

(2iA)2 [𝐿 ]L = 1
2

2
2iA = �
𝐿

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Ψ(x) = � sin
𝐿 𝐿

Q15. What is zero-point energy, eigen values and eigenfunctions?

ANS:

Zero point energy:-

2ℎ2
E=𝑛 Shows that energy is a function of quantum number and width of the well.
8𝑚𝐿2
The electron trapped in a potential well cannot take zero energy. Because if the energy is
zero, momentum would also be zero and HUP requires that its wavelength be infinity

If its λ→ ∞, it cannot be confined to a box. If electron must possess a certain minimum

amount of K.E called zero point energy.

Eigen value and Eigen function

The value of energy for which Schrodinger equation can be solved are called Eigen value and
the corresponding acceptable wave function are called Eigen function
2ℎ2
2
En = 𝑛 and Ψ(x) = � sin 𝑘𝑥
8𝑚𝐿2 𝐿 𝐿
Q16.What is Quantum Computing?
ANS: computing is any activity that uses computer to manage, process and communicate
information. conventional computing which is the most popular method for solving desired
problems uses classical bits (binary digits-either 0 or 1) stored on transistors embedded in
microchips.
Quantum computing is a branch aiming to develop the computer technology based on the
principles of quantum and processing theory. It is about storing and processing information
using individual atoms, ions, electrons or photons. Quantum computing is a stunning
combination of quantum physics, computer science and information theory. The speed of
computation can become exponentially faster than conventional computers by exploring the
quantum mechanical behaviour of electrons or atoms or photons that allow to work them in
quantum bits (qubits),
Since qubits behave quantumly, there is an advantage of the phenomenon of superposition and
entanglement.
Superposition means the ability of a quantum system to be in multiple states at the same time
and entanglement is an extremely strong correlation that exists between qubits. In quantum
computers SQUIDS and quantum transistors are basic building blocks.
Applications:
Molecular modelling
Cryptography
Artificial intelligence and machine intelligence
Weather forecasting
Quantum internet or any field that requires massive amount of number crunching.

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