Chapter#

1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
COMPUTER:
Computer is an electronic device that allows the accessing and
processing of the huge amount of data into the meaningful
information.
OR
Computer is an electronic machine that stores, retrieve and process
the information of the data.

Characteristics of computer:

i. Speed:Computer perform all its task with a great speed of nano (1x10
-09
) and pico second (1x10-12)
ii. Accuracy: Computer performs all jobs with higher accuracy
and without any mistake
iii. Diligence:Computer never gets tired nor get bore bu doing same
task multiple times
iv. versatility:Computer has an ability to perform multiple task at a time
v. Highstorage: Computer have great and highest storage to store
data. once information stored in it, it never forgets.
vi. NoIQ:Since Computer is a machine that cannot take decision by
itself as it has no IQ
vii. Un-employment: Since computer is an automatic machine
and through which a huge amount of work can be done
through computer in minimum amount of time therefore Un-
employment ratio has been raised due to automation.

INPUT DEVICES:

All those devices that are designed to enter data (input) to the
computer are termed as input devices. These devices pass the
data from the user to the computer. Input devices convert
human understandable language into machine language. Three
basic types if Input devices are:

i. Text Entering Devices

ii. Pointing

Devices iii.
Scanning Devices

(i) Text Entering Devices

Keyboard: It is the most common text entering device
and used to enter data usually in text format or to perform
other controlling
 functions. it is an input devices that is so commonly used to
input or write different facts and figure into the computer system.
It is just like a typewriter.

CLASSIFICATION OF KEYS:
We can classify the keys of keyboard into the following
different categories
Numeric keypad
Alphanumeric
keypad Screen
Navigation keys
Functional keys
Modifier keys

NUMERICKEYPAD:
Numeric keypad is placed at the right hand side in a keyboard. It
consists of the mathematical digits and some other logical operators like +
-*/. A decimal point is also included in numeric keyboard.

ALPHANUMERICKEYPAD:
Alphanumeric keypad is placed in the mid of the keyboard. It consist on
A-Z English alphabets and 0-9 mathematical digits. This
keypad is so commonly to work on Microsoft office.

SCREENNAVIGATIONKEYS:
Screen navigation keys are used to highlight the different files and the
folders on the screen. It is commonly used in the absence of the
mouse.

FUNCTIONALKEYS:
Functional keys are placed at the top of the keyboard. It
consists of 12 different keys which are used for very special
purpose. The functions of every key is totally depend on the
software.
Like F1, F2, F3 F12

MODIFIERKEYS:
Modifier keys are used for the special purpose. Modifier keys are placed
adjacent to the alphanumeric keys. Modifier keys are used with
other keys to complete the desire actions.

(ii) Pointing Devices (Mouse and its variants)

They are used for the quick movement of cursor on

screen needed usually in graphic mode. It includes
mouse, joy stick, track ball and track pad.
 (iii) Image Scanners
Scanners convert image into electronic format
understandable by computers through light sensing. They
also work on Optical Recognition which occurs when a
device scans a clear
printed surface and translates the image into machine-
readable formats that a computer understands. Image
scanners include Optical Mark Recognition (OMR), Optical
Barcode Reader(OBR) and Optical Character
Recognition(OCR).

processing unit (CPU)

Central
The central processing unit (s) executes program instructions. You
can think of it as the computer brain. In a microcomputer,
the entire CPU is contained on a tiny chip called a
microprocessor, which is no larger than smallest fingernail.
The chip is mounted on a piece of plastic with metal leads
attached to it.

The CPU has two main components

2. The control unit
1. The arithmetic/logic unit.

The control Unit:

All the computers resources are managed from the control unit,
whose function is to coordinate all the computer’s
activities, you can think of the control unit as a traffic cop,
directing the flow of the data around the CPU and around the
computer.
Output Device
Input
B
u
s B
u
s

Arithmetic Logic units B Bus Control unit

uS B
uS

The Arithmetic/Logic Unit:

Mainencounters
When the control unit Memory or Random Access Memory
an instruction that involves
(RAM)
arithmetic or logic operation, it passes control to the second
component of the CPU,
the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). Arithmetic operations are, as you
might expect, the fundamental math operations: addition,
substation, multiplication, and division. Logical operations consists of
comparisons. That is,
two pieces of data are compared to see whether on is equal to(=),
less than (<), or greater than (>) the other. There are also
combinations, such as “greater
than or equal to”.
Q) What is BUS? Explain its types.
BUS: Bus is a set of wires that is used as a
communication path. A processor communicate its
input / output circuits and memory by using signals travel
along a set of wires or connections called bus that
connect the different components together. There
are three types of buses.
1) Address bus
2) Control bus
3) Data bus

ADDRESS BUS:
A collection of wires connecting the CPU or with man
memory that is used to identify particular locations (address) in
main memory where data is stored is called Address
bus.
The number of bits is the address bus can determine the
amount of memory the CPU can address. Example : Modern
PCs have as many as 36 address lines which enable them
theoretically to access 64 GB of main memory Address bus is a
UNI- DIRECTION.

CONTROL BUS:
It is physical connection that carries control information b/w the
CPU and other devices with in a computer. The control
bus carries signals that report the status
of various devices. Example: one line of the bus is used to indicate
whether the CPU is
current reading from a writing to main memory

DATA BUS:
It is communication route through which data can travel
computer’ b/w the memory and peripherals.
s Each wire transmits a single bit at a time, so 8 bits bus can travel
8 bits at a time. Similarly 16 bits bus can transfer
16 bits simultaneously and so on.

Ports:
Ports are connecting sockets on the outside of the system
unit. This allows you to plug in other devices, such as
monitor, keyboard, modem or printer.
 Ports are of several
types:
USB ports:
The USB (universal serial Bus) port is rapidly gaining
popularity for PCs, because the USB port allows 127 peripheral
devices to be
connected to the one general- purpose port (Fig. 1.29). USB
ports are useful for peripherals such as digital cameras,
digital speakers, scanners, high-speed
modems, and joysticks. The USB
port allows peripheral devices to be connected or disconnected even
while the PC is running’s.
OUTPUT DEVICES:
Output devices convert machine-readable information into
people- readable form.
Output takes two forms:

1. Softcopy: softcopy means the output is in a form that cannot

be physically touched. Softcopy output is best for information
that needs to be reviewed only occasionally or a few moments,
such as an airline’s departures and arrivals display. The
principal softcopy output devices are monitors and sound or
voice output devices.
2. Hardcopy: hardcopy means the output is in a form that can be
physically touched. Hardcopy output is best for information
that may be used later or that may have greater value over
time. The principal hardcopy output devices are printers,
plotters, and microfilm output devices.
The output devices we shall describe for computers are
monitors, printers, plotters, voice, and sound output devices.
Softcopy output devise are of three principal types:

1. Monitors.
2. Sound output devices

Monitors:
This is the most commonly used form of output device when a
permanent record is not required. A monitor is a television – like
device to display text and graphics from a computer. The
monitor is also referred as screen, video display terminal (VDT).
Console, and cathode-ray tube (CRT).
There are two main types of monitors.
1. Cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitor
2. Flat panel monitor.
The following chart shows these types and some common
verities of monitors included in these categories
 Monitor

Cathode-Ray Tube Monitor Flat panel Monitor

Color
Liquid Crystal display
Monochrom
SVGA
Paper-white
Electroluminescent
XGA
Amber
Gas-plasma display

Green SXGA
UXGA
Cathode-Ray Tube Monitors:
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is an output display device that
resembles a television screen.This is the type of monitor used with
microcomputers. CRTs contain an electron “gun” that fires a beam
of electrons. The inside of the front of the CRT screen is coated
with phosphor. When a beam
of electrons from the electron
gun hits the phosphor, it lights up tiny points of phosphor
for a short period of time. Each tiny point of light is called pixel (a
contraction of picture elements.)

Printer:
 A printer is basically an output device which prints a hard
copy of the electronic data that is stored in the
computer or any other devices. The electronic data may include
documents, text, images or even the
combination of all three. Particular printers are available for
printing particular data types.

Difference between Impact and Non-impact printer:

Impact Printer Non Impact Printer

Produces characters and A type of printer that

graphics on a piece of produces characters and
paper by striking it is graphics on a piece of
called impact printer. paper without striking
using LASER technology.

Electromechanical No electromechanical
devices are used device is used.

Faster speeds around Slower speeds around 1

250 words per second. page per 30 seconds.

Have banging noise of

needle on paper Works silently

Dot-matrix printer,
Daisy wheel printers, inkjet printers, photo
line printer are printers, laser printers are
examples . examples .

More expensive as
less compared to Impact printer
expensive

Produced low quality output

Higher quality
output
produced by
Non-impact
printer
 UNITS OF MEMORY:
Each byte is the combination of the eight small units called bits
(binary digit). Each bit is capable to store either 0 or 1. The smallest
unit of the memory is bit, but the smallest accessible unit is byte
because we can store single character of information in a byte not
in a bit. A group of four bits is called as nibble but memory of
computer is expressed in bytes.

Q) What is storage/ memory? Discuss its types.

STORAGE:
Storage/ memory is the place where data is kept- computer
storage is refer as the media that are used to store the data
and information for later use.

TYPES OF STORAGE:
There are two types of storage.
1) Primary storage (Internal memory)
2) Secondary storage (External memory)

PRIMARY STORAGE:
The set of chips that is located on mother board and reside in
the CPU generally known as internal memory.
Internal memory is faster than external memory. Internal memory is
also known as main memory or primary memory. Internal memory
is volatile memory except ROM. RAM and ROM are the types of
internal memory. Internal memory has less storage than external
memory.

EXTERNAL STORAGE:
All those storage devices that plugged into the CPU externally
to increase the storage of the system are known as external
memory. External memory is slower than internal
memory. External memory is also known as
secondary or auxiliary storage. External memory is non-volatile
(permanent) memory. Magnetic tape, hard disk and CD-ROM are
external storage devices.

NEEDS OF SECONDARY STORAGE

DEVICES:

1) AUXILIARY STORAGE DEVICES:

Primary storage is not sufficient to store a large volume of data
 therefore, auxiliary storage devices are need to store
2) them. BACK UP:
We can create the back up of our data in secondary
storage devices therefore they are known as back up
storage devices.
3) TRANSMISSION OF DATA:
Secondary storage are needed to transfer the data from
one device to another.
4) NON-VOLATILE:
Since the data stored in primary storage is volatile, so
secondary storage devices are needed to save data
permanently.

RAM:
RAM stands for random access memory. It is one of the types
of primary memory. That must be
requiring performing the operational activities. By the way of
increasing storage capacity of RAM the speed of computer can also
be increased. RAM is a volatile memory it means that
the data stored in RAM can be lost in the absence of electricity.

TYPES OF RAM:
The RAM can be classifying into two different types.
1. Dynamic RAM
2. Static RAM
.
ROM:
ROM stands for read only memory. That permits you only to read data.
It is a type of primary memory. That is permanent in
characteristics means ROM always retains the data it holds even
when the computer is turned off. That’s why it is called non-volatile
memory. It is a pre- programmed memory and it is
responsible to start up the computer and perform diagnostics. It
has special programs called firmware for this purpose stored in it.

There are several types of ROM.

1. PROM (Programmable read only memory)
2. EPROM (Erasable programmable read only memory)
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory)

Advantage and Disadvantages of Magnetic

Tape and Disk Storage:

Magnetic tape Magnetic disk

 1. Less expensive 1. Access to records
2. Ideal for sequential processing 2. Direct updating can be
3. Generally used for backup referred
3. Can add to existing disk

Magnetic Magnetic disk

tape

1. Updated requires new tape 1. More expensive

2. Slow access to records 2. Read write heads can crash
3. Not suitable for online and destroyed files
interactive processing
3. Separate backup
procedure required

SOFTWARE:
The instructions that tell a computer what to do is called a
software. Software comprises the entire set of programs,
procedures, and routines associated with the operation of a
computer system, the term was coined to
differentiate these instructions from hardware –i-e., the
physical components of computer system. As
set of instructions that directs a computer hardware to perform a
task is called a program or software program.

Types of software:
There are two types of software:
System Software
Application software

System software is a computer program that coordinates all

activities and functions of a computer. It also controls all
the operations of the computer hardware. these are the software
that starts operate automatically by power on the system. It
includes operating systems, device drivers, utility programs
and language translators.

(i) Operating System

Operating system is the master control program that
manages all the system resources. It creates an interface
between computer system and user. Windows and Linux
are commonly used operating systems.
Features of operating system:
Operating systems should have the following features:
 1. Efficiency, in terms of processor and resource utilization.
2. Reliability, it terms of being effort-free and handling all
possibilities in the execution
of job.
3. Maintainability, in terms of enhancing facilities,
modularity, correction of hugs etc.
4. Small size, in terms of the amount of memory and backing
store required.

Functions of operating system:

Operating systems performs the following functions:

i. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to
protect user data and similar other techniques. it also
prevents unauthorized access to programs and user
data.
ii. Error detecting aids –
Operating system constantly monitors the system to
detect errors and avoid the malfunctioning of computer
system.
iii. Coordination between other software and users –
Operating systems also coordinate and assign
interpreters,
compilers, assemblers and other software to the various
users of the computer systems

iv. Memory Management –

The operating system manages the Primary Memory or
Main Memory. Main memory is made up of a large array
of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a
certain address. It Allocates the memory to a process
when the process requests it and deallocates the memory
when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O
operation.

v. Link between User and system

operating system creates the link between user and
system and enables the user to have a control on all
I/O devices.

Environment of operating system:

i. Single User Single task Operating system (DOS)
ii. Single User Multi task Operating system (Windows 7)
iii. Multi User Multi task Operating system (Windows 2000, XP)

CLI
S.NO GUI
Stands for
1 Command Line Interface Graphical User
interface Commands
2 It is the interface in which Users dont type Commands as
user have to type they are saved in form of Icon
commands for any task
Environment
3 It is Single User single It is single user Multi task
task operating system operating system
User friendly
4 It is difficult to use It is user friendly
because of command because of graphics
Resources requirement
5 CLI does not require high GUI required much
graphics and other resources resources beacuse of
to operate Graphics
EXAMPLE
6 DOS is CLI based Operating Windows 7 is GUI based
system operating system
Difference between CLI and GUI

(ii) Device Drivers

 (iii) Utility Programs
(iv) LanguageTranslators
(a) Assembler: The assembler translates the program
written in assembly language into machine language
instructions for execution.
(b) Compiler: It translates the entire high-level
language program at once into machine language
before it is executed.
(c) Interpreter: It translates the high-level language
program line by line into machine language.

S.NO COMPILER INTERPRETER

DEFINITION
1 Type of translator that Type of translator that
translates program of High translates whole program of
level language into machine High level language into
language one statement at a machine language at once
SPEE time
D2 Interpreter is slower than Compiler
DEBU Compiler is faster than
G3 Interpreter It is easy to debug the
program in compiler for
It is difficult to debug the junior and beginner
program in compiler for junior
and beginner
SUITABLE
4 Compiler is suitable for Interpreter is suitable for
senior Beginner and juniors
OBJECT FILE
5 Complier creates separate Interpreter does not
file for object code create separate file for
EXAMPLE object code
6 C, FORTRAN etc are
examples of language BASIC is an example
having compiler having compiler
Q) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Compiler and Interpreter

ApplicationSoftware
Application Software is used to complete specific tasks, such as
creating documents, databases, spreadsheets and
presentations. Computer games, media players and web
browsers are also the examples of application software. User
needs to install application software to accomplish specific
tasks. Application software are not pre- installed on operating
system. They are installed separately. For example, making
spreadsheet is not possible with Windows. For
that application software such as MS Excel is used. There are
different types of application software.

i. Productivity Software
ii. Business Software
iii. Entertainment
Software iv.
Educational
Software
 TYPES OF COMPUTER:

Classification of Computers

Technology/ Type
of Data Siz Purpose
Handled e
Genera
Analog Super l
Comput Purpos
er e
Digita
Mainfram Special
e Purpos
l Compute e
r
Hybri Micro
Compute
r
d
Mini
Compute
r

There are three types of computer according to

technology: Analogue computer
Digital
computer
Hybrid
computer

ANALOGUE COMPUTER:
Analogue computers deals with continuously varying physical
quantities such as current, voltage, temperature e.t.c. They are
used for simulating or
monitoring and controlling continuous process in industry or
scientific research. The accuracy of data used in analogue
computer is directly related to the precision of its
measurements.
 DIGITAL COMPUTER:
Digital computers represent physical quantities with the help
of digits or numbers. These numbers are used to perform the
arithmetic calculations and also logical decision making to
reach to the conclusion depending on the information that was
collected from the user.

HYBRID COMPUER:
This type of computer combines the characteristics of the both
the analogue computer and the digital
computer. They have speed of analogue computer and the accuracy
of the digital computer and they are equipped with
the special conversion devices It utilizes the
analogue and discrete representation of data.

For example the speed of analogue computer and the memory and
accuracy of digital computer.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
ANALOGUEAND DIGITALCOMPUTER:
S.NO ANALOG COMPUTER DIGITAL COMPUTER
REPRESENTATION OF DATA
1 Analog computer represents dataDigital
Continuously
computer represents data discretely a

SIGNAL TYPE
2 Its signal type is continuously using
Its signal
electro
type
magnetic
is sequence
wave of voltage pulses

PURPOSE
3 They are special purpose computer
They are general purpose computer
SPEED
4 They are considered as faster computer
They are
but
slower
their than
output
Analog
is notcomputer
always correct
but th

TYPE OF COMPUTER ACCORDING TO THEIR SIZES:

According to the size of the computer is classified as follows
 1. Laptop computer
2. Micro computer
3. Mini computer
4. Super computer
5. Main frame computer

LAPTOP COMPUTER:
It is the smallest computer in size. It is just look like an office briefcase.
They are also called as portable computer. Due to their small size
and light weight they become popular among the
computer user. They are very useful for the businessman during the
travelling. A typical laptop computer have all the facilities just like
the micro computer. The most smallest laptop are called as

palmtop.

MICRO COMPUTER:
They are basically very small machines, low in price, easy to
operate and they are cheaper and there is no difficulty
in their maintenance. The CPU of the micro computer are called as
micro processor. The micro computer is also known as personal
computer because they are designed for the
personal use of individual at home or the school small business.
 MINI COMPUTER:
They are more powerful than micro computers. They are very
popular in multiuser or shared system. In which many user
can utilized the single computer by attaching terminals to it. The
mini computers may be best choice for medium organization. These
computers are used for the scientific and research work.

MAIN FRAME OR MACRO COMPUTER:

A computer that generally more than a typical mini is often called main
fram
e
 computer. Commonly main frame computer is connected with
more than one CPU or multiple computer are connected with
more than one CPU or multiple computer. The system software
link that computer together the main frame allows its user to run
different program at a time in various development of organization.
Such as worldwide airlines reservation system.

SUPER COMPUTER:
They are the most powerful and expensive computers. The calculation
needed in scientific research and development areas can be
managed without a super computer that is nuclear physics,
explosions, experimental oil field, satellite controlling. E.t.c.

According to Purpose
According to purpose, computers are either general
purpose or special purpose.
(a) General Purpose Computers
Most computers in use today are General Purpose
Computers. These computers can process variety of
tasks. These computers can
store and execute different programs in
their memory. Therefore, various tasks like word
processing (typing & editing), payrolls, accounts,
inventory
 control, manipulating facts in a database, making
scientific calculations and
statistical data analysis, and controlling
security system of an
organizations are achieved by these computers. Desktops,
laptops, tablets and smart phones are examples of General
Purpose Computers.

(b) Special Purpose Computers

As the name states, Special Purpose
Computers are designed to perform
specific tasks. Special Purpose Computers
repeatedly perform single job more efficiently.
They
are also known as Dedicated Computers.
These computers are useful in traffic lights control
system, navigational system, aviation, weather
forecasting, satellite tracking and ATMs.
 CHAPTER# 2
INFORMATION NETWORK
Computer Network and Networking
(i) Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computers and
related equipment connected by a
communication links to share data and other resources. The
related equipment may be printer,
scanners, fax machines, server, etc. The resources
may include a fileserver, internet connection etc.

(ii) Networking
Networking is the act of joining computers and its
accessories so that exchange of information and sharing
of resources take place. In today's world, networking
plays a vital role in computers and telecommunication fields.
Modern organizations create a
networking environment and device
connectivity for fast, inexpensive and reliable communication.

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be categorized by their size

as well as their purpose. The size of a network can
be expressed by the geographical area they occupy and
the number of computers that are part of the network.
Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within
a single room to millions of devices spread
across the entire
globe. There are three types of computer networks:
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Global Area Network (GAN)

(i) Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home and
office building. Useful resources like internet access, storage space
and printers can be shared through LAN. It can be built with
inexpensive hardware such as hubs, switches, network adapters and
network cables. Data and software are also shared through LAN.
(ii) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
In MAN, computer network can spread across an entire city, college
campus, or a small region. It can cover the area of several miles and
may include multiple small networks or LANs. MANs offer very fast
communication but they are expensive to establish. Therefore, only
large business organization or universities set up MAN. It also
requires security measures to prevent unauthorized access.

(iii) Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network is used for long distance transmission of data.
WAN helps to cover a larger geographical area and connect cities,
provinces or even countries. Using WAN technology, computers may
be linked together in different countries using satellites, microwaves
or telecommunication links.
Therefore, large business, research and educational organizations
situated at longer distances use WAN. A WAN may include multiple
MANs and LANS. WANs are set up with expensive devices and need
some dedicated connections

(iv)Global Area Network (GAN)

Global area network or Network of Network communicates with each
other by using the same standard (protocols) of communication. The
computer that make up these network are of different types.

Fundamentalof Topologies
The physical layout in which computers are connected is called
topology. The topology of network describes the way computers are
connected. Topology is a major design consideration for computer
networking.

STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

In star network topology each device is connected to a central unit
which is a computer containing the interface cards and software to
manage all data communication in this network. Any communication

between one device and

another goes through the central server.

EXAMPLE: If a user at any workstation wants to print out a

page, it sends that request to the central server. This central
server notifies that workstation when that task is complete.

ADVANTAGESOF STAR NETWORK:

 New terminals can be added to a network easily.
 There is no chance of data collision because central server
prevents collisions between messages.
 If a connection is broken between any communication
device and the central server, the rest of the devices on the
network will continue operating.

DISADVANTAGESOF STAR NETWORK:

 The network crucially depends on the central server. If the
central server fails, the entire network will stop.
 Star topology is expensive because a separate cable is
required for connecting each computer with the central
server.

RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY

In the ring network topology, multiple terminals and some
peripherals are connected into a ring-like structure. All
communication between the
 terminals follows a clockwise or anticlockwise pattern. The
message goes from terminal to terminal until the designated
device is reached. There is no central server.
ADVANTAGESOF RING NETWORK:
 In a ring network messages flow in only one direction.
Thus, there is no danger of collision.
 It is more reliable than a star network because
communication is not dependent on a single host
computer.

DISADVANTAGESOF RING NETWORK:

 If the ring is broken, the entire network stop working.
 It is difficult to trouble shoot the ring network.
 New terminals or computer cannot be added to
network easily. BUS NETWORK TOPLOGY:
In a bus network topology, each device is connected to a common cable.
Each component must have its own interface device, usually a
circuit board or card, which plugs into one of the expansion slots.
The card contains
the hardware and software necessary to access the network. All
communication takes place on the common cable or bus. The data
are sent down the bus and are available to all devices. There is no
central server.
ADVANTAGESOF BUS NETWORK:
 This type of network is simple and easy to understand.
 New terminals can be added to a network easily.
 If one of the terminals becomes defective it does not affect
on other computers of the network.
DISADVANTAGESOF BUS NETWORK:
 Extra circuitry and software are needed to avoid collisions between data.
 If an error arises in a network, it is not easy to detect.
 If a connection in the bus is broken, the entire network
may stop working.
Lan Models:
Regardless of the topology, LANs usually follow one of the two
models: client/server or peer – to- peer.

Client/Server Model:
A client/server model uses on e or more computers as servers, and
the other computers on the network are clients. The server is a
high-capacity, high- speed computer with a large hard disk
capacity. It contains the network operating system, the software
required to run the network. The server also contains network
versions of programs and large data files. Clients-all the computers
that can access the server – send requests to the server. Here are
some common services that clients request.
1. Storing and retrieving files on the server’s hard disk.
2. Running programs that are stored on the server’s hard disk.
3. Printing to a network printer.
The client/server model works with any size topology of LAN and
does not tend to slow down with heavy use.
Peer-to-peer model
The word peer denotes one who is equal in standing with another.
A peer-to- peer LAN is one in which all computers on the network
communicate directly with one another without relying on a server.
Peer-to-peer networks are less expensive than client/server
networks and work effetely for up to 25
computers. Beyond that they slow down under heavy use. They are
thus appropriate for networking in small groups.
Components of a LAN
In addition to computer, local area networks are made up of several
standard components.
1. Connection or cabling system. LANs do not use the telephone
network. Instead, they use some other cabling or connection
system, either wired or optic cable. Wireless connections may
be infrared, radio-wave transmission, Bluetooth, or WiFi
wireless network are especially useful if computers are
portable and are moved often.
2. Microcomputers with Network Interface Cards: Two or more
microcomputers are required, along with network interface
cards. A network interface card enables the computer to
send and receive messages over a cable. Network. They
network card can be inserted into an expansion slot in a PC.
Alternatively, a network card in a stand- alone box may serve
a number of devices.
3. Network Operating System: The network operating system is
the system software that manages the activity of a network.
The network operating system supports access by multiple
users and provides for recognition of users based on
passwords and terminal identification. Depending on
whether the LAN is client/server or peer-to-peer, the
operating system may be stored on the file server, on each
microcomputer on the network, or a combination of both.
Examples of popular network operating system software are
novel’s Netware, Microsoft’s Windows NT/2000, UNIX and Linux.
Peer-to-peer networking can also be accomplished with Microsoft
Windows 95/98/Me/XP or Microsoft Windows for Workgroups.
4. Other Shared Devices: printers, fax machines, Scanners,
storage devices, and other peripherals may be added to
the network as necessary and shared by all users.
Router, Bridges, and Gateways: In principle, a LAN may stand alone.
Today, however, it invariably connects to other networks, especially
the internet.
Network designers determine the types of hardware and software
necessary as interfaces to make these connections. Routers,
bridges, and gateways are used for this purpose.
 Chapter# 3
Data Communication
Communicationortelecommunicationsis the process of transmitting
and receiving data across a distance. The data transferred can be
voice, sound, images, video, text, or a combination thereof
(multimedia). It is also the study and application of computer
devices used to transmit and receive data. The three basic
elements of any communication system are:
1. A transmitter (source) which creates the message to be transmitted:
2. A medium through which message or the data is transmitted
from on location to another.
3. A receiver which receives the message.

DATA:
Data is a collection of raw facts and figures. Almost any kind of fact
or set of facts can become computer data: a letter to a friend, text
and pictures for a 200-page book, a budget, a colorful graph, or a
set of employee records.

Characteristics of Data
Transmission
1. Signal type
2. Transmission mode
3. Direction of transmission

Signal Type
Analogue and Digital signal
Data is transmitted by two types of signals, each requiring different kinds of
communication technology. The two types of signals are analogue and digital.

Analogue signals:
Analogue data signals are in the form of continuously varying
waveforms which may be periodic or non-periodic. There are two
factors that govern the characteristics of an analogue signals.
1. Amplitude: Amplitude is the height of a wave on one side of
the equilibrium position. Amplitude is actually the strength or
volume—the loudness of a single. A soft voice has low
amplitude. The amplitude is measured in volts.
2. Frequency: Frequency is the number of times a wave repeats
in a second. Frequency is measure in hertz (Hz) or cycles per
second (c/s). Most telephone lines currently carry an analogue
signal because they are designed to carry voice.

Digitalsignals:
A digital signal uses on/off present/absent electrical pluses in
discrete rather than a continuous waveform. This two-state kind of
signal works perfectly in representing the two-state binary language
of Os and Is that computer use (see Fig. 3.3).
Transmission Modes:
Asynchronous and Synchronous
Data may be sent by asynchronous or synchronous transmission.

Asynchronous Transmission:
In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time. Each
byte (which consists of 8 bits is preceded by a “start” bit and a
“stop” bit. In effect, each byte is wrapped in its own “electronic
envelope’. Asynchronous transmission is inexpensive and so is
widely used with microcomputers. However, it is also relatively slow.

Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, blocks or “packets” of several bytes at
a time are transmitted without “start” or “stop” bits. Header and
trailer bits are inserted at the beginnings and ends of blocks.
Synchronous transmission is used by large computers to transmit
great volumes of data at high speed.

Direction of Transmission
Another characteristic of data transmission is direction. Data is sent
in one direction, or it is sent in two directions in two types of ways.
These three types of transmission are called simplex, half-duplex,
and full-duplex.

Simplex transmission:
In simplex transmission, data is transmitted only in one direction.
Device connected to such a circuit is either a send-only or a receive-
only device.

Half-duplex Transmission
In half-duplex transmission, data communication is two-way, but
the data travels in only one direction at a time.

Full-Duplex Transmission
In full-duplex transmission, data is transmitted in both directions
simultaneously. This method resembles two trains passing in
opposite directions on side-by-side tracks.
Data communication speed and media:
The data-handling capacity of a media is referred to as its band
wish. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that is available for the
transmission of data. Types of bandwidth are:
1. Narrowband: these media communicate data with relatively
slow speed. Example are telegraph lines.
2. Voice band: these media are faster than narrowband. Most
telephone lines which are used to carry microcomputer
transmission, are voice band.
3. Broadband (also called wideband): these media transmit large
volumes of data at high, speed via microwave, satellite, coaxial
cable, and fiber optic cable.
Communication media refers to the medium through which
data transmission from transmitter to the receiver takes place.
The most common media for data communication are twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, microwave, and
satellite.

Advantages and disadvantages of Fiber optic cable:

SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE ARE:
1. Fiber optics transmits data faster than some technologies.
2. Since the fiber optics carries light pulses, it is not affected
by random electromagnetic interference in the environment.
3. The transmission losses in fiber optics are much lower than
that of the twisted-pair wires and coaxial cables.

SOME DISADVANTAGES OF THE FIBER OPTIC CABLE ARE:

1. All fiber optic cables are limited to fixed point-to-point
ground installations. They cannot leave the ground nor be
associated with a
 mobile communication station.
2. Popular light-emitting sources are restricted to very low power
devices. There are high-power devices available, but they are
very expensive.
3. The ways in which the light source can be modulated are limited.

ISO'sOSIModel
The Open Systems Interconnection model is a conceptual model
developed by ISO. It characterizes and standardizes the
communication functions of a telecommunication and computing
network.
This model divides a communication system into seven abstraction layers.

S.no Layer Function

1 Application This layer enables users to access the network with le trans

2 Presentation
It receives information from the application
layer and converts it to uniform network
format (ASCII or Unicode) which is
 and destination. Encryption and decryption are
also
the responsibility of this layer. This layer
also reduces number of transfer bits by
compression.
3 Session This layer establishes, maintains and ends a
session or logical connection between
applications on two computers. It manages
who can transmit data at a certain time and for
how long. This layer adds
checkpoints. If session fails only data after the
most recent checkpoint need to be
transmitted.
4 Transpor It ensures the reliable transmission of data.
t Transport ow control and quality oflayer
manages error control, the service. If the data
is not properly
transmitted it requests to resend
5 Network The function of this layer is the selection of the
shortest and suitable path from source to
destination, from the number of routes
available. It is
also responsible to convert logical
address (IP address) to physical address
(MAC address).
6 Data This layer is responsible to transmit data using
Link physical addresses. Data Link Layer ensures
error free transmission of packets. Packet in
this layer is
referred as Frame
7 Physical It is responsible for converting electrical
signals into bits. nes the cable types to be used
as transmissionIt also de media, cards,
topology and other physical
aspects
Chapter #4
BooleanAlgebra
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
The term Boolean algebra is a convenient and systematic way of
expressing and analyzing the operations of logical circuits.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA TERMS:

There are the following terms that are used in the Boolean algebra.

BOOLEAN CONSTANT:
Boolean algebra uses binary values o and 1 as Boolean constants.

BOOLEAN VARIABLE:
The variable used in the Boolean algebra are represented by letters such
as A, B, C, x, y , z with each variable having one of two and only two
distinct possible values 1 and 0.

BOOLEAN COMPLEMENT:
The complement is the inverse of a variable and it is indicated by a bar
over the variable.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS:
Boolean expression is an arrangement of different variable and logical
operators used to express the operation of logic circuit.
Examples:
̅
AB + A C + ABC

AC + ABC + AB
Whereas A, B, C, D are the variables and the + sign is the logical operator.

TRUTH TABLE:
The truth table is a systematic listing of the values for the dependent
variable in terms of all the possible values of independent variable. It can
also be defined as a table representing the condition of input and output
circuit involving two or more variable.

A B A+ B+
B A
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

LOGICAL OPERATORS:
Following are the different logical operators which are used in Boolean functions.
1. OR
2. AND
3. NOT

OR OPERATOR:
OR operator is represented by the + sign. It is used for the logical addition
or the Boolean sum. The + symbol or the OP operation is used by listing
all possible combinations of for example A and B and the resulting value C
in the equation.

OR
Gate
A B A+ B+
B A
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

AND OPERATOR:
AND operator is represented by a “.” sign. It is used for the logical
multiplication. Example:
AND
Gate
A B A.B B.A
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1

NOT operator:
NOT operator is represented by (-) sign. It is used for the logical
inverse. Example If A and B are the variables.
Then
NOT
Gate
A ̅
A
0 1
1 0

DEMORGAN’S THEOREM:
De-morgan is a mathematician who introduce two different important
terms. That becomes the important part of the Boolean algebra. They help
in simplifying the complicated logical expressions.
The Demorgan’s theorems are:

i. Complement of sum of variables is always equal to the product of complement of va

 ̅ ̅ ̅
A+B = A . B

̅ ̅ ̅
A+B = A . B
A B ̅ ̅ A+B ̅ ̅ ̅
A B A+B A.B
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
ii. Co mp ement of product of
of variables
l variabl
es is ways
al equal
to the sum of
complement
̅ ̅ ̅
A.B = A + B
̅ ̅ ̅
A.B = A + B
A B ̅ ̅ A.B ̅ ̅ ̅
A B A.B A+B
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
LAW OF 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
Following are three different basic laws of the Boolean algebra.
i. Commutative law
ii. Associative law
iii. Distributive law

COMMUTATIVE LAW:
The commutative law states thattheorderinwhichthevariableareANDedorORed
makesnodifference.
The commutative law of addition and multiplication are as under.
For examples
a. A+B=B+A
b. A.B=B.A
ASSOCIATIVE
LAW:
The associative law states that theadditionandmultiplicationofmorethantwo variablesmakessameresultregardlessofthegroup

For example
a. A+ (B+C) = (A+B) +C
b. A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW:
This law states that the ANDing of two variables and then ORing the result
with a variable will result in the same value as ANDing of ORed of the
variable with individual variables
 A(B+C) =
AB+AC RULES OF ALGEBRA:
BOOLEAN RULE NO
1:
A+0=A
A variable ORed with 0 is always equal to the
variable. Proof
RULE NO 2:
A variable ORed with 1 is always
equal to 1 RULE NO 3:
A.0=0
A variable ANDed with 0 is always
equal to 0. RULE NO 4:
A.1=A
A variable ANDed with 1 always equal to the
variable RULE NO 5:
A+A=A
A variable ORed with itself is always equal to the
variable. RULE NO 6:
A.A=A
A variable ANDed with itself is always equal to the
variable. RULE NO 7:
̅
A+ A = 1
A variable ORed with its complement is always equal to
11 RULES NO 8:
̅
A. A = 0
A variable ANDed with its complement is always equal
to 0 RULE NO 9:
̿
A =A
The double complement of a variable is always equal to the
variable. RULE NO 10:
A+A.B=A
This rule can be proved by applying the
distributive law. RULE NO 11:
̅
A + A .B = A + B
RULE NO 12:
(A+B).(A+C) = A +
[HINT]:Prove Rules 10--- B.C
12 by Boolean Technique TruthTable.
and

KARNAUGH MAPS:
The Karnaugh map is a type of map that provides the systematic method
to simplify the Boolean expressions and if properly used will produce the
simplest SOP or POS possible expression.
There are two main standard forms of the Boolean
expression. The Sum of Product (SOP)
The Product of sum (POS)

THE SUM OF PRODUCT:

When the two or more variables are ANDed (multiplied) then two products
terms are ORed (summed) by addition, the resulting expression
sum ofisproduct.
termed
as
Eg: AB +CD

THE PRODUCT OF SUM:

When the two or more variables are ORed (added) then two added terms
are ANDed multiplied) , the resulting expression is termed as Product of
Sum.
Eg: (A+B ). (C+D)

Variants of K-Map
i. 2 Variables
ii. 3 Variables
iii. 4 Variable

2 Variables

3 Variables

4 Variables
Chapter # 5
Components of a Digital Computer
Despite the difference in performance among various types, a digital
computer can be broadly classified as a collection of four basic units. These
are:
Input unit
Output unit
Central processing unit (CPU)
Memory unit
Ablockdiagramrepresentationofaboveisshownin

Input units: the input unit provides an interface between the users and the
machine, for inputting data and instructions etc. one of the most common
examples is the keyboard. Data can be input in many more forms audio,
visual, graphical etc.

Output units: like the input, the output unit also provides an interface
between the user and the machine. A common example is the monitor of
a personal computer. The output unit receives the data from the central
processing unit in the form of binary bits. This is then converted into a
desired form (graphical, audio, visual etc.) understandable by the user.

Central processing unit (CPU): the central processing unit is the brain of
the computer system. It has two principal sections: an arithmetic/logic
unit and a control unit. If also contains several registers and a network of
buses connecting various components. The CPU works closely with
memory unit carryout processing.

MEMORY UNIT: Memory also called main memory, RAM, primary or internal
storage holds.
1. Programs and data passed to the computer system for processing.
2. Intermediate processing results.
3. Output ready for transmission to a secondary-storage or output device.
Addressing of Memory Locations:
The computer has to keep track of all the information stored in its
memory so that it is able to recall the information correctly as and when
required. To understand the procedure of storing and retrieval of
information by a computer, the memory unit may be considered as made
of small compartments, usually called cells of memory locations. In each
of these locations, a computer work (representing a data or an instruction)
can be stored.
Thus, a memory location can hold a data or an instruction. Each of these
locations is assigned a particular number called its address. For example,
if a computer has a memory of 64 K words then this memory unit have
64x1024 = 65,536 memory locations. Each location is storing a computer
word.
These memory locations can be addressed, the addresses varying from 0
to 65, 535, the starting address being taken as zero.

Computer Register:
A register is a temporary storage device which holds data (or an
instruction) as long as it is being manipulated or being interpreted). Each
register with in the CPU performs a specific roles.

General purpose Registers:

Following are the General Purpose Registers:

Accumulator (AC)
This register is generally referred to as Register AC. It is used for storing
data and for doing arithmetic and logic operations. The result of an
arithmetic or logical operation is automatically stored in this register.

Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

This register is also known as the memory data register (MDR). It is used
to hold a word (i.e. a date value) that is being stored to or retrieved from
the memory location currently addressed by the Memory Address
Register.

Memory Address Register (MAR)

This register holds the address of a memory location of the word to be
written from or read into the MBR.

INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR)

This is very important Register. It holds the actual instruction being
executed currently by the computer.

PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)

This is a register which deals with the order for execution of instructions
this acts like a pointer which indicates the subsequent memory location
where instruction is stored. After one instruction is executed, the program
counter gets incremented by one to indicate the location of the next
instruction in the serial order.
SIZES OF CPU REGISTERS:
Since Accumulator (AC), Memory Buffer Register (MBR). Instruction
Register (IR) and Temporary Register (TR) hold data, these registers
should be of 16bits because each word consist of 16 bits.
Memory Address Register (MAR) and program center (PC) store addresses
of memory words. Therefore, MAR and PC registers are of 12 bits each
because was need to store 4096 addressed and this is possible with a 12-
bit register, as 212 = 4096. Thus, 12 bits would form 4096 different
combinations.
INPR and OUTR (input and output registers) are taken to be of 8 bits each.
They are supposed to transfer 8 bits at time to the memory of two other
registers or two output devices.

INSTRUCTIONS:
An instruction is an order for the computer to perform a certain specified
operation. It may be an order for computer to read a data item from an
input unit or write a data item through an output unit. On the other hand
an instruction may specify an arithmetic operation such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division of two
numbers. Other instructions data internally within the computer. A final
group of instruction is used to compare data and based on these
comparisons computer is capable of taking decisions.

Before a computer is able to execute an instruction, it must be stored in

the main memory of the computer. Even if an instruction is held in the
external memory, it has to be brought to the main memory before
execution.

Components of a computer instruction:

An instruction in machine language consists of two parts, namely:
1. Operation code, abbreviated to opcode.
2. Address of Addresses of one or more memory locations.

1. OPERATION CODE (Op-Code)

The operation code of an instruction consists of a computer of a group
of bits that define certain arithmetic or some other operations, such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, shifting or
complementation. The number of bits required for an operation code
depends upon the total number of operations
to be performed by the computer. If the operation code has a bit then
the computer is capable of performing 2 n distinct operations. For
examples, if 16 distinct operations are to be performed by a
computer then the opcode must
(as 24 = 16)
have at least 4 bits

2. ADDRESS
The operations code of an instruction specifies the operation to be
performed. Since the operation is to be performed on data or on a set
of data, the instruction must also tell where the data is stored. The
data may be stored in a register or in a memory location. The data on
which the operation to be formed is called an operation.
A computer instruction contains the following information.
1. Operation to be performed.
2. Address or addresses of memory locations containing the operand
or operands.
3. Address of the register or memory location which is to store the result.

INSTRUCTION FORMATS
The types of commonly used instructions are:
1. Three-Address instruction.
2. Two-address instruction.
3. One-Address instruction.
4. Zero-Address instruction.

Three-AddressInstruction

Address 3
Opcode Address 1 Address 2
(destinatio
n
Address)

A three-address instruction consists of the following

parts:
a. Operation code.
b. Addresses of two operands, called Address 1 and Address 2.
c. Address of the memory location where the result of the operation is
to be stored i.e. address of the destination.
A three-address instruction to add two numbers, specifies the operation
code for addition, addresses of two numbers (operands) to be added,
address of the memory location where the result of addition of two
numbers is to be stored, usually called address of the destination.

DisadvantagesofThree-AddressInstruction:
Certain disadvantages of three-address instruction are:
1. The execution of these instructions is very slow because the CPU
has to access three addresses which consumes a lot of valuable
time of CPU.
2. The available memory of the system is reduced considerably
because more storage locations are needed by each of these
instructions.
3. Some of the instructions may not require address of operand and
also that of destination. For example STOP does not require any
address.

TWO-ADDRESS INSTRUCTION
An improvement over three address instructions was achieved by using
tow-address instructions. In this type of instruction, one operand is placed
in a specified register such as an accumulator and the address of the next
instruction is obtained from another register called program counter (PC).
This implies that such an instruction should have the following parts:
a. Operation code.
b. Address of one of the operands, say Address 1
c. Address of the storage location where the result is to be stored. This address
 general form of a two-address instruction is:

Opcode Address 1 Address 2

One-Address Instruction
The efforts to simplify the instructions continued which resulted in
development of single address instructions. As the name suggests, this
instruction has address of
one operand only, the other operand is stored in Accumulator. The results
of operation are left in the Accumulator itself, from where these can be
moved to main memory by another instruction. The address of the next
instruction is obtained from the program counter as is the case with the
three or two-address instructions. The general form of a one-address
instruction is:

Opcode Address 1

Zero-Address Instruction
Finally zero-address instruction were developed. These zero-address
instructions are also called stack instructions and consist of opcode only.
The addresses of operand and destination are implied. The general form a
of zero-address instruction is

Opcode

For example instruction clear accumulator is a 0 address instruction. Here

the instruction itself specifies that the operation “clear” is to be performed
on Accumulator.

Stack organized CPU

Stack may be a finite number of registers bundled together or stack can
also be a part of memory unit. An address register is associated with
stacks. This address register called stack pointer contains the address of
the recently stored element. Remember that this is the element which will
be first retrieved. Stack pointer always points to the topmost element in
the stack.

HOW PUSH AND POP FUNCTIONS ARE PERFORMED IN STACK?

Special terminology is used for two basic operations associated with stacks:
1. ‘Push’ is the term used for inserting an element into a stack and is
done by incrementing the stack pointer.
2. ‘Pop’ is the term use for removing an element from a stack and is
done by decrementing the stack pointer.
Reverse Polish Notation or Postfix Notation.
The manner of writing arithmetic expressions with each operator written
in between the operands is called the infix notation. For example.
A+B C-D E*F G/H
With this notation, we must distinguish between
(A+B) * C and A + (B * C)
by using either parentheses or some operator-precedence convention.
Polish notation, named after the polish mathematician Jan Lukasiewicz,
refers to the notation in which the operator symbol is placed before its
two operands. This notation is also called prefix notation. For example
+AB - CD * EF/GH
The fundamental advantage of polish notation is that one never needs
parentheses when writing expressions.
Reverse polish notation refers to the analogues notation in which the
operator symbol is placed after its tow operands. This notation is also
called postfix notation. For example.
AB + CD - EF * GH/.
The computer usually evaluates an arithmetic expression written in infix
notation in two steps. First, it converts the expression to postfix notation,
and then it evaluates the postfix expression. For example an expression
using infix notation is 5 + 4 * 3/1 The same expression in postfix notation
will be as follows:
Example:
Convert the following expressions into revers polish notation:
1. A * B + C * D + E * F [answer:AB * CD * EF * ++1
2. A * B +
A * (B * D+ C * E) [answer:BD * CE * +AAB * +]
3. A + B * C * D + E * [answer:FG
+ E * CD * +B * A + ]
(F+G)
A+[B+C*(D+E)] [solvebyyourself]
4. F*(G+
H)

Fetch Cycle:
The fetch cycle is that duration of time in which an instruction stored in
the memory is brought to an appropriate register, all the happening under
the commands from control unit of the CPU. The process of bringing an
instruction from memory to a register is called a fetch cycle and has to be
completed in a specified duration of time.

Execute Cycle:
The process of execution of an instruction by the CPU in a specified interval of time
is called execute cycle. The instruction fetched from memory in placed in
a register where it is decoded and executed by ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
in this execute cycle.
The CPU when fetching an instruction is said to be in fetch stage.
Chapter
06 SECURITY,COPYRIGHTAND THE LAW
Computer Crime:
Computer crime is often defined as any crime accomplished through
knowledge or use of computer technology. Although the types of
computer- related crimes are numerous and widespread, a few
categories of online criminal activity continue to attract the most
attention and affect the most people.
Those activities include the
Softwarepiracy, theftofhardware, theftoftimeandservices, hackingand
electronictrespassingandthespreadingofcomputerviruses.

Software piracy:
Software piracy is the illegal duplication of copyright software. Millions of
computer users have made copies of programs they don’t legally
down in most cases, copying software is as easy as duplicating a
cassette tape or photocopying a book. Software pirates give up the
right to receive upgrades and technical support, but they gain the
sue of the program without paying for it.

Theft of hardware:
The appearance of small, lightweight microcomputers and laptops throughout
organizations greatly simplified this type of theft. Professional
criminals can steal a laptop or cellular phone from someone’s car.
They can also steal shipment of microprocessor chips off a loading
dock.

Theft of Time and Services:

The theft of computer time is more common than you might think. Probably
the biggest use of it is people using their employer’s computer time
to play games. Some people also may run sideline businesses.

Hacking:
Hacker can be a person who has in-depth knowledge of computer systems,
networks, and programs. Hacker may be someone who uses his or
her extensive skills to identify and overcome a network loophole.
Hackers constantly seek further knowledge and freely share what
they have discovered, but hackers can also help us to improve the
data and network security.
Government and business organizations are now hiring ethical
hackers, also known as white hat hackers, to prevent data theft.

Computer Viruses:
A computer viruses is a program designed to alter or destroy the
data stored on a computer system. Computer viruses can be passed
from one computer to another on floppy disks, over networks, and
over remote modern connections.

Worm:
A worm is a program whose purpose is to duplicate itself. An
effective worm will fill entire disks with copies of itself.

Trojanhorse:
‘A Trojan horse refers to illegal instructions covertly placed in the middle
of a useful program. The program does do something useful
but also, via the Trojan horse instructions, does something
destructive in the background.

TimeBombs:
Time bombs and logic bombs are designed to sit harmlessly on a
system until a certain event or data causes the program to
become active.

Fileinfectors:
Most viruses are file infectors that speared from program to program
and do damage to files (such as EXE or COM files), data, and directories.

ANTI VIRUS:
Anti Virus is a type of software that is used to remove the virus program
from the disk. Anti virus software have been developed to get
rid of the computer virus that can destroy the valuable
data and causes the computer to malfunction. Some of the anti
virus programs are Norton anti virus MacAfee PC clean AVG
 Past papers questions
Q.1 Define Search engine?
i)SEARCH ENGINE: search A engine is an engine which contains information
and detail of different field of world. It is a complete database of what is on the
web because the database is compiled automatically. A search engine uses
software agents, sometimes called spiders or software robots to explore the web
to retrieve information and add it to the database. To find information with
search engine, user type a query using keywords.
Example: Alta vista, Hot bot, Google.
ii) MODEM: The Modem is the device that is used to convert digital data
into analog and vice versa. The simplest form of data transmission involve the
connection of terminal to a computer via telephone line. Computer generates
data in digital signals while telephone line uses analog signal, therefore, there is
a need to convert digital signals into analog form the technique by which a data
signal can convert into analog signal is called Modulation, while reverse process
is called De-modulation.
& TYPES:
iii) R ITS Rom stands for Read Only Memory. It is built in computer
OM
memory containing data that normally can be read only. It is also called Non-
volatile memory that its data is not lost when computer power is turned off.
TYPES:
i. PROM
ii. EPROM
iii. EEPROM

Q.2 Main steps of system development?

i) PROJECT PLANNING: It establishes a high-level view of project determine its goals.
ii) ANALYSIS: SYSTEM It defines the operation of an application. It also analysis
the
requirements of project & end-user information need.
iii) SYSTEM DESIGN: It describe features & operation in detail.
iv) IMPLEMENTATION: Code is written in this phase.
v) TESTING: Testing of error & bugs occur in this step.
vi)DEPLOYMENT: In this step, software is put into production & runs actual business.
vii)MAINTENANCE: In this phase, all changes, correction & modifications in system occur.

Q.3 Define social media? Give uses and disadvantages?

SOCIAL MEDIA:
Social media are web-based service that allow people to construct a public or somewhat
public profile. It does not only allow people to meet & communication but also
let user to organize & visible their social network.
USES:
i. Allow employee to discuss ideas, ask questions & share links
ii. Improves business reputation with minimal use advertising.
DISADVANTAGES:
i. Students waste their precious hours by using useless activities.
ii. Opens up possibility for hackers to commit fraud and virus attacks.

Q.4 Define IT and its types?

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(IT):
The process to use the hardware, software and services to manage and deliver /
transfer information using voice data and video is called information technology
(IT).
FIELDS OF IT:
i. ART: Artist use PC (personal computer) to generate and manipulate
experimental images.
ii. ENERGY: Energy companies use PC to locate oil, coal and natural gas.
iii. AGRICULTURE:Farmers uses PC to help billing.

Hardcopy and Softcopy?

Q.5 Difference between
HARDCOPY SOFTCOPY
i. Printed form of document in I. The output display on screen
paper is
is known as Hardcopy. known as Softcopy.
ii. Devices that produces hardcopy II. Devices that produces
are softcopies
printer, plotter etc. are speaker, monitor etc.
iii. Softcopy is useful and best for III. Hardcopy output is best for
information that need to be information that may be used
viewed only occasionally or a later or that may have greater
few moments. value over
time.
iv. Example books , newspaper etc. IV. Example songs play on the
screen.
Q.6 Define peripheral devices?
PERIPHERAL DEVICES:
All devices that are separate from CPU or in CPU house but are electronically
connected and controlled by it. It includes a wide variety of input and output
equipment. Initially peripheral devices designed for large computer systems and
used to provide input and output facilities for small computers.
Example: keyboard, mouse, printer, CD etc.
language and package?
Q.7 Difference between
LANGUAGE PACKAGE
1. Programming language is a set 1) Some application programs are
of written symbols that instruct developed for different utilities
computer to perform specific of work raging from commercial
task. to specific purpose is called
software
package.
2. Languages are used to develop 2) Software packages are ready
new mode
software. software.
3. Language must have to be 3) There is no need to translate
translated
Q.8 Difference into machine
between the
system and application software?
language before execution. software because these
are programs
SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE
i. All those software that are used I. All those software that are used
by by
system are system software. user are application software.
ii. These are used to control II. These software direct to
internal functioning. the computer to
execute commands
given by the user.
 iii. It is used to control the order III. These are used to apply
in the computer to real
which jobs are undertake and world user task.
make computer process
efficiently.
iv. Example operating system (OS), IV. Example MS-Office , paint.
language translator.

Q.9 What are scanning devices? Name some backup storage devices?
SCANNING DEVICES:
Scanning devices are light sensitive equipment to record data in the form of barcode, optical
marks or ever just plain text of graphics. This data is then converted into
electronic form that can be processed by computer.
BACKUP STORAGE DEVICES: floppy disk, CD, USB, hard disk.

Q.10 Define fibre optic cable? Writes its advantages?

FIBRE OPTIC CABLE:
fibre optic technology used light pulses to send data instead of using electricity. Each “ON”
pulse represent one bit. The cables are made of glass fibres, each thinner than a
human hair that can guide light for kilometers.
ADVANTAGESOF FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
i. Fibre optic cable transmits data faster than other technologies.
ii. There is no chance of spark flash by making this system safer.
iii. The transmission losses in fibre optics are much lower that of the
twisted fair wires and coaxial wires and cable.
iv. Since fibre optics carries light pulses. It is not effected by random
electromagnetic interference in the environment.

Define Modulation and De-modulation? Answer. (SameasModem)

What are theTypes of scanning devices?
TYPES OF SCANNING DEVICES
1. BAR-CODE READER: A bar code is data represented in the parallel lines of a universal
coding scheme. Bar code are read by bar-code reader. This device used to
read bar- code by means of reflected light. Two types of bar-code reader
are hand held and stationery.
USES:They are used on food products, cosmetics, and magnesium to
represent pricing and other data.
2. MARK AND CHARACTER READER: Mark and character reader input devices
uses a light source to read special marks or character and convert the
data to aprocessable form. These include.
i. Optical-mark recognition
ii. Optical-character recognition.
USES: These devices are used in bank cheques and in educational institute.
3. FAX-MACHINE: Fax-machine is a specialized scanner that sends or
receives documents images over a telephone line. Fax-machine may be of
two sorts.
i. Dedicated fax-machine
ii. Computers wilt Fax-machine.
 Q.13 Define secondary memory with its types?
SECONDARY MEMORY:
secondary memory or storage can store a bulk of information permanently and
lies outside the CPU. Hence it can store a large amount of data. It is non-volatile
memory. These storage are also used for the purpose of Backup.
TYPES OF SECONDARY STORAGE
DEVICE:
i. MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES: In these devices the stored data are
accessed randomly. These are faster than topic.
example:floppy disk and hard disk.
ii. MAGNETIC TAPE:The data stored in magnetic tape are access sequentially
as in the order they saved to sequentially access they are slower than
magnetic disk
example: Tape.
iii. OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES: Optical storage techniques uses laser beam
to write and read data which consist of graphics, audio or video. In optical
storage, a big power of laser beam is used to represent data by burning
tiny particles into the surface.
example: CDs and CD-ROM.

Q.14 Advantages to create network?

NETWORK:
The system that provides links between two or more computer is called Network.

ADVANTAGES:
i. Sharing of Data: Network enables user to share files with others.
ii. Centralized Data: different departments of an organization may be
separated physically, but their data can be stored on central computer by
network which is accessed by computers located in different departments.
iii. Sharing of Equipment: Network also enables users to share equipment like
printers and large hard disk.
iv. Improves communications: it also improves communications speed and accuracy.

Q.15 Define Network Protocol?

NETWORK PROTOCOL:
set of rules that established to govern the way data in a computer network are transmitted is
called Network protocol. It describes how data are transmitted in a computer
network. It also specifies how devices will physically connect to a network, how
data will be packages and how receiver devices wil acknowledge signals from
sender devices for data transmission.
Groups that are working to establish standard protocol are SNA (System Network
Architecture ), ISO (International standard organization), ISDN (Integrated service
Digital Network ).
FTP(File Transfer Protocol):
Is a protocol used to download a file or document from the internet on
request of clients. HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):
Is a protocol that tells computer to tell how to communicate with each other.
Q.16 Function of spreadsheet (Excel) and Word processor (Word)?
SPREADSHEET:
1. TABULAR FORM:spread sheet program are used to manipulate data in tabular form.
 2. ROWS AND COLUMS: It organizes data clearly into rows and colums.
3. SORTING: To sort the data in spreadsheet is very easy.
4. USER: User can use built in function as formulas and can also draw the
graph and chart in spreadsheet program.
WORD PROCESSOR:
1. SAVING OF TIME: It saves to spend a lot of time in typing and revising documents.
2. WORD WRAP:Word Wrap features is also available in word processor
package that automatically wrap text from the end of one line to the
beginning of next line.
3. COPY AND PASTE: Copy/move and paste feature enable user to copy and
move text from one place in a document to another. This makes re-
arranging the text easy.
4. DRAG AND DROP: Drag and Drop features is also available in word
processor. It enables a user to drag any text by using mouse and drop to
the new place in the documents.

Q.17 what is Data processing cycle?

Ans: data processing cycle is a set of operations used to transform data into
useful information. This cycle consists of series of steps where raw data (input) is
fed into a process (CPU) do produce actionable insights (output) each step is
taken in a specific order manner.
Datainput→process→Informationoutput

Cache
A component in the computer that stores dataRAMso that future requests for that data can be serv
Faster A form of computer data storage
Expensive
that stores data and machine
Capacity is lower
code currently being used
Holds frequently used data by the
 Not as fast
 Not as expensive
 Capacity is higher
WORD PROCESSOR SPREAD Holds programs and data that
 SHEET
i. It is computerized type writer i. It isare
a program used to
Q.19 Difference between word processor and
used spreadsheet?
manipulate
to create different writer data in tabular form.
documents.
ii. It is used to enter, store, modify, ii. We can implement calculation
format, copy and print text. function in spreadsheet program.
iii. They are used to create letters, iii. It is used to create financial
memos, proposals, term papers report, salary sheet, Mark sheet,
and and documents
documents like this. like this.
iv. Example: MS-WORD, Word iv. Example: MS-EXCEL, super calc.
prefect.
Q.18 Define the term word.
Ans: like a byte, computer word is also a combination of fixed number of bits, it
is another basic unit of memory. It is similar to a byte moreover a computer
word is fixed for each computer and varies from computer to computer.
Computer stores information in the form of word known as word length.

ABBREVIATIONS FULL FORMS

1. PC Personal computers
2. IT Information technology
3. PDA Personal Digital Assistant
4. GUI Graphical User Interface
5. CLI Command Line Interface
6. CAD Computer Aided Design
7. DOS Disk operating system
8. OS Operating system
9. CPU Central processing unit
10. SU System unit
11. ALU Arithmetic and logic unit
12. RAM Random access memory
13. ROM Read only memory
14. ASCII American Standard Code For Information
Interchange
15. EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
16. PS Power supply
17. AC Analogue current
18. DC Digital current
19. UPS Uninterrupted power supply
20. DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
21. SRAM Static Random Access Memory
22. EDORAM Extended Data Out Random Access Memory
23. VRAM Video Random Access Memory
24. SIMM Single-Inline Memory Module
25. DIMM Double-Inline Memory Module
26. PCI Peripheral Component Interface
27. ISA Industry Standard Architecture
28. USB Universal Serial Bus
29. SCSI Small Computer System Interface
30. PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card
International
Association
31. CD Compact Disk
32. CD-ROM Compact Disk-Read Only Memory
33. CD-R Compact Disk Re-writable
34. DVD Digital Versatile Disk
35. RGB Red Green Blue
36. MICR Magnetic Ink character Recognition
37. OCR Optical character Recognition
38. LCD Liquid Crystal Display
39. CRT Cathode Rays Tube
40. VDT Video Display Terminal
41. VGA Video Graphic Array
42. SVGA Super Video Graphic Array
43. EVGA Extended video Graphic Array
44. VR Virtual Reality
45. BIOS Basic Input Output System
46. HD Hard Disk/Diskette
47. IDE Integrated Drive Electronics
48. VM Virtual Memory
49. ISP Internet Service Provider
50. WWW World Wide Web
51. TCP Transmission Control Protocol
52. IP Internet Protocol
53. URC Uniform Resource Locater
54. HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
55. HTTP Hyper Text Transmission Protocol
56. FTP File Transfer Protocol
57. SMTP Simple Mail Transfer protocol
58. ISDN Integrated services digital network
59. DSL Digital subscriber link
60. MAN Metropolitan area network
61. ESVGA Extended Super video graphic array
62. LAN Local area network
63. WAN Wide area network
64. GAN Global area network
65. CMOS Complementary metal oxide semi-conductor
66. ISO International Standard Organization
67. OSI Open System Interconnection
68. IEEE Institute of electrical and electronic engineers
69. BIT Binary Digit
70. DPI Dots Per Inch
71. BMP Bitmap(file name extension)
72. DHTML Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language
73. LED Light Emitting Diodes
74. ATM Automated Teller Machine
75. PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
76. IBM International Business Machine
 Q:Practicequestions:

i. Set of wires used to identify the particular location of data is

ii. The component of CPU used to perform logical operation is
iii. Softcopy output device is
iv. Example of wirelesses communication media is
v. Fastest printer is
vi. The wired media which is consider as fastest in speed is
vii. Sum of complement of variable is always equal to
viii. A.A=A; this rule states that
ix. The expression containing 3 variables contains number
of combination /output
x. 4 variable k-map yield numbers of cells
xi. Variable ORed with its complement =
xii. Invert referred to logical operator
xiii. Boolean expression can be simplified by
xiv. NotAcan also be written as
xv. 1 TB = GB
xvi. Illegal duplication of copy righted software is
xvii. software is used to remove dangerous
programs from computer
xviii. Software’s are protected under copyright T/F?
xix. Complement of sum of variables is always equal to
xx. The order in which two variables are ANDED, doesn’t matter,
the name of this law is
xxi. The word volatile means
xxii. type of translator is fast
xxiii. The type of memory which does not get effected by power off
the system is
xxiv. The most common and useful computers in today’s life is
xxv. type of printer is noisy.
xxvi. The socket to connect various devices with computer is called
xxvii. The mandatory software for computer is
xxviii. All devices that converts human language into machine
language are known as
xxix. Example of single uses multi task OS is
xxx. The type of interface used by windows is
xxxi. The hardware & software necessary for network are &
xxxii. type of network is also called network of network
xxxiii. The inexpensive topology of network is
xxxiv.Mesh topology uses models of LAN
xxxv. Any collection of facts & figure is called
xxxvi.The direction of transmission that communicates in 2
directions simultaneously is
xxxvii. The drawback of full duplex
transmission is
xxxviii. The OSI model layers are presented
by
xxxix.Capacity to hold data is called
xl. Numbers of time wave repeat per second called its