UNIT – 1

What is Mobile Compu ng?

Mobile compu ng refers to the ability to perform compu ng tasks while on the move. It
allows people to access informa on and perform tasks from anywhere, at any me. It is also
known as ubiquitous compu ng or nomadic compu ng.
Mobile compu ng combines two main ideas:
1. Compu ng: The ability to process and perform tasks, like accessing or using
services on a remote computer.
2. Mobility: The ability to move around while staying connected to a network and
using compu ng services.
The key advantage of mobile compu ng is flexibility. Users are no longer restricted to si ng
in front of a desktop computer. They can move freely, whether within their local area or
across the world, and s ll complete tasks that previously required being sta onary at a desk.
In short, mobile compu ng makes life easier by enabling access to informa on and
compu ng power wherever you go!

Mobile Compu ng vs. Wireless Networking

Understanding the Basics
Mobile compu ng and wireless networking are related but not the same. Here's how they
differ:
1. Mobile Compu ng
o It refers to accessing informa on and using computa onal services while
moving (e.g., at home, office, hotel, or conference).
o It includes applica ons, their design, and development, along with
hardware on both the client and server sides.
2. Wireless Networking
o It provides the communica on infrastructure that allows mobile
compu ng to func on.
o It enables devices to connect wirelessly to a network.
Rela onship Between the Two
 Mobile compu ng depends on wireless networking but also involves
applica on development and hardware.
  Wireless networking alone cannot achieve mobile compu ng. It’s just one of
the necessary components.
 Mobile compu ng, in a way, includes wireless networking as a part of its
broader scope.
Importance of Wireless Networking
Wireless networking is replacing tradi onal wired networks because:
 It requires less me and lower ini al investment for setup.
 It offers flexibility and mobility for users.
Types of Wireless Networks
Wireless networks can be categorized into two types:
1. Infrastructure-based Wireless Networks
o These extend wired networks using fixed infrastructure like base
sta ons.
o Example: Wireless LANs (WLANs) based on the IEEE 802.11 protocol.
 The last connec on (hop) to mobile devices is wireless.
 An Access Point (AP) connects mobile devices to the wired
network.
 APs manage authen ca on and prevent unauthorized access.
2. Ad hoc Wireless Networks
o These networks do not have fixed infrastructure.
o Communica on happens directly between devices or through mul ple
hops.
o Example: Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) or Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSNs).
Bluetooth Technology
 Bluetooth enables wireless communica on between devices like phones,
laptops, printers, etc.
 It eliminates the need for cables and creates Personal Area Networks (PANs),
also called piconets, and ad hoc networks known as sca ernets.
 Key advantages:
o Easy and automa c connec ons between devices.
o Quick deployment of wireless links.
Fig. 2.2 can communicate with sta on C using either the hops A–B, B–C or A–D, D–C.
Summary
 Infrastructure-based Networks: Fixed setup using APs for wireless connec ons.
 Ad hoc Networks: No fixed infrastructure, devices communicate directly or via
intermediate nodes.
 Bluetooth: Simplifies connec ons between devices, replacing tradi onal cables.
These concepts form the founda on of mobile compu ng, which requires both wireless
communica on and applica on-level support. Understanding these aspects is essen al to
design and develop efficient mobile systems.

Mobile Compu ng Applica ons

Mobile compu ng technology enables users to send or retrieve informa on while being on
the move, thus enhancing flexibility and produc vity. For example, a stockbroker traveling in
a car may issue stock transac on orders using a mobile phone or receive share price
quota ons in real- me. This capability makes mobile compu ng a crucial element in today’s
fast-paced, informa on-driven world.
Key Features of Mobile Compu ng:
1. Ease of Deployment: Mobile compu ng allows for quick and convenient setup,
reducing the need for extensive infrastructure. Devices like laptops, tablets, and
smartphones connect seamlessly to wireless networks.
 2. Scalability: Wireless networks can easily scale to accommodate a growing
number of users and devices, making it suitable for businesses of all sizes.
Applica ons of Mobile Compu ng:
1. Business and Finance: Enables stock trading, mobile banking, and real- me
financial data analysis.
2. Healthcare: Facilitates telemedicine, remote pa ent monitoring, and access to
medical records.
3. Transporta on and Logis cs: Supports real- me vehicle tracking, naviga on,
and fleet management systems.
4. Educa on: Provides access to e-learning pla orms, online resources, and
virtual classrooms.
5. Social Connec vity: Powers social media apps, messaging services, and video
conferencing tools.
6. Entertainment: Enables on-the-go access to streaming pla orms, online
gaming, and digital content.
Challenges in Mobile Compu ng:
Despite its advantages, mobile compu ng comes with certain challenges:
1. Security Issues: Data transmi ed over wireless networks can be intercepted by
any device within the transmission range. This makes it vulnerable to
eavesdropping, hacking, and data breaches.
o Encryp on: Ensures that data remains unreadable to unauthorized
par es.
o Authen ca on: Verifies the iden ty of users and devices before gran ng
access.
2. Connec vity Issues: Mobile compu ng relies heavily on network availability.
Poor connec vity can hinder produc vity.
3. Power Management: Devices require efficient power consump on to sustain
prolonged usage.
4. Limited Bandwidth: Wireless networks may face conges on, leading to slower
data transmission rates.
Emerging Trends in Mobile Compu ng:
1. 5G Technology: Offers faster data speeds, lower latency, and improved
connec vity.
 2. Edge Compu ng: Reduces latency by processing data closer to the source
rather than relying on centralized servers.
3. Mobile Cloud Compu ng: Combines mobile compu ng with cloud services for
scalable and on-demand resource access.
4. IoT Integra on: Connects mobile devices with smart devices, enabling
advanced func onali es like home automa on and industrial monitoring.

Characteris cs of Mobile Compu ng

Mobile compu ng refers to a compu ng environment where either the sender or the
receiver of informa on can move around while transmi ng or receiving data. Here are the
key characteris cs of mobile compu ng:
1. Ubiquity:
Ubiquity means being present everywhere. In mobile compu ng, it refers to the
ability of users to perform tasks from anywhere and at any me. For example, a
business execu ve can receive important no fica ons or perform transac ons
on the go, as long as they are within the wireless coverage area.
2. Loca on Awareness:
Mobile devices equipped with GPS can provide the exact loca on of the user to
a service provider. Many applica ons rely on this loca on data to offer
personalized services. For example, if you’re traveling by car and need a nearby
car maintenance shop, a mobile app can help you find one. Other applica ons
using loca on data include:
o Traffic Control: Monitoring traffic density and direc ng vehicles to reduce
conges on.
o Fleet Management: Helping companies track the real- me loca on of
their vehicles.
o Emergency Services: Direc ng emergency vehicles to the exact loca on
of an incident.
3. Adapta on:
Adapta on refers to a system’s ability to adjust to changes, such as fluctua ons
in bandwidth or network disconnec ons. In mobile compu ng, adapta on is
important because interrup ons or network slowdowns may occur due to
factors like signal interference, obstacles, or environmental noise. The system
must adapt without affec ng the user experience.
4. Broadcast:
Mobile compu ng networks use a broadcast system, meaning informa on can
be sent to mul ple users simultaneously. For example, a taxi service can send
 adver sing or important updates to all users near a specific loca on, like a
railway sta on.
5. Personaliza on:
Mobile services can be customized based on the user’s preferences or profile.
This allows users to receive informa on relevant to them easily. For instance, a
user might only want specific types of informa on from certain sources, which
can be made possible by personalizing the mobile service.
These characteris cs make mobile compu ng highly versa le, efficient, and user-friendly,
providing significant benefits for both individuals and businesses.

Structure of Mobile Compu ng Applica on

A mobile compu ng applica on is typically organized into three main ers based on the
func onality it provides. These ers are:
1. Presenta on Tier
2. Applica on Tier
3. Data Tier

These ers work together to provide a complete applica on structure. Here’s a simple
breakdown of what each er does:
1. Presenta on Tier (User Interface)
 Role: This is the topmost layer of the applica on, responsible for the user
interface (UI).
 Func on: It allows users to interact with the applica on by providing bu ons,
forms, text boxes, etc., for them to input data and view results.
 Technology: This layer typically includes web browsers or custom client
programs that run on the user's device.
 Example: When you open a mobile app or a website, the screen you see, with
bu ons and menus, is part of the Presenta on Tier.
2. Applica on Tier (Processing Layer)
 Role: This middle layer handles the business logic of the applica on. It
processes user inputs, performs calcula ons, and decides what to do next with
the data.
 Func on: It acts like the “engine” of a car. Just as an engine powers the car, the
Applica on Tier powers the ac ons that happen in the app.
 Technology: The logic in this layer is o en implemented using technologies like
Java, .NET, or ColdFusion.
 Example: If you input some data in an app, the Applica on Tier calculates or
processes that data and determines the next steps, like fetching relevant data
from the database.
3. Data Tier (Database/Storage)
 Role: This layer is responsible for storing and managing the data used by the
applica on.
 Func on: It stores informa on that the applica on needs to func on and
ensures that data is easily accessed and modified. This could be done using a
database or, in some cases, a file system.
 Technology: The Data Tier is typically implemented on a server where the
database resides.
 Example: When an app stores your profile informa on or your preferences,
that data is saved in the Data Tier, which may involve storing it in a database
like MySQL or in files.
How These Tiers Work Together:
1. Presenta on Tier: Displays the user interface and allows users to input data.
 2. Applica on Tier: Processes the data, makes decisions, and interacts with the
Data Tier to retrieve or store informa on.
3. Data Tier: Stores the data and ensures it's available when needed.
This three- er architecture helps separate concerns, making it easier to manage and scale
mobile compu ng applica ons.

Key Proper es of MAC Protocols

The design of a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is influenced by the environment it
will be used in and the specific requirements it needs to meet. A good MAC protocol
generally needs to have the following key features:
1. Discipline for Channel Sharing:
o A good MAC protocol enforces rules that help manage access to the
shared communica on channel when mul ple devices (or nodes) want to
transmit data at the same me. This ensures that the devices do not
interfere with each other.
2. Maximized Channel U liza on:
o The protocol should help make the best use of the available
communica on channel, ensuring that the channel is constantly used for
transmi ng useful data without unnecessary delays or idle me.
3. Fair Channel Alloca on:
o The protocol should ensure fairness, meaning no device should be given
an unfair advantage in accessing the channel. Every node should have an
equal chance to transmit data and should not be blocked for a long me.
4. Support for Different Traffic Types:
o The protocol should be flexible enough to support a variety of data types,
such as high-bandwidth applica ons (like video streaming) and low-
bandwidth applica ons (like sensor data). It should accommodate
different data rate requirements without compromising performance.
5. Robustness:
o A good MAC protocol is robust and can handle situa ons where there are
network changes, equipment failures, or interference. It should con nue
to func on reliably even under adverse condi ons.
Types of Wireless Networks
 Infrastructure-based Networks:
 o These include wireless local area networks (WLANs), such as Wi-Fi,
where fixed infrastructure like routers or access points help manage
communica on. These networks rely on a central controller to allocate
resources and manage data traffic.
 Infrastructure-less Networks:
o In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), there is no central infrastructure.
Instead, devices communicate directly with each other. This lack of
infrastructure introduces challenges in how devices find each other and
communicate without relying on fixed routers or access points.

MAC Protocols in Wireless Networks

Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are essen al in managing how devices access and
share the communica on medium (the channel) in wireless networks. The MAC layer sits
between the physical layer (responsible for actual transmission) and the higher network
layers (responsible for rou ng and data transmission). The main purpose of the MAC
protocol is to control the access to the shared medium to avoid collisions and ensure
efficient use of the channel.
MAC protocols help address two cri cal challenges in wireless communica on:
1. Channel Access Control:
o Since mul ple devices are trying to use the same channel, the MAC
protocol must manage how and when each device is allowed to transmit.
Without proper control, devices would interfere with each other, leading
to collisions, delays, and inefficient use of the channel.
2. Collision Avoidance:
o In wireless communica on, devices cannot detect collisions as easily as in
wired networks. The MAC protocol helps prevent collisions by organizing
when and how devices can transmit, ensuring that only one device
transmits at a me, or allowing devices to sense if a collision might
happen and back off if necessary.
Types of MAC Protocols
There are several types of MAC protocols used in different wireless environments:
1. Fixed Assignment Protocols:
o In fixed assignment protocols, each device is assigned a specific me slot
or frequency band to transmit data. These protocols are simple but less
flexible. An example of this type is TDMA (Time Division Mul ple
Access), where each device is allocated a fixed me slot for transmission.
 2. Random Access Protocols:
o In random access protocols, devices do not have fixed me slots and
transmit whenever they have data to send. However, they use strategies
to avoid collisions. One common example is ALOHA, where a device
transmits and waits for an acknowledgment. If the transmission collides
with another, it tries again at a random me. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Mul ple Access with Collision Avoidance), used in Wi-Fi networks (IEEE
802.11), is a more sophis cated random access protocol.
3. Reserva on-based Protocols:
o Reserva on-based protocols work by allowing devices to reserve access
to the channel in advance. These protocols are useful when the network
needs to handle large amounts of data, as they provide a way to
guarantee bandwidth for specific devices at certain mes. For example,
in reserva on protocols, devices may request me slots to transmit data,
avoiding random access.
4. Hybrid Protocols:
o Some protocols combine elements of fixed assignment, random access,
and reserva on-based protocols. These hybrid protocols aim to combine
the benefits of each approach, op mizing both efficiency and fairness in
the network.
MAC Protocols for Infrastructure-based and Infrastructure-less Networks
 Infrastructure-based Networks (like WLANs) have rela vely simpler MAC
protocols. For example, IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) is one of the most commonly used
MAC protocols. It uses CSMA/CA to avoid collisions and ensure efficient use of
the channel.
 Infrastructure-less Networks (like MANETs) face addi onal challenges, as there
is no central en ty to manage the communica on. MAC protocols for these
networks need to address issues such as power conserva on, dynamic
topology, and the lack of centralized control. These protocols are typically more
complex, as they must be able to adapt to the changing network condi ons
without relying on a fixed infrastructure.
 Wireless MAC Protocols: Some Issues
In wireless communica on, the Media Access Control (MAC) protocol is much more complex
than in wired networks. This is because it's harder to detect collisions (when two devices
transmit at the same me) in wireless environments. Also, in networks without a central
controller (called infrastructure-less networks), there are addi onal challenges, like the
hidden terminal problem and the exposed terminal problem. Let's look at these two
problems more closely.
1. The Hidden Terminal Problem
The hidden terminal problem happens when three nodes, A, B, and C, are involved in
communica on. Imagine the following scenario:
 Node A and Node B can communicate because they are within each other’s
radio range.
 Node B and Node C can also communicate, as they are in each other’s radio
range.
 However, Node A and Node C are too far apart to directly communicate with
each other.

Now, if both Node A and Node C try to send data to Node B at the same me, the signals
will overlap and cause interference at Node B, making the data unreadable. The issue is that
Node A and Node C are "hidden" from each other. This means when Node A starts
transmi ng, it cannot sense that Node C is also transmi ng, and vice versa. As a result,
their data collides, and the MAC protocol must find a way to handle this situa on efficiently.
2. The Exposed Terminal Problem
The exposed terminal problem occurs when a node unnecessarily stops transmi ng
because it detects another transmission that does not actually interfere with its
communica on. For example:
  Node A is within the transmission range of Node B.
 Node B is transmi ng data to Node C.
 Node A also wants to send data, but it can’t, because it senses Node B’s
transmission and assumes it would cause interference.

However, if Node A were to transmit to a different node, say Node D, that communica on
would not interfere with Node B’s transmission to Node C. Node A is unnecessarily blocked
from transmi ng because it is exposed to Node B’s signal, even though there’s no actual
risk of collision. This leads to inefficient use of the wireless spectrum and delays in
transmission.

3.3 A Taxonomy of MAC Protocols (Student-Friendly Explana on)

There are many types of MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols used to manage how
devices communicate over a shared network. These protocols can be grouped into three
main categories:
1. Fixed Assignment Schemes
2. Random Assignment Schemes
3. Reserva on-Based Schemes
1. Fixed Assignment Schemes:
 These are also called circuit-switched schemes.
 In this method, the network assigns the necessary resources (like a specific
me slot or frequency) for the en re dura on of the communica on (or call).
 This is similar to how old telephone systems worked, where a dedicated line
was reserved for a call.
2. Random Assignment Schemes:
  These are connec on-less packet-switching schemes.
 Here, no prior resource reserva on is made. Devices start transmi ng
whenever they have data to send.
 This method is simpler but can lead to collisions (two devices transmi ng at
the same me) and delays.
3. Reserva on-Based Schemes:
 These are connec on-based packet-switching schemes.
 Before transmi ng, a device reserves the channel for the dura on of its
communica on. This ensures smoother data transfer.
 These schemes are be er for handling traffic with varying needs, like voice
calls and video streaming.

3.4 Fixed Assignment Schemes

Fixed assignment schemes are techniques used in mul ple access protocols to allocate
resources like bandwidth or me slots to users. These schemes ensure orderly
communica on by dividing resources among users in a fixed manner. Common categories
include:
 Frequency Division Mul ple Access (FDMA)
 Time Division Mul ple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Mul ple Access (CDMA)
Let’s explore each of these in detail.
3.4.1 Frequency Division Mul ple Access (FDMA)
In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into smaller frequency bands called channels.
Each user is assigned a unique pair of frequency bands for full-duplex communica on:
 Forward Link: From the mobile handset to the base sta on (BS).
 Reverse Link: From the BS to the mobile handset.
When a user is making a call, no other user can share the same frequency bands. However,
unused me in a frequency band (e.g., during pauses in conversa on) is wasted, leading to
low channel u liza on.
Key Features:
 Bandwidth is divided into channels.
 Dedicated frequency bands for each user.
 Wastage of bandwidth during idle periods.
Example: Consider a highway where each vehicle has its own lane. Even if a vehicle isn’t
moving, its lane remains unused.

3.4.2 Time Division Mul ple Access (TDMA)

In TDMA, a single channel is divided into me slots, and each user gets a specific me slot
to transmit data. All users share the same frequency channel but transmit at different
mes.
Unused me slots also go idle, reducing overall channel efficiency.

Key Features:
 All users use the same channel but transmit in turns.
 Time slots are fixed in a round-robin manner.
 Wastage occurs if me slots remain unused.
Example: Think of a classroom where students take turns speaking. Even if one student
doesn’t speak, their turn is skipped, and me is wasted.

3.4.3 Code Division Mul ple Access (CDMA)

CDMA allows mul ple users to use the same frequency at the same me by assigning each
user a unique code. These codes, known as pseudo-noise (PN) codes, help differen ate
between users’ signals.

How it Works:
1. Each sender uses a unique PN code to encode their data.
2. All users transmit simultaneously using the en re bandwidth.
3. At the receiver's end, the signal is decoded using the same PN code.
For example, if User X and User Y are transmi ng:
 User X uses PN code (010011) (autocorrelated as -1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1).
 User Y uses PN code (110101) (autocorrelated as +1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1).
 The receiver receives a combined signal. To decode X’s data, the receiver
mul plies the combined signal with X’s code.
The decoded result determines the original bit.
 If the result is posi ve, the bit is 1.
 If the result is nega ve, the bit is 0.
Key Features:
 No scheduling of me or frequency.
 Uses unique PN codes for signal separa on.
 Supports simultaneous transmission by mul ple users.
 Example: Imagine mul ple people talking at the same me in different languages. A listener
who knows a specific language can tune in to that conversa on while ignoring others.

Comparison of Techniques

Scheme Resource Division Efficiency Example

FDMA Frequency bands Low (idle me wasted) Highway lanes for vehicles.

TDMA Time slots Moderate ( me slots wasted) Classroom with students taking turns.

CDMA Codes (PN sequences) High People talking in different languages.

These fixed assignment schemes form the backbone of communica on systems, enabling
efficient data transmission in networks like cellular systems and the internet.

Random Assignment Schemes in MAC Protocols

Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are essen al for managing how mul ple devices
communicate over a shared medium without interference. These protocols use various
random assignment schemes to handle data transmission efficiently. Let’s explore the key
schemes in detail:

1. ALOHA Scheme
The ALOHA scheme is one of the simplest and earliest methods of communica on, originally
developed at the University of Hawaii. It includes two main types: Pure ALOHA and Slo ed
ALOHA.
Pure ALOHA
 How it Works:
o When a node has data to send, it starts transmi ng immediately without
checking if the channel is already in use.
o If the data (frame) is successfully received, the next frame is sent. If not,
the frame is retransmi ed.
 Advantages:
o Simple and easy to implement.
o Works well in networks with a small number of users and low traffic.
 Disadvantages:
 o High collision rates, especially as the number of users increases.
o Efficiency is low; at most, only 18.4% of the total transmission capacity is
u lized effec vely.

Slo ed ALOHA
 Improvement Over Pure ALOHA:
o Time is divided into fixed slots, with each slot capable of holding one
data packet.
o Nodes can only start transmi ng at the beginning of a slot.
 How it Works:
o Beacon signals are sent at precise intervals to mark the start of each me
slot.
o If a collision occurs, the node waits for the next slot to retransmit.
 Advantages:
o Reduces collision rates compared to Pure ALOHA.
o Efficiency increases to about 36.8% of the transmission capacity.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires synchroniza on among nodes to align with the me slots.
o Collisions can s ll occur if mul ple nodes a empt to transmit at the start
of the same slot.

2. CSMA Scheme
Carrier Sense Mul ple Access (CSMA) improves over ALOHA by introducing a mechanism
where nodes sense the medium before transmi ng.
Basic CSMA
 How it Works:
o A node checks if the channel is free before star ng transmission.
o If the channel is busy, the node waits un l it becomes free.
 Advantages:
o Reduces unnecessary collisions.
o More efficient than ALOHA in high-traffic scenarios.
  Disadvantages:
o Collisions can s ll occur if two or more nodes sense the channel as free
simultaneously.

CSMA/CD (Collision Detec on)

This technique is commonly used in wired networks (e.g., Ethernet).
 How it Works:
o The sender begins transmi ng only if the channel is free.
o During transmission, the sender listens for any collision signals.
o If a collision is detected, the sender immediately stops transmi ng and
retries a er a random me.
 Advantages:
o Minimizes wastage by stopping transmission upon collision detec on.
o Highly effec ve in wired networks.
 Disadvantages in Wireless Networks:
o Collision detec on is difficult because a transmi ng node cannot easily
dis nguish between its own signal and weaker signals from other nodes.

CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)

This scheme is be er suited for wireless networks, focusing on preven ng collisions rather
than detec ng them.
 How it Works:
1. A node waits for a random me before a emp ng to transmit.
2. It senses the channel again.
3. If the channel is s ll busy, the node waits for another random me and
retries.
 Advantages:
o Reduces the likelihood of collisions during busy periods.
o More efficient than CSMA/CD in wireless environments.
 Disadvantages:
o Introduces delays due to random wai ng mes.
 o Less efficient in low-traffic scenarios compared to CSMA/CD.

3. Key Differences Between Schemes

Feature Pure ALOHA Slo ed ALOHA CSMA CSMA/CD CSMA/CA

Collision Handling Retransmit a er collision Slot-based retransmission Sense before transmit Detect and stop Avoid collisions through random delays

Efficiency Low (18.4%) Moderate (36.8%) Higher than ALOHA High in wired networks High in wireless networks

Synchroniza on Not required Required Not required Required Not required

Suitability Low-traffic networks Moderate-traffic networks Wired or wireless Wired networks Wireless networks

Conclusion
Random assignment schemes like ALOHA and CSMA are cri cal in designing MAC protocols
for efficient data transmission.
 ALOHA schemes are simple but struggle with high collisions.
 CSMA schemes are more advanced, focusing on reducing or avoiding collisions,
making them be er suited for modern networks.
Understanding the strengths and limita ons of these schemes helps in choosing
the right MAC protocol for specific network environments.

3.6 Reserva on-based Schemes (Simplified)

Reserva on-based schemes like the RTS/CTS protocol are designed to manage and reserve
the communica on medium effec vely to avoid data collisions. Here's how the RTS/CTS
scheme works:
1. Ready to Send (RTS):
Before transmi ng data, the sender sends an RTS packet to the receiver to
request access to the medium.
2. Clear to Send (CTS):
If the receiver is ready, it responds with a CTS packet, signaling that data
transmission can begin.
3. Medium Reserva on:
Other devices that hear the CTS packet temporarily stop transmi ng, ensuring
that the sender and receiver can communicate without interference.
This process minimizes collisions and ensures efficient data transfer.
Conten on-based MAC Protocols
In conten on-based MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols, nodes first reserve the
medium before sending data. For example:
 The sender transmits an RTS message.
 The receiver acknowledges it by sending a CTS message.
 Other nodes hearing these messages pause their transmissions during the
reserved period, avoiding collisions.
Examples of RTS/CTS-based MAC Protocols:
 MACA (Mul ple Access Collision Avoidance)
 MACAW, MACA-BI, PAMAS, DBTMA, MARCH, S-MAC (designed for sensor
networks).

3.6.1 MACA (Mul ple Access Collision Avoidance)

Key Features of MACA:
1. Collision Avoidance:
MACA addresses issues like the hidden and exposed terminal problems by
carefully controlling transmi er power and communica on ming.
2. How It Works:
o The sender (A) sends an RTS to the receiver (B) to request the medium.
o The receiver (B) responds with a CTS if it's ready.
o Other nodes (e.g., C) hearing the CTS stop their transmissions
temporarily to avoid collisions.

Solving Problems with MACA

1. Hidden Terminal Problem:
o A node that can't directly sense another node's signal might s ll
interfere.
o MACA solves this by requiring every device in the range of the CTS to
pause transmission.
o Example:
 A sends an RTS to B.
 B replies with a CTS, which is heard by C.
  C stops transmi ng to avoid a collision at B.

2. Exposed Terminal Problem:

o When a node unnecessarily refrains from transmi ng because it senses
a signal not interfering with its communica on.
o Example:
 B sends an RTS to A.
 A responds with a CTS.
 C, not hearing the CTS, assumes A is out of its range and starts its
transmission without worrying about causing interference.
 Unit – 2

Overview of Mobile IP
Mobile IP enables devices to maintain connec vity and receive data efficiently, even when
they move across different networks. It ensures seamless communica on without packet
loss or disrup ons, similar to how mail is forwarded when someone changes loca ons.

Concept of Mobile IP (Explained with an Analogy)

Imagine a business execu ve who works in various ci es across India and abroad, including
Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Kathmandu, and Singapore. His home office is in Delhi, but
he frequently travels to these other loca ons.
The challenge is how he can receive his postal mail without interrup on, no ma er where
he is. There are two possible solu ons:
1. Changing Address Frequently: Inform everyone of his new address every me
he moves. This is imprac cal because by the me everyone is updated, he
might have moved again.
2. Mail Forwarding: The more prac cal solu on. He informs the Delhi post office
to forward his mail to his current loca on. For example:
o When in Singapore, he informs the Delhi post office to forward all mail to
Singapore.
o When he moves to Kathmandu, he updates the Delhi post office again.
o Once he returns to Delhi, the forwarding is canceled.
The mail forwarding system ensures:
 Senders s ll address mail to his Delhi address.
 The Delhi post office handles forwarding, making the process seamless and
transparent to senders.

How Mobile IP Works

Mobile IP operates like this postal system. Here’s the breakdown:
1. Networks as Ci es: Each network is like a city, and the routers are like post
offices.
2. Home Network: A mobile device has a “home network” where its permanent IP
address is registered (like the Delhi office).
 3. Movement Across Networks:
o When the device moves to another network, its home network forwards
packets (data) to its current loca on.
o A temporary address (called the Care-of Address) is assigned to the
device in the new network.
o The router in the home network (home agent) handles forwarding, while
the router in the new network (foreign agent) ensures delivery.

Steps in Mobile IP
1. Step 1: A sender sends data to the mobile node (device) using its home
address.
o Example: Mail is sent to Delhi (home address).
2. Step 2: The home agent (Delhi post office) intercepts the data and encapsulates
it in a new packet.
o Example: Mail is packed and forwarded to the foreign agent in Singapore.
3. Step 3: The foreign agent (Singapore post office) delivers the packet to the
mobile device using its care-of address.
o Example: The Singapore post office delivers the mail to the person.

Advantages of Mobile IP
1. Transparency: Senders do not need to know the device’s current loca on.
2. Simplicity: The home agent handles forwarding, making it user-friendly.
3. Seamless Communica on: Ensures uninterrupted data flow even when the
device moves between networks.

Limita ons of Mobile IP

1. Delay: Data must travel through the home network first, which can cause
delays.
2. Cost: Frequent forwarding may incur extra charges.
3. Extra Overhead: The home agent and foreign agent need to coordinate, adding
complexity.
 4.4 Desirable Features of Mobile IP (Simplified)
Mobile IP is a protocol designed to enable seamless communica on for mobile devices as
they move between different networks. Here are the key features explained in a student-
friendly manner:
1. Transparency
 A mobile device (like a smartphone or laptop) should keep its same IP address
even when moving between networks.
 There should be no disrup on in communica on, meaning your video calls,
downloads, or online tasks should con nue smoothly, no ma er where you go.
 The movement of the device should not impact any ongoing ac vity—it should
happen invisibly (transparently) to the user.
2. Compa bility
 Mobile IP must work well with the exis ng Internet protocols (like TCP/IP)
without needing major changes.
 This ensures that it can be adopted easily and s ll func on alongside current
technologies.
3. Security
 It should protect users’ data and ensure secure communica on over the
Internet.
 This is important to prevent hacking or data the when the device connects to
different networks.
4. Efficiency and Scalability
 Mobile IP must be designed to handle a large number of mobile devices (like
phones and laptops) efficiently.
 Even if billions of devices are moving worldwide, it should:
o Minimize the number of extra messages exchanged between networks.
o Avoid placing too much computa onal load on the system.
 It should be capable of scaling up to support a growing number of users
globally.
These features ensure that Mobile IP can support smooth, secure, and efficient
communica on for users, regardless of their loca on or device.
 Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP
Mobile IP enables devices to maintain seamless internet connec vity while moving across
different networks. It works based on three key mechanisms:
1. Discovering the Care-of-Address
2. Registering the Care-of-Address
3. Tunnelling to the Care-of-Address
Let’s break down each mechanism to make it easier to understand.
1. Discovering the Care-of-Address
The care-of-address is a temporary IP address assigned to a mobile device when it connects
to a foreign network. The process of discovering this address involves these steps:
1. Agent Adver sement Messages:
o Mobile agents (home or foreign agents) periodically broadcast their
presence via agent adver sement messages.
o A mobile node listens for these messages to iden fy if it is on the home
network or a foreign network.
2. Agent Solicita on Messages:
o If a mobile node doesn’t want to wait for periodic adver sements, it can
ac vely send agent solicita on messages to request informa on.
o The nearby mobility agent (home or foreign) responds with the required
details.
3. Switching to a New Care-of-Address:
o If the mobile node no ces no response from the current foreign agent, it
can adopt a new care-of-address by listening to other foreign agents'
adver sements.
Key Points about Agent Adver sements:
 Foreign agents adver se available care-of-addresses.
 Home agents adver se their presence.
 Mobile nodes can ac vely seek agent informa on by issuing solicita on
messages.
2. Registering the Care-of-Address
The registra on process links the mobile node’s current loca on (care-of-address) with its
permanent home address. Here’s how it works:
1. When on the Home Network:
o The mobile node operates normally, without mobility services, as it’s
directly connected to the home agent.
2. When on a Foreign Network:
o The mobile node discovers a care-of-address and sends a registra on
request to its home agent via the foreign agent.
o This request contains:
 The mobile node’s permanent IP address.
 The foreign agent’s IP address.
 The home agent’s IP address.
3. Home Agent Updates:
o Upon receiving the registra on request, the home agent associates the
care-of-address with the mobile node’s home address in its rou ng table.
4. Acknowledgements:
o The home agent sends an acknowledgement back to the foreign agent.
o The foreign agent updates its visitor list and relays the confirma on to
the mobile node.
3. Tunnelling to the Care-of-Address
Tunnelling ensures that data sent to the mobile node’s permanent IP address reaches its
current care-of-address. The process includes:
1. Encapsula on:
o When the home agent receives a data packet for the mobile node, it
encapsulates the original packet using IP-within-IP.
o A new IP header is added with:
 Des na on address: Care-of-address.
 Source address: Home agent’s IP.
2. Forwarding the Packet:
o The encapsulated packet is sent to the foreign agent at the care-of-
address.
o The foreign agent strips off the addi onal header and forwards the
original packet to the mobile node.

Security in Mobile IP
Security is essen al because wireless links are prone to a acks.
 During registra on, the home agent needs to verify the authen city of requests
from mobile nodes.
 Security associa ons (e.g., encryp on or authen ca on) between the home
agent and mobile node help ensure secure communica on.

4.6 Route Op miza on in Mobile IP

In Mobile IP, data packets intended for the mobile node (MN) are routed through the Home
Agent (HA). This creates high traffic between the Home Agent (HA) and Correspondent
Node (CN), leading to increased latency. To address this issue, route op miza on is
introduced. It ensures efficient communica on by reducing dependency on the HA.
Key route op miza on strategies include:
1. Direct No fica on to the Corresponding Host (CN): Inform the CN directly
about the MN's current loca on.
2. Direct Tunneling from CN to MN: Allow the CN to directly send data to the MN
without rou ng through the HA.
 3. Binding Cache at CN: Maintain a record of the MN’s current loca on in the CN
for faster rou ng.

Binding in Mobile IP
The associa on between the mobile node's permanent home address and its temporary
care-of address (current loca on) is called binding.
Messages in Op mized Mobile IP
The Mobile IP protocol uses the following four key messages for route op miza on:
Message Type Descrip on

1. Binding Request Sent by a node (e.g., CN) to the HA to ask for the current loca on (care-of address) of the mobile node.

2. Binding Acknowledgement Sent by the HA in response to the binding request. It confirms that the care-of address of the MN is successfully updated.

3. Binding Update Sent by the HA to the CN to inform it of the MN's current loca on. It includes the fixed IP address and care-of address.

4. Binding Warning Sent by a node if it decapsulates a packet intended for an MN but realizes it is not the correct Foreign Agent (FA).

Example Scenario for Be er Understanding:

1. A mobile device (MN) moves to a new loca on, acquiring a new care-of
address.
2. The CN communicates with the HA to get the MN's updated address via Binding
Request.
3. The HA sends back a Binding Acknowledgement confirming the MN's loca on.
4. The HA updates the CN about the MN's new loca on using a Binding Update.
 5. If a packet is incorrectly routed, a Binding Warning is sent to the HA to rec fy
the rou ng.
This op mized process reduces traffic and latency, ensuring a smoother and more efficient
data transfer between the MN and CN.

Overview of TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed in 1969 by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency) to enable smooth communica on across mul ple, different networks. It is
not just one protocol but a collec on of many protocols designed to work together. The
suite gets its name from two key protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP).
Key Features of TCP/IP
1. Four-Layer Structure: The TCP/IP stack has four layers:
o Applica on Layer: Where end-user applica ons like web browsers and
email clients operate.
o Transport Layer: Handles data delivery between applica ons.
o Internet Layer: Routes data across networks using IP addresses.
o Network Interface Layer: Manages how data is sent and received over
the physical network.
2. Flexible Network Interface Layer: TCP/IP does not specify a par cular protocol
for the network interface layer, allowing it to support various technologies like
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, etc.
The Four Layers of the TCP/IP Protocol Stack
1. Applica on Layer
 Deals with messages (data the user interacts with).
 Includes protocols like:
o HTTP: For web browsing.
o FTP: For file transfers.
o SMTP: For sending emails.
o DNS: For transla ng domain names into IP addresses.
2. Transport Layer
 Manages reliable data transfer between devices.
 Breaks the message into smaller parts called segments.
 Uses two key protocols:
o TCP: Reliable, connec on-oriented communica on.
o UDP: Faster but less reliable, used for streaming.
3. Internet Layer
 Handles rou ng of data using IP addresses.
 Converts segments into packets by adding des na on address details.
 Protocols include:
o IP: Core protocol for rou ng data.
o ICMP: Used for error messages (e.g., "host unreachable").
o ARP/RARP: Maps IP addresses to physical MAC addresses.
4. Network Interface Layer
 Converts packets into frames and manages their physical transmission over the
network.
 Adds details like checksums for error checking.

How Data Flows in TCP/IP

1. Sender Side:
o The Applica on Layer sends a message to the Transport Layer.
 o The Transport Layer breaks it into segments and passes it to the Internet
Layer.
o The Internet Layer adds the des na on address, forming packets.
o The Network Interface Layer converts packets into frames and sends
them over the network.
2. Receiver Side:
o The Network Interface Layer removes frame details and passes packets
to the Internet Layer.
o The Internet Layer extracts segments and sends them to the Transport
Layer.
o The Transport Layer reconstructs the message and delivers it to the
Applica on Layer.

Important Terminology
 Messages: Handled by the Applica on Layer.
 Segments: Handled by the Transport Layer.
 Packets: Handled by the Internet Layer.
 Frames: Handled by the Network Interface Layer.

Real-World Applica on of TCP/IP

With the rapid growth of the Internet, TCP/IP has become the backbone of communica on
for web-based applica ons. Most applica ons follow a client-server model, where:
 The server provides a service (e.g., a website).
 The client (e.g., a browser) requests the service.
TCP, being reliable, is the standard protocol for most client-server communica ons.
This layered and modular approach of TCP/IP makes it versa le, scalable, and the default
choice for Internet communica on.
 5.3 Architecture of TCP/IP
The TCP/IP protocol consists of four layers, each responsible for specific func ons in the
communica on process. These layers are:
1. Applica on Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access Layer

Below is an explana on of each layer in simple terms:

1. Applica on Layer
 What it does:
o Helps applica ons (like web browsers and email clients) communicate
with each other, even if they are on different computers.
o It uses protocols like:
 HTTP: Used for browsing websites.
 FTP: Used for transferring files.
 Telnet: Used for remote access to another computer.

2. Transport Layer
 What it does:
o Ensures reliable delivery of data between applica ons (end-to-end).
o Iden fies which applica on on a computer should receive the data using
port numbers.
o Handles two types of communica on:
1. Connec on-oriented (TCP): Reliable and guarantees data delivery.
2. Connec onless (UDP): Faster but doesn’t guarantee delivery.
 o Example: If you’re streaming a video, UDP might be used for speed, while
downloading a file might use TCP for accuracy.

3. Internet Layer
 What it does:
o Breaks data into smaller pieces called IP datagrams and a aches IP
addresses (source and des na on) for delivery.
o Handles rou ng, which ensures the data finds the best path to its
des na on.
o Uses protocols like:
 IP (Internet Protocol): Main protocol for data delivery.
 ICMP: Helps diagnose network issues (e.g., ping command).
 ARP: Maps IP addresses to physical hardware addresses (like
MAC).

4. Network Access Layer

 What it does:
o Prepares data for physical transmission over a network (like through a
cable or wirelessly).
o Responsible for error detec on, packet framing, and sending data at the
correct speed.
o Combines the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer from the OSI model.
o Examples of protocols used here:
 Ethernet: Commonly used in wired networks.
 Wi-Fi: Used for wireless connec ons.
 Physical Layer: Defines how signals (electrical or op cal) carry data
through the medium (e.g., cables, fiber op cs).
Summary of Layers
Layer Main Func on Examples

Applica on Communica on between so ware applica ons HTTP, FTP, Telnet

Transport Reliable delivery and process iden fica on TCP, UDP

Internet Addressing and rou ng of data IP, ICMP, ARP

Network Access Preparing data for transmission over physical media Ethernet, Wi-Fi

TCP Window Adapta on:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) uses a flow control technique to manage how data is
sent across a network and avoid conges on. Conges on happens when the rate of data sent
by a host is higher than what the network or receiver can handle. Let’s break this down into
simple terms.

Why Flow Control is Needed

1. Network Conges on:
o If too much data is sent, routers in the network may get overwhelmed.
o This leads to buffers overflowing, causing packets to be lost.
2. Slow Receivers:
o If the receiver’s device can't process the incoming data fast enough, its
buffer will fill up.
o This also results in packet loss.
How TCP Prevents Conges on and Packet Loss
1. Dynamic Transmission Rate:
o TCP adjusts the speed of data transmission.
o It slows down when there’s conges on and speeds up when conges on
clears.
2. Sliding Window Protocol:
o TCP uses two windows to manage data flow:
 Adver sed Window (Receiver Window): Set by the receiver, it
tells the sender how much data it can handle at a me.
 Conges on Window: Set by the sender, it controls how many
packets can be sent before wai ng for an acknowledgment.

Key Mechanisms of TCP

1. Acknowledgments (ACKs):
o The receiver sends an acknowledgment for each segment (chunk of data)
it gets.
o If the sender doesn’t receive an acknowledgment within a certain me, it
assumes the packet is lost.
2. Retransmission:
o TCP uses two methods to detect packet loss:
 Retransmission Timeout (RTO): If no acknowledgment is received
before the mer expires, TCP resends the packet.
 Duplicate Acknowledgments: If three duplicate ACKs are received,
TCP assumes a packet was lost and retransmits.

Packet Loss in Different Networks

1. Wired Networks:
o Packet loss usually happens due to conges on.
o Errors caused by noise are rare.
2. Wireless Networks:
o Packet loss can occur due to:
  Noise: Interference causes errors in data.
 Disconnec ons: Mobile devices may lose connec on temporarily
due to obstacles or moving between network zones (handoff).
o These issues are mistakenly treated as conges on by TCP, leading to
unnecessary retransmissions and slow performance.

Summary of TCP Window Adapta on

 TCP dynamically adjusts how much data can be sent based on network
condi ons.
 The adver sed window prevents the receiver from being overwhelmed.
 The conges on window ensures the network doesn’t get overloaded.
 TCP’s mechanisms help maintain efficient data transfer, even in challenging
environments like wireless networks.
By understanding these concepts, you can see how TCP ensures reliable communica on
while adap ng to network condi ons effec vely.

5.8 Improvement in TCP Performance

TCP was ini ally designed for tradi onal wired networks. When used as is, some limita ons
become no ceable, par cularly in modern environments like mobile networks. Let’s first
understand how TCP works in tradi onal networks and then explore its enhancements for
be er performance in mobile environments.

5.8.1 Tradi onal Networks

In wired networks, packet losses are primarily caused by network conges on. To manage
conges on, TCP uses conges on control mechanisms, which slow down data transfer by
reducing the transmission window. Let’s look at some key techniques used by TCP to
improve its performance:

1. Slow Start
 What is it?
o The slow-start mechanism determines the op mal transmission window
size when a TCP session begins. Instead of star ng with a fixed window
size, the size starts at its smallest value and increases gradually.
  How does it work?
1. The sender begins with a transmission window size of 1 segment.
2. A er successfully receiving an acknowledgement (ACK) for the first segment,
the sender doubles the window size.
3. This process con nues exponen ally (1 → 2 → 4 → 8, etc.) a er every Round
Trip Time (RTT) un l a conges on threshold is reached.
4. If conges on is detected (via duplicate ACKs), the window size is reduced to
half, and the conges on avoidance phase starts.
 Why exponen al growth?
o It’s like a trial-and-error process to find the maximum network capacity
without causing conges on.

2. Conges on Avoidance
 What is it?
o A er the conges on threshold is reached during slow start, the window
size increases more cau ously to avoid overloading the network.
 How does it work?
1. The window size increases linearly a er receiving ACKs (instead of doubling like
in slow start).
2. If conges on occurs, the window size is reduced to half.
 Key takeaway:
o This phase is less aggressive and helps TCP stabilize the data transfer rate
by slowly finding the op mal transmission window size.

3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery

 Fast Retransmit:
o If a segment is lost, the receiver sends duplicate ACKs for the last
successfully received segment.
o A er receiving three duplicate ACKs, the sender assumes a packet is lost
and retransmits it immediately without wai ng for the mer to expire.
 Fast Recovery:
 o Instead of restar ng slow start, TCP maintains a reasonable transmission
rate.
o A er retransmi ng the lost segment, the sender:
1. Reduces the conges on window size to half.
2. Adds 3 to the window size (to compensate for the successfully
buffered segments at the receiver).
o If ACKs arrive smoothly, it indicates no conges on, and TCP resumes
normal transmission.

Key Points to Remember

1. Slow Start ensures a cau ous start with exponen al growth of the window size
un l conges on occurs.
2. Conges on Avoidance avoids overloading the network by increasing the
window size linearly.
3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery improve efficiency by handling packet loss
quickly without restar ng the slow-start phase.
By using these techniques, TCP effec vely balances speed and reliability, especially in
tradi onal wired networks. Enhancements for mobile environments build on these
principles to address unique challenges like frequent disconnec ons and higher packet
losses.

5.8.2 TCP in Mobile Networks

Introduc on to TCP:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is the most widely used transport protocol on the
Internet. It supports popular applica ons like browsing websites, file transfers, and email.
While TCP performs well in wired networks, it faces significant challenges in wireless mobile
networks.

Why does TCP struggle in wireless networks?

Wired networks and wireless networks are very different. Here are the key challenges in
wireless mobile networks:
1. Lower Bandwidth: Wireless networks generally have less capacity to transfer
data.
 2. Bandwidth Fluctua ons: The available bandwidth changes over me and
loca on.
3. Higher Delay: Mobile networks experience longer delays in transmi ng data.
4. Intermi ent Disconnec ons: Connec ons can drop temporarily as the device
moves.
5. High Bit Error Rate: Noise and interference in wireless environments cause
more data errors.
6. Unreliable Links: The quality of the wireless link is o en inconsistent.

Impact on TCP Performance:

TCP assumes that packet losses happen due to network conges on (too much data being
sent). However, in wireless networks, packet losses can also occur due to:
 Link failures.
 Bit errors caused by noise.
 Handoffs when moving between network cells.
These issues make TCP behave inefficiently in mixed wired-wireless networks.

Solu ons to Improve TCP Performance:

To address these challenges, researchers have proposed several enhancements to TCP.
These improvements focus on op mizing TCP for wireless environments.
Key Points to Explore Further:
1. Single-hop Wireless Networks: For example, a wireless LAN (Local Area
Network) setup.
2. Mul -hop Wireless Networks: Such as mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs),
where devices communicate over mul ple wireless links.
By understanding these networks, we can study the mechanisms used to improve TCP
performance in mobile environments.

5.8.3 TCP in Single-Hop Wireless Networks

TCP needs some modifica ons to work effec vely in single-hop wireless networks because
the wireless environment introduces unique challenges, such as higher error rates and
intermi ent connec vity. Several protocols have been proposed to address these issues.
Let’s explore these:
Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
Proposed by Bakre and Badrinath, I-TCP splits the TCP connec on into two parts:
1. Wired connec on: Between the fixed host (FH) and the base sta on (BS).
2. Wireless connec on: Between the BS and the mobile host (MH).
This split hides the challenges of the wireless link (like poor quality) from the wired network.
The base sta on acts as an intermediary, managing communica on between FH and MH.

 Advantages:
 No changes needed to the standard TCP protocol.
 Errors in the wireless link don't affect the fixed network, improving efficiency.
 Disadvantages:
 Breaks the end-to-end reliability of TCP because FH gets an acknowledgment
before MH actually receives the data.

Fast Retransmission
Proposed by Caceres et al., this method helps reduce delays caused by mobile host
disconnec ons (e.g., during handoffs).
 When a mobile host reconnects a er a short disconnec on, it sends duplicate
acknowledgments to the fixed host.
  The fixed host interprets these acknowledgments as a sign of a live connec on
and packet loss, triggering a quick retransmission without entering slow-start
mode.
Advantages:
 Reduces reconnec on me.
 Improves performance during short disrup ons.
Disadvantages:
 Doesn’t address wireless network-specific errors.

Snooping TCP (S-TCP)

Proposed by Balakrishnan et al., this protocol improves TCP performance by modifying the
so ware at the base sta on.
 The base sta on (using a “snoop” agent) monitors and buffers TCP packets sent
between the fixed host and mobile host.
 If a packet is lost due to conges on or errors, the base sta on retransmits it
locally instead of wai ng for the fixed host to do so.
 Advantages:
 Maintains TCP's reliability.
 Hides wireless errors from the sender, improving performance.
 Disadvantages:
 Overhead increases if MH moves to a new BS, as buffered data isn't transferred.

Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

Proposed by Kevin Brown et al., M-TCP divides the connec on like I-TCP but maintains TCP
seman cs.
 Uses a supervisory host (SH) that acts as an intermediary between the fixed
host and the mobile host.
 SH supervises packets and acknowledgments. If the mobile host disconnects,
SH sets the sender’s window size to zero, preven ng unnecessary
retransmissions.
Advantages:
 Maintains TCP seman cs.
 Efficient handling of disconnec ons and reconnec ons.
Disadvantages:
 Complexity in handling state transfers when the mobile host moves between
supervisory hosts.

Freeze-TCP
This method pauses the sender’s TCP stream before a disconnec on.
 The mobile host sends a "Zero Window Adver sement" to the sender,
indica ng it cannot receive data.
 Once reconnected, the mobile host sends the actual window size to resume
communica on.

Advantages:
 Prevents slow-start delays a er reconnec on.
 Works well with encrypted payloads (e.g., VPNs).
Disadvantages:
 Requires MH to predict disconnec ons, which may not always be possible.
TCP in Mul -hop Wireless Networks (TCP-F Protocol)
In mul -hop wireless networks, such as mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), communica on
between devices (called Mobile Hosts or MHs) happens through other MHs ac ng as
intermediate nodes. However, since these MHs can move freely, the network topology o en
changes in unpredictable ways. This poses a challenge for standard TCP protocols. Here's
why:

Problem with Standard TCP in Mul -hop Networks

1. Packet Loss Misinterpreta on:
o Normal TCP assumes that all packet losses are caused by conges on.
o However, in mul -hop networks, packet losses can also occur due to link
failures caused by MH mobility.
2. Conges on Control Issue:
o When a packet is lost due to a link failure, TCP mistakenly triggers its
conges on control mechanism.
o This results in:
 Longer delays in retransmi ng packets.
 Reduced transmission speed.

TCP-F Protocol (TCP Feedback)

To solve this, the TCP-F protocol was introduced by Chandran et al. It helps handle packet
loss caused by link failures due to mobility. Here's how it works:
Key Steps in TCP-F:
1. Detec ng Link Failure:
o When an intermediate MH detects a broken route due to mobility, it:
 Sends a Route Failure No fica on (RFN) packet to the source MH.
 Stops forwarding packets through the broken route.
2. Alterna ve Routes:
o If the intermediate MH knows another route to the des na on MH, it
uses that route to con nue communica on.
o In this case, the RFN is discarded.
3. Ac on at the Source MH:
 o On receiving the RFN, the source MH:
 Stops sending all packets, including new transmissions and
retransmissions.
 Marks all mers as invalid.
 Freezes its send window un l it gets a no fica on that the route is
restored.
4. Route Restora on:
o Once the route is fixed, a Route Re-establishment No fica on (RRN) is
sent to the source MH.
o The source MH resumes communica on a er receiving the RRN.

Benefits of TCP-F
 Reduces unnecessary retransmissions.
 Prevents incorrect triggering of conges on control mechanisms.
 Improves overall transmission efficiency in dynamic mul -hop wireless
networks.
 Unit - 3

Global System for Mobile Communica ons (GSM)

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) is a widely used digital mobile
communica on system, including in India. It is considered one of the most successful
systems in the world due to its efficiency and widespread adop on. Here's an easy
breakdown of the important features of GSM:
Key Features of GSM:
1. Voice and Data Services:
o GSM supports both voice calls and data services like SMS and internet
connec vity.
o It is designed to be compa ble with older systems (1G).
2. Frequency Bands Used in GSM:
o GSM networks operate in mul ple frequency bands based on the region:
 900 MHz and 1800 MHz: Common in most countries, including
India.
 850 MHz and 1900 MHz: Used in countries like the USA and
Canada due to other alloca ons in the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
bands.
 400 MHz and 450 MHz: Rarely used but assigned in some
Scandinavian countries for historical reasons.
o In the 900 MHz band, the following frequency ranges are used:
 Uplink (mobile to tower): 890–915 MHz.
 Downlink (tower to mobile): 935–960 MHz.
Why GSM is Popular:
 GSM ensures seamless communica on by providing both basic and advanced
mobile services.
 Its ability to operate across different frequencies makes it adaptable to various
countries and regions.
GSM's flexibility, compa bility, and global presence make it a cornerstone of modern mobile
communica on systems.
GSM Services Overview
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) offers three main categories of services to
its users:
1. Bearer Services
2. Teleservices
3. Supplementary Services
Let’s break these down for be er understanding:

1. Bearer Services
These services allow users to send and receive data to/from other devices like computers or
mobile phones.
 What it Offers:
o SMS (text messages), email, voice mailbox access, and internet usage.
o Supports remote applica ons like controlling devices from a distance.
 Data Transmission:
o Speed: Up to 9.6 kbps.
o Compa ble with networks like PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).
 Modes of Data Transmission:
o Transparent Mode: Uses physical layer protocols for data transfer.
 Provides constant speed and delay, assuming no errors.
 Uses FEC (Forward Error Correc on) to improve transmission
quality.
o Non-Transparent Mode: Adds error correc on and flow control using
higher-layer protocols like Radio Link Protocol (RLP).

2. Teleservices
These services focus on communica on between users and include both voice and non-
voice op ons.
 Voice-Oriented Services:
o Telephony: Provides high-quality digital voice calls.
  Special codecs are used to compress and transmit voice efficiently.
o Emergency Numbers: Free service that connects users to the nearest
emergency center automa cally.
 Non-Voice Services:
o Short Message Service (SMS):
 Sends text messages up to 160 characters.
 Uses signaling channels for quick and reliable delivery.
o Fax Services:
 Sends fax data digitally over analog networks using standard
protocols.

3. Supplementary Services
These are extra services to enhance user experience and provide more func onality.
 Key Features:
o User Iden fica on: Ensures secure and personalized access to the
network.
o Call Redirec on and Forwarding: Redirects ongoing calls to another
number or device.
o Mul party Calls: Enables group calling for mul ple par cipants.
o Close User Groups (CUG): A feature where specific users can call only
within a defined group.

System Architecture of GSM

The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) architecture is designed to efficiently
manage mobile communica on systems by dividing the en re structure into three main
subsystems:
1. Radio Subsystem (RSS)
2. Networking and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
3. Opera on Subsystem (OSS)
Each subsystem performs specific tasks to ensure seamless communica on and reliable
network opera ons. Here’s a detailed explana on:
1. Radio Subsystem (RSS)
The Radio Subsystem focuses on wireless communica on between mobile devices and the
GSM network. Key components include:
 Mobile Sta on (MS):
o Comprised of two main parts:
 Subscriber Iden ty Module (SIM):
 A small, removable smart card that stores subscrip on
informa on like phone numbers, PIN codes, and security
creden als.
 Contains a microcontroller for data storage and retrieval.
 Includes secure memory for sensi ve data like encryp on
keys.
 Mobile Device:
 Has a unique iden fier called IMEI (Interna onal Mobile
Equipment Iden ty).
 Offers interfaces like USB, Bluetooth, and other
communica on tools for added func onality.
o The MS allows users to make calls, send messages, and access addi onal
features like internet browsing.
  Base Sta on Subsystem (BSS):
o This is the bridge between mobile devices and the core GSM network. It
includes:
 Base Transceiver Sta on (BTS):
 Houses antennas, signal amplifiers, and processors.
 Encodes and transmits signals between mobile devices and
the network.
 Base Sta on Controller (BSC):
 Manages several BTS units.
 Assigns frequencies and me slots to mobile devices.
 Handles seamless handoff when a user moves between BTS
coverage areas.

2. Networking and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The NSS is the central subsystem that connects the GSM wireless network to public
telephone and data networks. It performs rou ng, call management, and user tracking
func ons.
 Core Components:
o Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
 Acts as the central hub for call setup, connec on management,
and handoffs.
 Coordinates with other MSCs and networks like PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network) and PDN (Public Data Network).
 Offers supplementary services such as call forwarding, conference
calls, and voicemail.
o Gateway MSC (GMSC):
 Handles calls to and from external networks when a user roams
outside their home network.
 Databases in NSS:
o Home Loca on Register (HLR):
 A permanent database storing user-specific informa on, including
their IMSI (Interna onal Mobile Subscriber Iden ty), subscrip on
type, and current loca on.
 o Visitor Loca on Register (VLR):
 A temporary database storing user details when they roam into a
new area.
 Retrieves data from the HLR and ensures efficient network
performance.
3. Opera on Subsystem (OSS)
The OSS handles network management, security, and maintenance tasks to keep the system
running smoothly.
 Key Components:
o Opera on and Maintenance Centre (OMC):
 Monitors network performance, manages billing, and ensures
subscriber security.
 Tracks traffic data to op mize network opera ons.
o Authen ca on Centre (AuC):
 Ensures secure communica on by handling user authen ca on
and data encryp on.
 Works with the HLR to validate users.
o Equipment Iden ty Register (EIR):
 A database that monitors mobile devices using their IMEI.
 Blocks stolen, unauthorized, or faulty devices from accessing the
network.
How GSM Architecture Works
1. A mobile sta on (MS) communicates with the nearest base transceiver sta on
(BTS) through radio signals.
2. The BTS sends the data to the base sta on controller (BSC), which assigns the
necessary resources.
3. The BSC connects to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), where calls and data
sessions are routed to the appropriate networks.
4. Databases like the HLR and VLR provide the MSC with user-specific details and
loca on informa on.
5. The OSS ensures secure communica on, monitors the network, and blocks
unauthorized access.
GSM Security
Security in GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) is crucial for protec ng both
the network and the users. It ensures that communica on is private, users' iden es are
safe, and services are used properly. GSM security is supported at three main levels:
1. Operator’s Level
2. Customer’s Level
3. System Level
These levels work together to provide security against threats like fraud, unauthorized
access, and eavesdropping, ensuring the overall safety of communica on. Let’s break down
the important security features in GSM networks:

1. Authen ca on
Authen ca on in GSM is all about verifying the iden ty of the user to ensure only
authorized individuals can access the network. This helps prevent fraud and ensures that no
one can impersonate someone else on the network.
 How it works:
o GSM networks use a process where the mobile network operator checks
the iden ty of the user before allowing access.
o This is usually done through a unique key or code.
o One of the simplest methods of authen ca on is the use of a Personal
Iden fica on Number (PIN). However, this method is not the most
secure, as an a acker could poten ally intercept the PIN and misuse it.
The goal of authen ca on is to make sure that only authorized users can access the
network, reducing the risk of fraud or unauthorized usage.

2. Confiden ality
Confiden ality in GSM is about keeping communica on secure and preven ng anyone from
listening in on private conversa ons, messages, or other sensi ve data. This is especially
important in mobile networks, where informa on is sent wirelessly and is vulnerable to
intercep on.
 How it works:
o GSM uses encryp on to protect the data that travels between the
mobile device (Mobile Equipment or ME) and the base sta on (BTS).
 o Encryp on ensures that any informa on sent over the air, such as your
voice during a call or the digits you dial, is scrambled in such a way that
only the intended recipient can decode it and understand the message.
o This prevents eavesdroppers from gaining access to sensi ve informa on
during transmission.

3. Anonymity
Anonymity in GSM refers to protec ng a user’s privacy by preven ng anyone from tracking
their loca on or iden fying who they are calling or receiving calls from. This is especially
important to prevent unwanted surveillance or tracking of individuals.
 How it works:
o Instead of using permanent iden fiers (like a user’s phone number or
SIM card number), GSM networks assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Iden ty (TMSI).
o The TMSI helps keep the user’s iden ty anonymous, especially during
communica on or when moving from one loca on to another.
o This prevents third par es from easily iden fying the user or tracking
their movements based on their phone ac vity.

GSM Security
Security in GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) is crucial for protec ng both
the network and the users. It ensures that communica on is private, users' iden es are
safe, and services are used properly. GSM security is supported at three main levels:
1. Operator’s Level
2. Customer’s Level
3. System Level
These levels work together to provide security against threats like fraud, unauthorized
access, and eavesdropping, ensuring the overall safety of communica on. Let’s break down
the important security features in GSM networks:

1. Authen ca on
Authen ca on in GSM is all about verifying the iden ty of the user to ensure only
authorized individuals can access the network. This helps prevent fraud and ensures that no
one can impersonate someone else on the network.
  How it works:
o GSM networks use a process where the mobile network operator checks
the iden ty of the user before allowing access.
o This is usually done through a unique key or code.
o One of the simplest methods of authen ca on is the use of a Personal
Iden fica on Number (PIN). However, this method is not the most
secure, as an a acker could poten ally intercept the PIN and misuse it.
The goal of authen ca on is to make sure that only authorized users can access the
network, reducing the risk of fraud or unauthorized usage.

2. Confiden ality
Confiden ality in GSM is about keeping communica on secure and preven ng anyone from
listening in on private conversa ons, messages, or other sensi ve data. This is especially
important in mobile networks, where informa on is sent wirelessly and is vulnerable to
intercep on.
 How it works:
o GSM uses encryp on to protect the data that travels between the
mobile device (Mobile Equipment or ME) and the base sta on (BTS).
o Encryp on ensures that any informa on sent over the air, such as your
voice during a call or the digits you dial, is scrambled in such a way that
only the intended recipient can decode it and understand the message.
o This prevents eavesdroppers from gaining access to sensi ve informa on
during transmission.

3. Anonymity
Anonymity in GSM refers to protec ng a user’s privacy by preven ng anyone from tracking
their loca on or iden fying who they are calling or receiving calls from. This is especially
important to prevent unwanted surveillance or tracking of individuals.
 How it works:
o Instead of using permanent iden fiers (like a user’s phone number or
SIM card number), GSM networks assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Iden ty (TMSI).
o The TMSI helps keep the user’s iden ty anonymous, especially during
communica on or when moving from one loca on to another.
 o This prevents third par es from easily iden fying the user or tracking
their movements based on their phone ac vity.

2.8 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS is an enhancement to GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons) that improves
mobile Internet access. By using packet-switched technology, it allows data to be transferred
more efficiently between mobile devices (like phones) and external networks, known as
Packet Data Networks (PDNs). This method of sending data in small packets, instead of a
con nuous stream, allows for a more flexible and faster connec on.
GPRS vs GSM Billing:
 GSM uses a me-based billing system, where you are charged for the amount
of me you are connected to the network.
 GPRS, on the other hand, uses a data-based billing system, where charges
depend on the amount of data you send or receive, rather than how long you
are connected. This is a big advantage because users can remain connected for
longer periods without worrying about the costs, as long as they don't use
excessive amounts of data.
2.8.1 GPRS Services
GPRS provides different types of data transfer services to meet the needs of mobile users.
These services can be classified as follows:
1. Point-to-Point (PTP) Service:
o Descrip on: This is a one-to-one communica on service, meaning data is
sent from one user to another user.
o It can be either connec onless (no permanent connec on is established)
or connec on-oriented (a connec on is set up before data transfer). For
example, sending an email from one user to another using a mobile
device could be a PTP service.
2. Point-to-Mul point (PTM) Service:
o Descrip on: This service allows one user to send data to mul ple users
simultaneously.
o There are two varia ons of PTM:
 Mul cast PTM: Data packets are broadcasted to all users within a
specified area. For instance, a news broadcast service where
mul ple users receive the same informa on at once.
  Group Call PTM: Data is sent to a specific group of users, like a
group message or an alert to all users in a specific group.
2.8.2 GPRS Architecture
GPRS introduces new elements into the GSM network, which help route data efficiently
between mobile users and external networks (like the Internet). The main components of
the GPRS architecture are:
1. GPRS Support Node (GSN):
o This is a router that helps in rou ng data packets within the GPRS
network. All GSNs are part of the GSM network and help ensure that
data is directed to the correct des na on.
2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):
o The GGSN acts as a gateway between the GPRS network and external
Packet Data Networks (PDNs) such as the Internet. It contains
informa on about the GPRS users, and it encapsulates data to send it to
the appropriate des na on. The GGSN routes packets from the GPRS
network to external networks and vice versa.

How GPRS Works

Here’s how GPRS func ons within a mobile network:
1. Mobile Sta on (MS):
o A mobile device (like a phone) that communicates with the network.
2. SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node):
 o This node manages data transmission for mobile users. It handles rou ng
of data between the mobile sta on (MS) and the GGSN. It also tracks the
loca on of users and maintains session data.
3. GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node):
o The GGSN is connected to external networks (such as the Internet) and
serves as a gateway between the GPRS network and these networks. It
encapsulates and forwards data packets to and from the mobile users via
the SGSN.
4. Base Sta on Subsystem (BSS):
o This part of the network connects mobile devices to the GPRS
infrastructure. It helps deliver data from the SGSN to the mobile sta on.
5. GPRS Register (GR):
o This part of the HLR (Home Loca on Register) stores the GPRS-related
data for the mobile users. The HLR is a central database that holds
informa on like the user's subscrip on and services.
Data Transmission Process
1. From GGSN to SGSN:
o When data from the Internet (or another external PDN) needs to reach a
mobile user, it first reaches the GGSN. The GGSN contains rou ng
informa on for each user and forwards the data to the SGSN.
2. From SGSN to MS:
o The SGSN then sends the data to the mobile user’s device (MS) through
the BSS. This ensures that the data reaches the user properly and
efficiently.
This process allows mobile users to remain con nuously connected to the network,
ensuring that data transfer happens seamlessly and with minimal delay.
Advantages of GPRS
 Efficient Use of Resources: Since GPRS uses a packet-switching method, it
makes be er use of available bandwidth and resources.
 Always-On Connec vity: Users can stay connected to the Internet all the me,
as the system does not require users to disconnect a er each session.
 Cost-Effec ve: With data-based billing, users only pay for the data they
consume, rather than the me they spend connected.
 Universal Mobile Telecommunica ons System (UMTS)
UMTS is one of the ITU-approved 3G standards developed separately from CDMA2000. It
provides mobile coverage through various types of cells, such as small "pico cells" used
inside buildings and large "global cells" served by satellites, ensuring service even in remote
regions.
Key Points about UMTS:
 GSM Network Upgrade: UMTS was mainly developed for countries with GSM
networks. It is expected that all GSM networks will eventually be upgraded to
UMTS.
 New Technology: UMTS is a new technology, so a new radio access network
must be built.
 Higher Capacity: One of the main benefits of UMTS is that it allows operators
to handle more traffic and provide be er service quality.
Compa bility with GSM:
UMTS systems are designed to work seamlessly with exis ng GSM networks. Even though
UMTS uses different frequency bands, this avoids interference between the two systems. So,
UMTS can easily integrate with exis ng GSM/GPRS networks.
Differences between UMTS and 2G Networks (like GSM):
1. Higher Speech Quality:
o UMTS supports advanced mul media services, including high-quality
voice, video, and data, making it a true mul media network.
o This is a step up from 2G networks, which only support basic voice and
text communica on.
2. Higher Data Rate:
o UMTS supports much faster data speeds (up to 2 Mbps), which is
significantly higher than what 2G networks can provide. This allows faster
browsing, streaming, and downloading.
3. Virtual Home Environment (VHE):
o With UMTS, when users roam from one network to another, they
experience a seamless service without feeling a difference. It's like
they’re s ll in their "home network," avoiding roaming charges and
interrup ons, which is not the case with 2G networks.
UMTS Network Architecture:
The UMTS network consists of three main parts:
1. User Equipment (UE):
o This is the device the user uses, such as a mobile phone. It’s called "User
Equipment" because it now has much more func onality than just a
phone, like data access and mul media services.
2. Radio Network Subsystem (RNS):
o RNS is similar to the Base Sta on Subsystem (BSS) in 2G networks. It
manages the wireless communica on between the mobile devices and
the network, ensuring users stay connected while moving.
3. Core Network:
o The core network is similar to the Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) in
2G networks. It’s the central part of the network responsible for rou ng
calls, managing data, and connec ng to other networks.
 Unit - 4

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs)

What is an Ad Hoc Network?
In many wireless networks, devices rely on infrastructure such as routers or base sta ons to
connect with each other. However, some mes, such infrastructures are unavailable. This can
happen in remote areas, during natural disasters, or in situa ons where se ng up
tradi onal networks is not possible. In such cases, devices must communicate directly with
each other, forming what is called a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET).
In a MANET, a set of mobile devices communicate without relying on any fixed network
infrastructure. Devices in the network cooperate with each other to pass messages along
un l the message reaches its des na on.
How Does an Ad Hoc Network Work?
Imagine three mobile devices: S, R, and D. Device S wants to send a message to device D,
but S and D are too far apart to communicate directly. However, they can use R as a relay to
help pass the message.
 S sends a message to R.
 R forwards the message to D.
This process con nues in the network, where devices act as relays, forwarding messages to
their neighbors un l the message reaches its des na on. In this setup, R is ac ng like a
router, forwarding messages on behalf of other devices, even though it’s not a tradi onal
network infrastructure.

Why Is Rou ng in MANETs Complex?

In tradi onal wired networks, routers use des na on IP addresses to decide the path for
data packets, and this process works smoothly because the network topology is usually
fixed. However, in a MANET, things are much more dynamic and complicated:
 1. No Global Iden fiers: Devices in a MANET keep moving around, so it’s hard to
assign fixed IDs or addresses to each device that would stay the same
throughout. If devices change loca ons o en, the network would need to
constantly update this informa on, which creates a lot of overhead.
2. Dynamic Topology: In a MANET, the network topology (the way devices are
connected) changes frequently because devices keep moving. A route between
two devices may no longer be valid if one of the devices moves or shuts down.
This can disrupt communica on and requires constant adjustments.
3. Challenges in Rou ng: Due to the movement of devices, the rou ng paths in a
MANET can become outdated very quickly. A route that was working fine may
suddenly break because one of the devices in the path moved or turned off. As
a result, packets (data) might not reach their des na on.
Key Takeaways:
 MANET is a network where mobile devices communicate directly with each
other without any fixed infrastructure.
 Devices in a MANET cooperate to relay messages through each other un l the
message reaches the des na on.
 Rou ng in MANETs is complex because:
o Devices keep moving, making fixed addresses difficult to maintain.
o The network topology changes frequently, which can disrupt
communica on paths.
o Rou ng protocols must be able to handle issues like link breakages,
moving nodes, and device failures.

Characteris cs of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs)

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are different from tradi onal networks like cellular or
wireless LANs because they don’t rely on a fixed infrastructure. Here are some key features
of MANETs:
1. Lack of Fixed Infrastructure:
o Unlike tradi onal networks, MANETs don’t have a central structure like
routers or servers. Nodes (devices) communicate directly with each other
when they’re in range. If they’re out of range, the communica on is done
through mul ple devices that relay the message.
 o This is different from cellular networks and wireless LANs, which have
fixed infrastructure.
2. Dynamic Topologies:
o Since devices in MANETs are mobile, the network topology (the way
devices are connected) changes constantly. The speed at which this
happens depends on how fast the devices move and the type of
applica on using the network.
3. Bandwidth Constraints:
o Wireless connec ons in MANETs are slower compared to wired
networks. Addi onally, external factors like interference, fading, and
noise can cause the bandwidth (speed of data transfer) to vary over me.
4. Energy Constraints:
o Nodes in a MANET are powered by ba eries, which have limited energy.
Since sending data and processing rou ng informa on consumes a lot of
energy, ba ery life can quickly deplete. Therefore, conserving energy is
very important when designing protocols for MANETs.
5. Increased Vulnerability:
o MANETs are more vulnerable to security threats compared to wired
networks. These threats include:
 Eavesdropping: Unauthorized users can listen in on
communica ons.
 Spoofing: A device can pretend to be another, tricking the
network.
 Denial-of-service a acks: A ackers may try to disrupt network
services.
o It's also hard to track a ackers since devices keep moving and don’t have
a fixed global iden fier.
6. Other Characteris cs:
o MANETs operate in a distributed, peer-to-peer mode, meaning each
node can act as both a client and a server.
o They o en require mul -hop rou ng, where messages pass through
mul ple devices to reach their des na on.
o The concentra on of devices can change frequently as nodes move
around.
Opera onal Constraints of MANETs
Due to the unique characteris cs of MANETs, rou ng protocols for these networks must be
designed to handle several challenges:
1. Low Processing Power:
o MANET devices have limited processing power, so the rou ng protocols
need to be simple and efficient.
2. Low Bandwidth:
o MANETs rely on wireless links, which generally offer lower bandwidth
than wired networks. Therefore, rou ng protocols need to make the best
use of this limited bandwidth.
3. Low Ba ery Power:
o Ba ery life is the most cri cal limita on in MANETs. Rou ng protocols
should minimize energy usage to avoid draining the ba ery too quickly.
This means avoiding frequent communica on or updates between
nodes.
4. Adaptability:
o Since nodes in a MANET are mobile, the network’s topology changes
quickly. If a route becomes unavailable due to this movement, the
rou ng protocol must be able to find an alternate route fast.

Applica ons of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs)

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) have become popular because they offer a lot of
advantages, especially in situa ons where tradi onal networks are hard to set up. These
networks can be established quickly, without the need for fixed infrastructure like towers or
cables. This makes them ideal for scenarios where security, cost, terrain inaccessibility, or
safety concerns make se ng up tradi onal networks difficult. Some of the common
applica ons of MANETs are discussed below:
1. Communica on Among Portable Devices
Many modern devices, like laptops and smartphones, rely on being connected to a network
(such as the internet or a local area network). Usually, these devices need to be within range
of a fixed wireless hub or access point. However, this reduces the mobility and flexibility of
the devices.
For example, in a classroom where there is no exis ng network infrastructure, a MANET can
be used to allow students to exchange notes or browse the internet (if one of the devices
has internet access). If the devices are close enough to each other, a network can be
formed, and the devices can communicate seamlessly.
2. Environmental Monitoring
Another important applica on of MANETs is in monitoring the environment. For example,
collec ng data from remote loca ons to track weather condi ons, monitor road traffic, or
even study wildlife. Small sensors are used to collect informa on like temperature, humidity,
or the presence of animals.
MANETs are useful here because they can handle dynamic situa ons where new sensors
may need to be added to the network, or some sensors may go offline. As these sensors
work as a team, they can extend the range over which data can be collected. Since these
networks o en need to run on ba ery power, energy-efficient protocols are used to ensure
the network lasts longer.
3. Military Applica ons
In the military, many types of equipment and vehicles now include computers and
automated systems. By se ng up a MANET among the equipment, soldiers, and vehicles, all
these devices can communicate with each other.
For example, on the ba lefield, a MANET can be automa cally set up to connect handheld
devices, military vehicles, and headquarters. This can help collect real- me informa on and
allow commanders to send commands to the troops.
4. Emergency Applica ons
In emergency situa ons like natural disasters, tradi onal communica on networks are o en
destroyed. In such cases, MANETs can be quickly deployed to provide connec vity for rescue
opera ons.
For example, a er an earthquake, all exis ng communica on infrastructure may be
damaged. In this case, an ad hoc network can be set up quickly to provide communica on
for the rescue teams. MANETs are especially useful for situa ons where there is no exis ng
infrastructure, like fire figh ng, police opera ons, or search and rescue missions.

MANET Design Issues

When designing a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET), there are several important factors to
consider. These factors help in crea ng efficient protocols that ensure the network func ons
smoothly. Here are some key design issues:
1. Network Size and Node Density
 Network Size: This refers to the geographical area that the MANET covers. For
large networks, it becomes more difficult to manage communica on between
nodes.
  Node Density: This refers to the number of nodes (devices) per unit of area. If
there are many nodes in a small area, it can lead to conges on.
 Clustering: To manage large networks with high node density, clustering is
used. Clustering groups nodes together to reduce the communica on load and
improve efficiency.
2. Connec vity
 Connec vity of a Node: This refers to the number of neighboring nodes a
device can communicate with. A neighbor is another node that is within range
of the device’s transmission.
 Link Capacity: This is the bandwidth or data transfer rate between nodes. The
number of neighbors and the link capaci es can vary, which affects the
performance of the network.
3. Network Topology
 Topology: This refers to the arrangement or structure of how nodes are
connected in the network.
 Mobility: As nodes move, new connec ons (links) may form, and exis ng
connec ons may break. Addi onally, if nodes become inac ve (due to ba ery
drain or hardware failure), the network topology changes.
 Impact on Design: The network design must account for these changes in
topology, especially since nodes are constantly moving.
4. User Traffic
 The design of the network depends on the expected traffic, which can vary
based on how nodes move and how o en they communicate.
 Types of Traffic:
o Bursty Traffic: Occasional high-traffic events.
o Large Packets Sent Periodically: Large amounts of data being sent at
regular intervals.
o Combina on: A mix of both bursty and periodic traffic.
 Traffic Type Considera on: The network should be designed to handle different
types of traffic efficiently.
5. Opera onal Environment
 The environment where the network is deployed affects its design.
o Urban: Dense areas with lots of buildings and high node mobility.
o Rural: More spread-out areas with fewer nodes.
 o Mari me: On water, where communica on might have different
challenges.
 The network design must suit the specific opera onal environment and support
effec ve communica on, par cularly for Line of Sight (LOS) communica on.
6. Energy Constraints
 In a MANET, nodes act as both devices and routers. This dual role leads to
constant energy consump on as nodes transmit and receive data.
 Ba ery Drain: Constant rou ng and communica on can quickly drain the
ba ery of mobile devices.
 Energy-saving Techniques: To manage energy consump on, nodes can go into
sleep mode when not in use, reducing the power needed for communica on
and rou ng tasks.

Rou ng in MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks)

In a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET), rou ng is more complex than in tradi onal networks.
This is due to the constant changes in network topology (because nodes are mobile) and the
limited ba ery power of devices. Here’s a breakdown of the key points about rou ng in
MANETs:
1. Why Rou ng is Difficult in MANETs
 Constant Topology Changes: Nodes in a MANET can move, causing the
network's structure to change frequently. This makes it harder to maintain
stable routes.
 Limited Ba ery Power: Nodes in a MANET are usually powered by ba eries,
and they may shut down if their ba ery runs out, further affec ng the
network's connec vity.
 Rou ng Task: In a tradi onal network, rou ng is straigh orward because the
network’s structure (using IP addresses) is stable. In MANETs, however, the
paths (routes) between nodes can become outdated quickly due to movement
or power loss, so new routes need to be found each me data needs to be sent.
2. What Happens During Rou ng in MANET?
 Finding a Route: When a node (the source) needs to send data to another node
(the des na on), and the des na on is out of its range, the data has to pass
through other nodes (intermediate nodes) in the network. The route is formed
using these intermediate nodes.
  Rou ng Goal: The purpose of rou ng is to find the best path to forward packets
(data) from the source node to the des na on. This path must be efficient and
reliable.
3. Challenges in Rou ng for MANETs
 Changing Routes: Because nodes can move or shut down, tradi onal rou ng
methods (like those used in infrastructure-based networks) are not suitable for
MANETs.
 Rou ng Par cipa on: Every node in a MANET must have the capability to
par cipate in the rou ng process. This means that all devices in the network
contribute to forwarding data packets and maintaining routes.
4. Rou ng Steps in MANETs
When a packet arrives at a node in a MANET, the following steps should be followed:
1. Forward the Packet: The node forwards the packet to the next node (hop) on
the path towards the des na on.
2. While Forwarding the Packet: The sender (the node sending the packet) must
ensure:
o Packet Moves Towards Des na on: Ensure the packet is on the correct
path to the des na on.
o Minimize Hops/Path Length: Try to find the shortest path to reduce the
number of hops (intermediate nodes) needed to reach the des na on.
o Minimize Delay: Keep the communica on delay as low as possible.
o Minimize Packet Loss: Avoid losing data packets during transmission.
o Avoid Endless Loops: Ensure that the packet doesn’t keep circula ng in
the network without reaching its des na on.
5. Rou ng Protocols for MANETs
 Need for Specialized Protocols: Due to the dynamic nature of MANETs,
tradi onal IP-based rou ng is not enough. Special rou ng protocols have been
developed to deal with the issues specific to MANETs.
 These protocols use various techniques to op mize rou ng while mee ng
constraints like low energy consump on and network stability.
 Essen als of Tradi onal Rou ng Protocols
To understand the rou ng protocols used in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), it’s helpful
to first grasp the basic concepts behind rou ng in tradi onal networks. Tradi onal networks
mainly use two types of rou ng protocols: Link State Protocols and Distance Vector
Protocols. These protocols help a router decide the best path for data to travel from one
point to another based on certain criteria, usually the shortest path or the least number of
hops.
7.6.1 Link State Protocols (LSP)
 What is Link State? In a Link State Protocol, each router keeps track of its
immediate connec ons (links) to other routers. These connec ons are the links
through which data can be sent directly without needing the help of other
routers.
 How it works: Each router sends informa on about its direct connec ons
(called Link State Adver sements, or LSAs) to other routers in the network. This
helps every router learn about the en re network's structure. This informa on
is stored in a database called the Link State Packet Database (LSPDB), and all
routers eventually have the same data in their LSPDBs.
 Building the Network Map: Using this data, routers create a map of the en re
network as a graph. They use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path
from their router to every other router in the network. The router then uses
this map to make decisions about where to send packets.
 LSA Structure: Each Link State Adver sement contains:
o The iden ty of the router sending the message.
o A list of its neighbors (other routers directly connected).
o The delay or cost of the links to these neighbors.
o A unique sequence number that gets updated each me the router sends
a new LSA.
  Flooding Process: When a router receives an LSA from another router, it checks
the sequence number. If the LSA is newer, it replaces the older one and sends it
to its neighbors, con nuing this process un l all routers have the latest
informa on.
 Crea ng the Shortest Path Tree: Once a router has the full map, it calculates
the shortest path to all other routers. The network topology can be thought of
like a tree, where the router is the root and the shortest path to any des na on
is determined. This tree helps the router figure out the best next hop to any
des na on.
 Advantages: Link State protocols give accurate, up-to-date informa on about
the network topology, allowing routers to make op mal rou ng decisions.
However, the main challenge is that the routers need to send frequent updates,
which can consume bandwidth.
 Examples:
o OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
o IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
7.6.2 Distance Vector (DV) Protocols
 What is Distance Vector? In Distance Vector protocols, routers determine the
best path by coun ng the number of hops it takes to reach a des na on. A
"hop" refers to a step from one router to another.
 How it works: Each router periodically sends its rou ng table to its neighbors.
This rou ng table contains a list of des na ons and the number of hops
required to reach them. The router also includes the direc on (or next hop
router) to get to each des na on.
 Rou ng by Rumor: Routers don’t know the en re path to the des na on. They
only know how far each des na on is and which neighbor to send packets to.
This is like hearing rumors about the best path but not being able to verify if
the informa on is correct.
 Upda ng Rou ng Tables: When a router receives a rou ng table from a
neighbor, it updates its own table by considering the new informa on. If the
new path is shorter, the router will update its table. This process con nues un l
the network stabilizes.
 Popular Distance Vector Protocols:
o RIP (Rou ng Informa on Protocol): RIP uses hop count to determine the
best path, with a maximum of 15 hops allowed.
 o IGRP (Interior Gateway Rou ng Protocol): Developed by Cisco, it uses
other factors like delay and bandwidth in addi on to hop count to
determine the best path.
 Advantages: Distance Vector protocols are simpler and less computa onally
expensive, making them easy to implement. However, they can be slower to
converge (i.e., take longer to update rou ng tables) and can lead to rou ng
loops.
 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Rou ng Protocol): This is an advanced
version of IGRP that doesn’t require sending updates periodically. Instead, it
only sends updates when there’s a change, making it more efficient.

Popular MANET Rou ng Protocols

Based on the classifica on of rou ng protocols in Sec on 7.7.2, we discuss some well-
known MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) rou ng protocols.
7.8.1 Des na on-Sequenced Distance-Vector Rou ng Protocol (DSDV)
DSDV is a proac ve rou ng protocol for MANETs, based on the table-driven approach to
packet rou ng. It extends the tradi onal distance vector protocol used in wired networks
(such as the Bellman–Ford algorithm) with a sequenced numbering system to avoid rou ng
loops.
 Opera on: Each node maintains a rou ng table containing the number of hops
to reach each des na on. The rou ng tables are updated periodically, even if
there are no changes in the network topology.
 Packet Types: DSDV uses two types of route update packets: full dump
(carrying all rou ng informa on) and incremental updates (carrying only the
changed informa on).
 Route Updates: The nodes broadcast rou ng informa on at regular intervals.
Each update contains the des na on address, hop count, and a unique
sequence number to dis nguish new routes from stale ones. Nodes with the
most recent sequence number take precedence.
 Key Steps:
1. Nodes gather route informa on from neighbors.
2. Nodes compute the shortest path to each des na on.
3. Rou ng tables are updated and broadcast to neighbors.
4. Nodes recompute rou ng tables based on received updates.
Example:
 Rou ng table for Node N4:
o N1 → 1 hop → N1 (Sequence number 321)
o N2 → 1 hop → N2 (Sequence number 218)
o N3 → 2 hops → N2 (Sequence number 043)
o N5 → 1 hop → N5 (Sequence number 163)
7.8.2 Dynamic Source Rou ng (DSR) Protocol
DSR is a reac ve rou ng protocol designed for networks with a small diameter and low
mobility. It uses source rou ng, where the sender explicitly specifies the sequence of nodes
(route) to reach the des na on in the packet header.
 Route Discovery: When a node needs a route, it broadcasts a route request
packet. If the des na on is not in the rou ng cache, intermediate nodes
forward the request un l it reaches the des na on or a node with a valid
route.
 Route Maintenance: When a route is broken (e.g., due to node movement), a
route error message is sent to the source node, which either switches to an
alterna ve route or ini ates a new route discovery process.
Phases:
1. Route Discovery: Source node sends a route request if no route is available.
2. Route Maintenance: If a link failure is detected, the source node is informed,
and a new route discovery may be ini ated.
Route Discovery Example:
 Node N1 broadcasts a route request for des na on N8.
 Nodes N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7 relay the request.
 Upon receiving the request, node N8 replies with the route to N1.
7.8.3 Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
AODV is similar to DSR in that it uses on-demand route discovery and route maintenance,
but it employs hop-by-hop rou ng rather than source rou ng. AODV aims to reduce
overhead by maintaining rou ng tables at nodes and ensuring that the packet headers do
not contain complete routes.
 Route Discovery: When a node requires a route, it broadcasts a route request.
Intermediate nodes forward the request and create reverse routes. When a
des na on node or an intermediate node with a valid route is found, a route
reply is sent back to the source.
  Route Maintenance: If a link failure occurs, a route error message is sent to the
source, promp ng it to either find an alterna ve route or ini ate a new route
discovery.
7.8.4 Zone Rou ng Protocol (ZRP)
ZRP is a hybrid protocol that combines proac ve and reac ve elements. It divides the
network into rou ng zones, where nodes within the zone exchange rou ng informa on
proac vely, and nodes outside the zone use a reac ve approach to discover routes.
 Opera on: A node proac vely maintains routes within its zone (typically a few
hops away), while outside the zone, it uses on-demand rou ng to find routes.
 Advantages: It provides faster route discovery within the zone and reduces
overhead for long-range communica on by relying on reac ve rou ng beyond
the zone.

Mul cast Rou ng Protocols for MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks)

In a Mul cast transmission, a message is sent to a group of des na on nodes in a single
transmission, rather than sending it to each node individually. This helps in reducing
network conges on and improving efficiency.
However, to make mul cast rou ng efficient in a MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network), it is
important to reduce unnecessary packet transmissions and energy consump on. The goal is
to ensure that a mul cast transmission does not turn into mul ple unicast (individual)
transmissions, which would consume more resources.
Challenges in MANET Mul cast Rou ng
Mul cast rou ng in MANETs is challenging due to several factors:
 Node Mobility: The posi ons of nodes are constantly changing.
 Wireless Environment: Signals are broadcast and can easily interfere with each
other due to noise.
 Link Failures: Wireless links can break or become unreliable because of mobility
or interference.
Because of these challenges, the rou ng protocols for mul cast in MANETs either modify
exis ng tree-based structures or create new topologies (such as mesh-based) for
communica on between group members.
Types of Mul cast Rou ng Protocols
There are two main types of mul cast rou ng protocols:
1. Tree-based Protocols
 How it Works: These protocols set up a tree structure that connects all the
nodes in the mul cast group. Each node has a single path to communicate with
others.
 Advantages:
o Bandwidth Efficient: Since there is only one path between nodes, less
data is transmi ed overall.
o Minimal Copies: Each packet only needs to be copied once, making it
more efficient.
 Disadvantages:
o Link Failures: If a node moves or a link fails, the en re tree structure
needs to be rebuilt.
o Storage and Control Overhead: If there are mul ple sources, nodes
might need to maintain mul ple trees, which can be complicated and
consume resources.
Example Protocol: MAODV (Mul cast Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector)
2. Mesh-based Protocols
 How it Works: These protocols create a mesh of paths that connect all the
nodes in the mul cast group, rather than a single tree structure. Mul ple paths
are available between nodes.
 Advantages:
 o Resilient to Mobility: Since there are mul ple paths, the network can
quickly adapt if a link or node fails.
 Disadvantages:
o Higher Packet Overhead: The same packet might be copied and
transmi ed along mul ple paths, which leads to increased network
traffic.
o Control Overhead: More control packets are needed to manage these
mul ple paths, especially in highly mobile environments.
Example Protocol: ODMRP (On-demand Mul cast Rou ng Protocol)

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)

A Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET) is a type of Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) where
the nodes of the network are vehicles moving on the road. These networks were originally
created for emergency vehicles like police cars, fire trucks, and ambulances, to help them
travel safely and communicate with each other. In a VANET, vehicles communicate with each
other if they are within a range of about 100 to 300 meters.
How does it work?
 When vehicles are close enough, they can exchange messages.
 If a vehicle moves out of the range of other vehicles, it will temporarily be
excluded from the network.
 However, if it moves into the range of another vehicle that is already in the
network, it can rejoin the network.
Prac cal uses of VANETs:
1. Safety Alerts:
o A VANET can help warn drivers about accidents or hazards ahead. For
example, if there is a collision on the road, vehicles behind can receive a
message about the collision, giving them me to slow down and avoid
accidents.
o Drivers can also receive warnings about road condi ons or a vehicle
ahead applying emergency brakes.
2. Geographical Informa on:
o VANETs can provide drivers with informa on about places nearby, such
as food malls, petrol sta ons, or even a map of the surrounding area.
 3. Leisure and Produc vity:
o Drivers can also use VANETs for entertainment or produc vity while
driving. For example, they could have video calls with family, listen to
podcasts, or even a end work video mee ngs.
In short, VANETs are networks that help vehicles communicate with each other, improving
safety, providing helpful informa on, and even enabling drivers to engage in leisure or work-
related ac vi es while on the road.

MANET vs VANET: Key Differences

MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) and VANET (Vehicular Ad Hoc Network) are both
networks where mobile devices (or nodes) communicate wirelessly without any fixed
infrastructure. However, there are key differences between them:
1. Node Types:
o MANET: The nodes are general mobile devices (like smartphones,
laptops, etc.) that move randomly.
o VANET: The nodes are vehicles (like cars, trucks, buses, etc.) that move
on roads.
2. Communica on:
o MANET: Devices in a MANET communicate only with each other over
wireless links, without any help from fixed infrastructure.
o VANET: Vehicles in VANET can communicate not just with other vehicles
but also with roadside infrastructure or base sta ons, like traffic lights or
sensors.
3. Node Movement:
o MANET: The movement of nodes is random, meaning devices can move
in any direc on and at varying speeds.
o VANET: Vehicles in VANET follow specific road paths, so their movement
is more structured and constrained by road topologies (like highways or
city streets).
4. Speed and Distance:
o MANET: Devices in MANETs can move at various speeds, but they
generally don't travel very fast over long distances.
o VANET: Vehicles in VANETs move at high speeds over large distances,
which means the network's structure changes quickly.
 5. Power Constraints:
o MANET: Power is a big concern in MANETs because mobile devices like
smartphones have limited ba ery life.
o VANET: In VANETs, vehicles typically have much larger and more reliable
power sources (the vehicle's ba ery), so power isn't as big of an issue.
6. Network Size and Speed:
o MANET: MANETs tend to be smaller in size and the nodes move more
slowly.
o VANET: VANETs are larger in size due to the number of vehicles and the
wide area they cover, and they need to handle the fast speed at which
vehicles move.

Security Issues in MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks)

A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a network where mobile devices (like smartphones
or laptops) communicate with each other directly, without any centralized infrastructure like
routers or access points. While this flexibility is useful, it also introduces several security
challenges:
Challenges in MANET Security:
1. Intruders in the Network:
o In tradi onal wired networks, intruders are usually external (outside the
network) and can be blocked by firewalls or security measures. However,
in a MANET, an intruder could be another device within the network,
making it harder to detect and stop.
2. Dynamic Topology:
o In MANETs, devices are constantly moving, so the network structure
changes frequently. This makes it harder to keep track of who is in the
network and more vulnerable to a acks.
3. Wireless Communica on:
o The wireless nature of MANETs makes them more prone to certain
a acks like jamming (where the network signals are blocked) and
overload a acks, which can deplete the devices' ba ery power and
cause the network to fail.
4. Rou ng Protocol A acks:
 o A ackers can manipulate the data being routed through the network. For
example, they can insert fake informa on into the rou ng process,
causing the data to be sent to incorrect des na ons.
Vulnerabili es in MANETs:
Here are a few specific reasons why MANETs are vulnerable to a acks:
1. No Physical Boundaries:
o Since each device in a MANET acts as a router and forwards messages for
others, the network doesn't have clear boundaries. This makes it difficult
to control incoming traffic and implement security measures like
firewalls.
2. Low-Power RF (Radio Frequency) Transmissions:
o A malicious device can con nuously transmit signals and block other
devices from sending their messages. This is known as a Denial-of-
Service (DoS) a ack, where the network gets overloaded and doesn't
func on properly.
3. Wireless Medium:
o Unlike wired networks, where it's difficult to intercept signals, wireless
networks can be easily tapped into with a simple antenna. This makes it
easier for a ackers to listen in on or steal sensi ve informa on.
4. Limited Computa onal Capabili es:
o Devices in a MANET usually have limited processing power and ba ery
life. This makes it hard to implement complex security protocols, like
encryp on, which are needed to protect the network from a acks.
Types of A acks:
Some of the a acks that can happen in MANETs include:
 Broadcas ng False Informa on: A ackers can send fake messages to disrupt
communica on.
 Eavesdropping: A ackers can listen to messages being transmi ed and steal
sensi ve informa on.
 Trojan Horses & Viruses: Malicious so ware can be injected into the network
to damage or disable the nodes.
 Physical A acks: Devices can be physically stolen or tampered with, as MANET
nodes are portable and easy to access.
Characteris cs of a Secure Ad Hoc Network:
For a MANET to be secure, it should ensure the following:
1. Availability: The network should be able to resist a acks like Denial-of-Service
(DoS) and stay up and running.
2. Confiden ality: Only authorized users should be able to access sensi ve
informa on.
3. Integrity: Messages sent through the network should not be tampered with or
altered in any way.
4. Authen ca on: The network should verify the iden ty of each device to ensure
trust between devices.
5. Non-repudia on: A device that sends a message should not be able to deny
sending it.
 Unit – 5

Mobile Device Opera ng System (OS) Responsibili es

1. Managing Resources
The opera ng system (OS) of a mobile device is responsible for managing several important
resources, such as:
 Processor: The CPU (central processing unit) that executes instruc ons.
 Memory: RAM (random access memory) and storage used by applica ons and
data.
 Files: Managing system files, user data, and applica on files.
 Peripherals: Devices like the camera, speaker, microphone, sensors, and
touchscreen.
Mobile devices o en run mul ple applica ons simultaneously. These apps might need to
perform mul ple tasks at the same me. For example, while you’re listening to music, you
might get a call, or a text message might arrive, and you might want to read it without
interrup ng the call. The OS ensures that each task gets the required resources (processor
me, memory, etc.) without affec ng the other tasks, thus providing a smooth experience.
In such cases, the mobile OS works like a traffic cop, making sure that no tasks interfere with
one another and that resources are efficiently allocated.
2. Providing Different Interfaces
The mobile OS provides several important interfaces, making it a bridge between the user
and the hardware of the device. These interfaces include:
 User Interface (UI): This is how the user interacts with the device. The OS
manages inputs from the touchscreen, keyboard, or voice commands, and
displays outputs on the screen. It ensures that all interac ons are intui ve and
responsive.
 Communica on with Networks: The OS controls voice and data
communica ons with networks such as Wi-Fi, cellular, and Bluetooth. It handles
protocols for sending and receiving data from the mobile network or
connec ng with nearby devices.
 Peripheral Devices: The OS also manages connec ons with external devices like
printers, external displays, and other mobile devices. For instance, if you want
to print a document from your phone, the OS handles the connec on and
communica on with the printer.
3. Handling Mul ple Applica ons
Mobile devices are designed to run mul ple applica ons at once. These applica ons may
need to perform tasks like downloading content, playing videos, or running background
processes such as syncing data. The OS manages these tasks, ensuring that one app does
not slow down or crash another. It also handles situa ons where apps compete for
resources such as memory or processor power.
For example, while you’re streaming a video and responding to a message, the OS ensures
that the video con nues to play smoothly without being interrupted by the message
applica on.
4. Power Management
Since mobile devices run on ba eries, power management is a cri cal responsibility of the
mobile OS. It helps to conserve ba ery life by:
 Managing the power usage of apps.
 Controlling screen brightness, CPU performance, and background processes.
 Shu ng down or limi ng certain features when the device is idle to save
power.
The OS monitors the ba ery status and ensures that apps or tasks do not unnecessarily
drain the ba ery.
Popular Mobile Opera ng Systems (Mobile OS)
Currently, there are several well-known mobile opera ng systems, each offering unique
features and func onali es:
 Symbian: Once widely used, especially in early smartphones.
 Android: The most popular OS, open-source, highly customizable, and supports
a vast number of apps.
 iOS: Apple's exclusive opera ng system for iPhones, known for its smooth user
experience and security features.
 Windows Mobile: A former compe tor, which was phased out by Microso in
favor of Windows 10 Mobile.
 Palm OS: Older OS, known for its ease of use, was replaced by WebOS.
 Blackberry OS: Known for its security and email capabili es, but now largely
obsolete.
These opera ng systems have evolved to handle more complex tasks, such as running
mul ple apps, handling advanced graphics, suppor ng various sensors (like GPS and
accelerometers), and connec ng seamlessly with cloud services.
5. Security and Privacy
A major responsibility of the mobile OS is to ensure the security and privacy of the user's
data. Mobile OS manages:
 App Permissions: The OS checks what data or system features apps can access
(e.g., camera, contacts, loca on).
 Encryp on: It protects sensi ve data by encryp ng it both when it is stored and
transmi ed.
 User Authen ca on: Many mobile OS systems provide features like fingerprint
scanners or face recogni on to secure user access.
Security updates are also an essen al part of the OS’s responsibili es, ensuring that
vulnerabili es are patched regularly.

Special Constraints and Requirements of Mobile Opera ng Systems (OS)

Mobile devices, like smartphones, have certain limita ons that make their opera ng
systems (OS) different from those of tradi onal computers. Here's an easier-to-understand
explana on of the key constraints and requirements for mobile OS:
1. Special Constraints for Mobile OS
 Limited Memory:
Mobile devices have much less storage (both temporary and permanent
memory) compared to desktops or laptops. This means the mobile OS has to be
very small but s ll perform many func ons.
 Small Screen Size:
The small size of mobile devices means the screen is much smaller. To make it
user-friendly, mobile OS must support interfaces that allow easy naviga on and
personaliza on, such as menu and icon op ons.
 Miniature Keyboard:
Many mobile devices have small keypads, or use a touchscreen with a stylus.
Typing and entering commands can be difficult, so the mobile OS must support
features like word predic on or handwri ng recogni on.
 Limited Processing Power:
Most mobile devices use ARM-based processors, which are energy-efficient but
not as powerful as desktop processors. Because of this, mobile OS must provide
only essen al func ons that are lightweight and don’t consume too much
processing power.
 Limited Ba ery Power:
Mobile devices are designed to be light and portable, so they usually have small
 ba eries. The OS must be very efficient in using power, such as by pu ng the
device into sleep mode quickly when not in use or reducing the intensity of
antenna signals.
 Wireless Medium and Bandwidth:
Mobile OS must handle issues like fluctua ng bandwidth and signal
interference, which can affect communica on. To manage this, the OS uses
techniques like data caching and pre-fetching to ensure smooth communica on
even in unstable condi ons.
2. Special Service Requirements for Mobile OS
 Support for Communica on Protocols:
Mobile devices need to connect to various networks (like 3G, 4G, 5G) and other
devices. The OS must support a variety of communica on protocols, such as
TCP/IP for internet browsing and Bluetooth for connec ng with peripherals like
headphones or keyboards.
 Support for Different Input Methods:
Since mobile devices may have different input mechanisms (small keyboards,
touchscreens, or styluses), the OS must be able to handle these various inputs,
making it easy to use for people with different preferences.
 Compliance with Open Standards:
For mobile OS to encourage third-party developers to create apps, it must
adhere to open standards. This makes it easier for developers to build apps that
work across different devices, reducing development costs and me.
 Extensive Library Support:
To help developers create apps quickly, the OS provides libraries with pre-made
func ons. These include func ons for handling text messages, mul media,
Bluetooth connec ons, and more. This extensive support helps developers
create applica ons more efficiently.

Commercial Mobile Opera ng Systems

Designing a mobile opera ng system (OS) is challenging because it must support essen al
features across all smartphones, provide a consistent environment for developers, and allow
manufacturers to add custom features. Popular mobile OS op ons include Android, which is
open-source and customizable, iOS, known for its controlled environment, and others like
Windows Mobile (now less common). Each OS aims to balance app support, device
customiza on, and user experience.
Windows Mobile Opera ng System
Historical Background: In 1996, Microso developed an opera ng system called Windows
CE, designed for embedded devices. Over me, this OS was improved, and in 2000,
Microso introduced the Pocket PC 2000, targeted for Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs),
not mobile phones.
With mobile phones becoming more popular, Microso launched Windows Mobile in 2003.
This OS was based on Pocket PC 2000 and was designed specifically for mobile phones.
Unlike iOS and Blackberry OS, which were ed to specific devices, Windows Mobile was
made to work across different phone brands. Microso also defined hardware specifica ons
to make devices from different manufacturers look and feel similar.

Key Versions of Windows Mobile:

 Windows Mobile Standard: For smartphones.
 Windows Mobile Professional: Also for smartphones with more advanced
features.
 Windows Mobile Classic: Not for phones but for PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants).
Evolu on:
1. Windows CE (1996)
2. Pocket PC (2000)
3. Windows Mobile (2003)
4. Windows Phone 7 (2010) - A major upgrade from Windows Mobile.
Features of Windows Mobile:
  Familiar Interface: It looks similar to the desktop version of Windows, making it
easy for users already familiar with Windows.
 Third-Party Apps: Developers could create and sell apps through the Windows
Marketplace. Microso gave 70% of the payment to the developers.
 Touchscreen Support: It supported touchscreen func onality but didn't have
phone capabili es in some versions (like Windows Mobile Classic).
Transi on to Windows Phone 7: In 2011, Microso partnered with Nokia, and Windows
Phone 7 replaced Windows Mobile. This new OS brought many improvements but did not
support older apps from Windows Mobile. It had strict hardware requirements (like screen
resolu on and built-in sensors) to ensure a consistent experience across devices.
Important Features of Windows Mobile:
 Graphics/Window/Event Manager (GWE): Handles all input and output.
 Virtual Memory Management: Allows be er handling of memory.
 Security: Includes a cryptographic library for security features.
 Applica on Development: Similar to programming for Win32, making it easier
for developers.
 No True Mul tasking: Apps in the background hibernate and only run when
brought to the foreground (though true mul tasking was expected in future
versions).

Palm OS (Garnet OS)

Overview: Palm OS, also known as Garnet OS, is a proprietary opera ng system developed
by Palm Compu ng in 1998. It was ini ally created for the popular Palm Pilot PDA and later
adapted to work with other devices like smartphones, wristwatches, handheld gaming
consoles, barcode readers, and GPS devices. Although it was widely used in the past, Palm
OS has lost its dominant market posi on today.
Key Features of Palm OS:
1. Single-Tasking: Palm OS can only run one applica on at a me. For example, if
you're on a call, you can't use the calculator or read messages simultaneously.
2. Memory Management: Palm OS has a basic memory system. It doesn't
separate the memory used by different apps, so if one app crashes, it can cause
the whole system to crash.
3. Palm Emulator: Palm provides a tool called the Palm Emulator that allows
developers to test and debug Palm apps on a computer before running them on
Palm devices.
 4. Handwri ng Recogni on: Palm OS supports a handwri ng recogni on system,
allowing users to write directly on the touchscreen for input.
5. HotSync Technology: This feature lets you sync your data between the Palm
device and desktop computers, making it easy to transfer informa on like
contacts, calendar events, and files.
6. Sound Playback and Recording: Palm OS supports basic sound func ons, such
as playing and recording sound.
7. Basic Security: Palm OS includes a simple security model where users can lock
the device with a password for protec on.
8. Connec vity: It supports various connec on methods, including Serial
port/USB, infrared, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi.
9. Data Storage: Palm OS uses its own format to store data like calendars,
addresses, tasks, and notes, which can also be accessed by third-party apps.

Symbian OS
Symbian OS was a mobile opera ng system developed by Nokia, Ericsson, Panasonic, and
Samsung. It was widely used in smartphones, par cularly by Nokia, but its market share
declined over me due to internal conflicts and compe on from Android.
Key Features:
 Real- me mul tasking: Symbian could run mul ple tasks at once, priori zing
the most important ones.
 Microkernel-based design: A lightweight and efficient system.
 Low-power mode: The system saved ba ery by switching to low power when
idle.
 Two main versions:
o Series 60: Popular for Nokia devices with large color screens and
mul media support.
o UIQ: A user interface layer that made app development easier.
 Networking support: Includes protocols like Bluetooth, USB, and Wi-Fi.
 Event-based programming: Apps respond to events like user ac ons.
 Op mized for low power and memory: Efficient use of device resources.
iOS
iOS is the opera ng system developed by Apple for its devices like the iPhone, iPod touch,
iPad, and Apple TV. Ini ally known as iPhone OS, it was later renamed to iOS. iOS is a closed
and proprietary system, meaning Apple owns and controls it completely, and it cannot be
used by other mobile phone brands.
Key Features:
 Gestures: iOS allows user interac ons through gestures like swipe, tap, pinch,
and reverse pinch. These gestures are unique to the system.
 Accelerometer: iOS uses internal sensors, like the accelerometer, which allows
features like shaking the device to undo ac ons and rota ng the device to
switch display modes (portrait to landscape).
iOS has become extremely popular, mainly because of the iPhone, and it is known for its
sleek design and innova ve features. However, Apple does not allow iOS to be installed on
third-party hardware.

Android Opera ng System

Android Opera ng System was created by Google to solve a problem: before Android,
Google had no way of direc ng mobile users to its search engine. Mobile devices' opera ng
systems didn’t support Google searches, and companies like Verizon had their own search
engines to make money. In 2005, Google acquired a startup called Android, which was
developing a mobile OS based on Linux. This led to the crea on of the Open Handset
Alliance in 2007, where Google and 82 other companies worked together to develop
Android as an open-source system for mobile devices.
Why Android Became Successful:
 Open-source nature: Android allowed developers to create apps freely, unlike
other opera ng systems like iOS, which were more restric ve.
 Be er Features: Android provided many features that other mobile opera ng
systems didn’t, like full web browsing (not just simplified mobile pages) and
support for both touchscreens and phone-based keyboards.
 Third-party app development: Android’s SDK (So ware Development Kit) was
easy to use, and many developers were familiar with Java, making it easier to
create apps.
 Pre-installed apps: Android came with popular apps like Gmail, Maps, and
Voice Search.
Android So ware Layers:
1. Applica on Layer: This includes basic apps like the web browser, email client,
and calendar. These apps are all wri en in Java and don’t control their own
priori es, allowing Android to manage resources and keep the device
responsive.
2. Applica on Framework: This is a structure that helps app developers by
providing services like data access through content providers and no fica on
managers for displaying alerts.
3. Libraries and Run me: Android uses libraries wri en in C and C++ for things
like 2D/3D graphics, media codecs, and databases. The Dalvik Virtual Machine
(VM) is used to run Android apps. Unlike tradi onal Java Virtual Machines,
Dalvik is designed to run mul ple instances on a single device.
4. Kernel: Android uses a version of the Linux kernel for memory management,
process handling, and networking. However, it’s modified to fit Android’s needs
and doesn’t support all Linux applica ons. Android is also mul tasking, so you
can listen to music while wri ng emails or doing other tasks.
Overall, Android's success came from its open-source nature, flexibility, and user-friendly
features, which allowed it to quickly become the most widely used mobile opera ng system.

Blackberry Opera ng System (OS)

Blackberry Opera ng System (OS) is a proprietary OS created by Research In Mo on
Limited (RIM) for BlackBerry smartphones. Since it's proprietary, its internal architecture is
not publicly available. However, one of the most no ceable features of the BlackBerry OS is
its email system.
BlackBerry devices are known for:
 Instant Email: It provides quick and efficient email communica on, which made
BlackBerry popular among business professionals.
 High Security: The OS offers strong security with on-device hardware-based
encryp on to protect messages, ensuring that the informa on remains safe.
This combina on of reliable email and security features made BlackBerry a preferred choice
for many users, especially in business se ngs.

Android So ware Development Kit (SDK) - Simplified Overview

Why Android is Important for Mobile Development: Mobile phones are not just
communica on tools; they are powerful devices with features like radio, TV recep on,
cameras, internet access, and calculators. As technology improves, mobile phones are able
to do even more, making them essen al in today’s society. What makes mobile phones even
more valuable is the ability to install third-party applica ons, which are developed by
external developers. This is where Android comes in – it's an open opera ng system that
makes it easy for developers to create these applica ons.
What is the Android SDK? The Android SDK (So ware Development Kit) is a collec on of
tools that developers use to create applica ons for Android devices. It allows developers to
write apps in Java and convert them to a format that Android devices can run. One of its
main benefits is that it works on mul ple opera ng systems like Windows, Mac OS, and
Linux, and it doesn't require high-end hardware.
The SDK includes:
 IDE (Integrated Development Environment): The so ware where you write
your code (Eclipse is commonly used).
 Java Development Kit (JDK): A set of tools to help you develop Java
applica ons.
 Dalvik VM: Android doesn’t run Java bytecode directly but instead uses its own
bytecode format called Dalvik VM bytecode.
Features of the Android SDK: The SDK allows developers to run applica ons either on actual
Android devices or on an emulator (so ware that mimics a real device on a computer). The
Android Debug Bridge (ADB) is used to manage communica on between the host machine
(where you develop the app) and the emulator or device.
Three Main Parts of ADB:
1. Client Program: Runs on the developer’s computer and sends commands.
2. Daemon Program: Runs in the background on the emulator or device,
managing communica on.
3. Server Program: Manages communica on between the client and the daemon.
Android Applica on Components: Android applica ons are made up of four core
components:
1. Ac vity: Represents a single screen or user interface (UI). For example, in a chat
app, one ac vity might be used to create a new chat, and another might show
previous messages.
2. Content Providers: Handle data storage and sharing. For example, a content
provider allows an app to access or share data with other apps.
3. Services: Run in the background without interac ng with the user. For instance,
a music app might play music in the background while you use another app.
 4. Broadcast Receivers: Respond to global messages, like a no fica on when the
ba ery is low, allowing apps to take ac on accordingly.
Android So ware Stack Structure: Android provides func onali es through a collec on of
programs and system components, arranged in a layered structure. Each layer handles a
specific task, such as hardware access, system resources, or user interface, working together
to make the mobile device func onal.
Advantages of Android:
1. Open Pla orm: Android can run on almost any phone, making it very flexible.
2. Cross-Pla orm Development: The Android SDK works on Windows, Mac OS,
and Linux, making it accessible to developers.
3. Low Resource Requirements: Android SDK requires minimal memory (only
about 250 KB).
4. User-Friendly Emulator: The Android emulator is easy to use and simulates real
devices.
5. Great Documenta on: Google provides detailed guides and examples to help
developers get started with Android.
6. Powerful Libraries: Android includes robust libraries for handling media,
communica on, and data transfer.
7. Database Support: Android has an integrated database system (SQLite),
allowing apps to manage and share data.
8. Web Browsing: Android has a built-in web browser that offers a similar
experience to browsing on a PC.
9. Java Programming: Android apps are wri en in Java, a widely known and
standardized programming language.

iOS
iOS is the opera ng system developed by Apple for its devices like the iPhone, iPod touch,
iPad, and Apple TV. Ini ally known as iPhone OS, it was later renamed to iOS. iOS is a closed
and proprietary system, meaning Apple owns and controls it completely, and it cannot be
used by other mobile phone brands.
Key Features:
 Gestures: iOS allows user interac ons through gestures like swipe, tap, pinch,
and reverse pinch. These gestures are unique to the system.
  Accelerometer: iOS uses internal sensors, like the accelerometer, which allows
features like shaking the device to undo ac ons and rota ng the device to
switch display modes (portrait to landscape).
iOS has become extremely popular, mainly because of the iPhone, and it is known for its
sleek design and innova ve features. However, Apple does not allow iOS to be installed on
third-party hardware.

Android Opera ng System

Android Opera ng System was created by Google to solve a problem: before Android,
Google had no way of direc ng mobile users to its search engine. Mobile devices' opera ng
systems didn’t support Google searches, and companies like Verizon had their own search
engines to make money. In 2005, Google acquired a startup called Android, which was
developing a mobile OS based on Linux. This led to the crea on of the Open Handset
Alliance in 2007, where Google and 82 other companies worked together to develop
Android as an open-source system for mobile devices.
Why Android Became Successful:
 Open-source nature: Android allowed developers to create apps freely, unlike
other opera ng systems like iOS, which were more restric ve.
 Be er Features: Android provided many features that other mobile opera ng
systems didn’t, like full web browsing (not just simplified mobile pages) and
support for both touchscreens and phone-based keyboards.
 Third-party app development: Android’s SDK (So ware Development Kit) was
easy to use, and many developers were familiar with Java, making it easier to
create apps.
 Pre-installed apps: Android came with popular apps like Gmail, Maps, and
Voice Search.

Android So ware Layers:

5. Applica on Layer: This includes basic apps like the web browser, email client,
and calendar. These apps are all wri en in Java and don’t control their own
priori es, allowing Android to manage resources and keep the device
responsive.
6. Applica on Framework: This is a structure that helps app developers by
providing services like data access through content providers and no fica on
managers for displaying alerts.
 7. Libraries and Run me: Android uses libraries wri en in C and C++ for things
like 2D/3D graphics, media codecs, and databases. The Dalvik Virtual Machine
(VM) is used to run Android apps. Unlike tradi onal Java Virtual Machines,
Dalvik is designed to run mul ple instances on a single device.
8. Kernel: Android uses a version of the Linux kernel for memory management,
process handling, and networking. However, it’s modified to fit Android’s needs
and doesn’t support all Linux applica ons. Android is also mul tasking, so you
can listen to music while wri ng emails or doing other tasks.
Overall, Android's success came from its open-source nature, flexibility, and user-friendly
features, which allowed it to quickly become the most widely used mobile opera ng system.

Blackberry Opera ng System (OS)

Blackberry Opera ng System (OS) is a proprietary OS created by Research In Mo on
Limited (RIM) for BlackBerry smartphones. Since it's proprietary, its internal architecture is
not publicly available. However, one of the most no ceable features of the BlackBerry OS is
its email system.
BlackBerry devices are known for:
 Instant Email: It provides quick and efficient email communica on, which made
BlackBerry popular among business professionals.
 High Security: The OS offers strong security with on-device hardware-based
encryp on to protect messages, ensuring that the informa on remains safe.
This combina on of reliable email and security features made BlackBerry a preferred choice
for many users, especially in business se ngs.

Windows Mobile Opera ng System

Historical Background: In 1996, Microso developed an opera ng system called Windows
CE, designed for embedded devices. Over me, this OS was improved, and in 2000,
Microso introduced the Pocket PC 2000, targeted for Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs),
not mobile phones.
With mobile phones becoming more popular, Microso launched Windows Mobile in 2003.
This OS was based on Pocket PC 2000 and was designed specifically for mobile phones.
Unlike iOS and Blackberry OS, which were ed to specific devices, Windows Mobile was
made to work across different phone brands. Microso also defined hardware specifica ons
to make devices from different manufacturers look and feel similar.
Key Versions of Windows Mobile:
 Windows Mobile Standard: For smartphones.
 Windows Mobile Professional: Also for smartphones with more advanced
features.
 Windows Mobile Classic: Not for phones but for PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants).
Evolu on:
5. Windows CE (1996)
6. Pocket PC (2000)
7. Windows Mobile (2003)
8. Windows Phone 7 (2010) - A major upgrade from Windows Mobile.
Features of Windows Mobile:
 Familiar Interface: It looks similar to the desktop version of Windows, making it
easy for users already familiar with Windows.
 Third-Party Apps: Developers could create and sell apps through the Windows
Marketplace. Microso gave 70% of the payment to the developers.
 Touchscreen Support: It supported touchscreen func onality but didn't have
phone capabili es in some versions (like Windows Mobile Classic).
Transi on to Windows Phone 7: In 2011, Microso partnered with Nokia, and Windows
Phone 7 replaced Windows Mobile. This new OS brought many improvements but did not
support older apps from Windows Mobile. It had strict hardware requirements (like screen
resolu on and built-in sensors) to ensure a consistent experience across devices.
Important Features of Windows Mobile:
 Graphics/Window/Event Manager (GWE): Handles all input and output.
 Virtual Memory Management: Allows be er handling of memory.
 Security: Includes a cryptographic library for security features.
 Applica on Development: Similar to programming for Win32, making it easier
for developers.
 No True Mul tasking: Apps in the background hibernate and only run when
brought to the foreground (though true mul tasking was expected in future
versions).

Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce)

Mobile commerce (or M-commerce) is the buying and selling of goods, services, or
informa on through mobile devices like smartphones. It's a significant part of mobile
compu ng because it makes shopping and payments much easier and faster, directly from
your phone. Over the last decade, M-commerce has become very popular because it offers
convenience to both buyers and sellers.
The main challenge in M-commerce is ensuring that payments are secure and processed
quickly when a buyer makes a purchase. This is where mobile payment comes in. Mobile
payment systems are an evolu on of tradi onal electronic payment systems (E-payment)
and are essen al for M-commerce transac ons.
Types of M-Commerce Applica ons
M-commerce applica ons can generally be divided into two categories: Business-to-
Consumer (B2C) and Business-to-Business (B2B). Let's break them down:

1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Applica ons

In B2C, businesses sell products or services directly to consumers. Some common B2C M-
commerce applica ons include:
1. Adver sing:
o Businesses can send targeted adver sements to consumers based on
their loca on and purchase history. For example, if you’re in a store, you
might get ads on your phone about a product you're interested in.
2. Comparison Shopping:
 o Consumers can use their phones to compare prices of products across
different stores. By scanning a product's barcode, you can see its price in
nearby shops and decide where to buy it at the best price.
3. Product Informa on:
o You can scan a product's barcode using your phone to get more details
about it. For instance, if you don’t understand the language on a
medicine box, your phone can translate the instruc ons for you.
4. Mobile Ticke ng:
o You can use your phone to buy movie or train ckets. Once purchased, a
unique barcode is sent to your phone, which you can show to get access
to the event or journey.
5. Loyalty and Payment Services:
o Instead of carrying physical loyalty cards, you can use your mobile phone
to accumulate points at supermarkets or pay for things like drinks at
vending machines by simply scanning a code or tapping your phone.
6. Interac ve Adver sements:
o You can scan a product's barcode in an adver sement (on TV or in a
magazine) using your phone to get more informa on or even purchase
the product directly.
7. Catalogue Shopping:
o You can place orders by scanning barcodes from a catalogue sent to your
phone via SMS.

2. Business-to-Business (B2B) Applica ons

In B2B, businesses sell products or services to other businesses. Some examples of B2B M-
commerce applica ons include:
1. Ordering and Delivery Confirma on:
o Businesses can use mobile phones to place orders for products from
suppliers. By scanning a product's barcode, they can automa cally
reorder goods and track the delivery status in real- me.
2. Stock Tracking and Control:
o Businesses can use mobile phones to keep track of their stock and
update it in real- me. Employees can scan barcodes or RFID tags (Radio
 Frequency Iden fica on) to update stock levels, even if it’s spread across
mul ple loca ons.
3. Supply Chain Management (SCM):
o Using mobile phones, businesses can monitor and manage the flow of
goods through the supply chain. For example, by scanning an RFID tag,
managers can see where a product is at any point in the supply chain.
4. Mobile Inventory Management:
o Mobile phones can help manage inventories efficiently. For example,
mul ple trucks carrying goods can be tracked to ensure that they deliver
products to stores that need them, minimizing storage costs and
reducing delivery mes.

Structure of Mobile Commerce: Simplified Overview

Mobile commerce (m-commerce) involves conduc ng business ac vi es, such as purchasing
or selling, through mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. This is made possible by a
combina on of so ware running on both mobile devices and servers. Here's an easy-to-
understand breakdown of the components that make up the mobile commerce system:
1. Mobile Devices:
Mobile devices like smartphones or tablets are essen al for m-commerce. They allow users
to interact with the system. The mobile device contains a microbrowser, which is a special
kind of browser that loads and displays the m-commerce applica on.
 Users enter their requests (such as placing an order or making a payment)
through the mobile interface.
 Once the request is made, it is sent to a server-side applica on for processing,
and the result is sent back to the device.
2. Features of Mobile Devices for M-Commerce:
For mobile devices to efficiently support mobile commerce, they need the following
features:
 Good Internet Connec vity: This is essen al for browsing and making
transac ons.
 Rich Content Display: The device should display images, videos, and other
mul media properly.
 Camera with Auto Focus: Useful for scanning QR codes or barcodes.
 Barcode and RFID Scanning: To allow scanning of products and items for easier
shopping.
 Messaging Capabili es (MMS, SMS): For communica on, promo ons, and
no fica ons.
 PoS Terminal Interac on: Ability to interact with checkout systems in retail
stores.
3. Mobile Middleware:
Middleware is the so ware that helps connect mobile devices with the back-end systems
(like servers) for smooth communica on.
 It translates content from the Internet into a format suitable for mobile
devices.
 It also handles the security by encryp ng and decryp ng data, ensuring secure
transac ons between the device and the server.
4. Network:
Mobile commerce relies heavily on wireless networks. These can be:
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Local Area Networks): For access in places like coffee shops or
airports.
 Cellular Networks (Mobile Networks): For data transmission over 3G, 4G, or 5G
networks.
In addi on, wired networks (like the internet) are used to connect the servers that process
and store m-commerce informa on.
5. Host Computers (Servers):
The servers are like the "brains" of the mobile commerce system. They handle all the
important data and tasks, including:
 Web Servers: These interact with the mobile device to show web pages and
respond to user requests.
  Database Servers: Store the informa on like product details, user data, and
transac on history.
 Applica on Programs: These handle the business logic (e.g., processing
payments or upda ng inventory).
In summary:
 Mobile devices provide an interface for users to interact with m-commerce
applica ons.
 Middleware ensures smooth and secure communica on between the mobile
device and server.
 The network infrastructure delivers the content and handles transac ons.
 Host computers or servers manage the data and run the applica ons that
power mobile commerce.

Pros and Cons of M-Commerce

Mobile commerce (M-commerce) is a powerful way to conduct business through mobile
devices like smartphones and tablets. However, like any technology, it comes with its
benefits and drawbacks. Here's a simple breakdown:
Advantages of M-Commerce:
1. For Businesses:
o Customer Convenience: M-commerce makes it easier for businesses to
serve customers by providing access to products and services from
anywhere.
o Cost Savings: M-commerce can reduce the need for physical stores and
overhead costs, allowing businesses to save money.
o New Business Opportuni es: Mobile pla orms open up new ways for
businesses to reach customers, such as through targeted ads, loyalty
programs, and mobile-specific promo ons.
2. For Customers:
o Any me, Anywhere Shopping: Customers can shop at their convenience
using just their mobile devices, saving me compared to going to
mul ple stores.
o Saves Time: Instead of visi ng several stores to compare products,
mobile shopping allows customers to quickly find the best deals and
make purchases instantly.
 o Personalized Experience: Mobile devices can be customized to suit
individual needs, making shopping more convenient. For example,
customers can place repeat orders with just a bu on press.
Disadvantages of M-Commerce:
1. Limita ons of Mobile Devices:
o Small Screen and Limited Graphics: Mobile devices generally don’t offer
the same graphics quality or processing power as a PC. This means users
have to deal with smaller screens, low-resolu on images, and videos,
which can be frustra ng for some types of shopping.
2. Limited Func onality:
o Complexity of Applica ons: Due to the small screen size and limited
keyboard, it's difficult to create complex apps for mobile commerce. For
instance, naviga ng through large menus or typing long text can be hard
on a mobile device.
3. Network Restric ons:
o Limited Bandwidth: The networks that mobile devices use o en have
restricted bandwidth, which can slow down the browsing or shopping
experience.
o High Costs for Interna onal Reach: Using mobile networks for
interna onal transac ons can be very expensive, making it challenging to
reach a global audience.

Mobile Payment Systems (M-Payments)

Mobile payments (M-payments) are transac ons made using a mobile device (such as
smartphones, tablets, or other connected devices) to pay for goods and services. As mobile
technology advances, M-payments have become a popular and convenient alterna ve to
tradi onal payment methods, such as cash or credit cards. Below is a more detailed
explana on of how M-payments work and the different types of schemes currently used.
What is Mobile Payment (M-Payment)?
M-payment is a payment system that enables users to make financial transac ons via their
mobile devices. These transac ons can include:
 Paying for goods and services at stores, websites, or mobile apps.
 Paying u lity bills like electricity, gas, or insurance premiums.
 Making financial transac ons like transfers, account payments, or loans.
The growth of mobile payments is largely due to the increased adop on of smartphones
and the availability of internet connec vity. This allows users to carry out transac ons
anywhere and at any me without the need for physical cash or credit cards.
Key Issues in Mobile Payments:
While M-payments offer many benefits, there are s ll some challenges and concerns:
 Security and Privacy: If a mobile device is lost or stolen, unauthorized
transac ons may occur. To mi gate this, security features like biometrics
(fingerprints, facial recogni on) and two-factor authen ca on (2FA) are o en
used.
 Fraud Preven on: Mobile payment systems need robust fraud detec on
mechanisms to prevent fraudulent transac ons and iden ty the .
 Standardiza on and Interoperability: Different M-payment systems may not
work well together. There’s a need for standardiza on to ensure that M-
payments can be used universally across different devices and pla orms.
Types of Mobile Payment Schemes:
There are three popular M-payment schemes, each offering different features and benefits.
These schemes involve third-party service providers, such as banks, credit card companies,
and telecom operators, that facilitate payments on behalf of customers.
1. Bank Account-Based M-Payment:
o How it works: In this scheme, the customer’s bank account is linked to
their mobile phone number. When the customer makes a payment, the
bank account is debited, and the corresponding amount is credited to the
vendor’s account through a wireless connec on (like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi).
o Advantages: It allows users to directly make payments from their bank
accounts, making transac ons simple and efficient.
o Example: mChek is a popular example of this system. It links a bank
account or credit card to a mobile phone, allowing users to make
payments for various services like paying bills or transferring air me to
another user. mChek operates via a mobile app and is o en free to use
for the customers.
2. Credit Card-Based M-Payment:
o How it works: The customer’s credit card is linked to their mobile device.
When the customer makes a purchase, the mobile device processes the
payment, and the credit card is charged. The value is transferred to the
merchant’s account.
 o Advantages: It allows users to make payments directly from their credit
card, offering convenience and security through well-established credit
networks.
o Limita on: The availability of credit card-based M-payments depends on
the adop on and penetra on of credit cards in a country. In regions
where credit card use is low, this system may not be as effec ve.
o Example: Popular mobile payment apps like Google Pay and Apple Pay
are credit card-based systems, enabling users to make payments securely
using their linked credit cards.
3. Micropayment:
o How it works: Micropayments are small transac ons, o en for low-cost
goods like vending machine products, digital content, or app purchases.
The mobile device directly communicates with a vending machine or
service provider to make the payment.
o Advantages: Ideal for small purchases where tradi onal payment
methods may be inconvenient or too costly.
o Example: In some Coca-Cola vending machines, customers can use their
mobile phones to pay directly for drinks. This system is o en integrated
with mobile telecom networks, charging users directly to their phone bill.
Why M-Payments Are Gaining Popularity:
 Convenience: M-payments allow users to make purchases any me, anywhere,
elimina ng the need to carry cash or cards.
 Speed: Transac ons can be processed instantly, saving me during the payment
process.
 Cost-Effec veness: Many mobile payment systems offer low fees or no fees,
especially when compared to tradi onal payment methods.
 Security: With advanced encryp on, biometric authen ca on (e.g., fingerprint
or facial recogni on), and two-factor authen ca on, mobile payments provide
a secure way to conduct financial transac ons.
Challenges of Mobile Payments:
Despite their convenience, mobile payments come with certain challenges:
 Device and Network Compa bility: Mobile payment systems may not be
compa ble with all mobile devices or networks, limi ng their use in some
regions or among users with older phones.
  User Educa on: Some users may not fully understand how to securely use M-
payment systems, leading to poten al issues like fraud or mistakes in payment.
Future of Mobile Payments:
The future of M-payments looks promising, with con nuous developments in mobile
technology, security, and payment standards. Innova ons such as biometric authen ca on,
NFC (Near Field Communica on) technology, and blockchain are expected to further
enhance the func onality, security, and scalability of mobile payments.

Security Issues in Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce)

As mobile commerce (M-commerce) grows, it brings new security and privacy challenges
that are not present in tradi onal E-commerce systems. Here’s a breakdown of the security
concerns that come with using mobile devices for shopping, banking, and other
transac ons.
Challenges in Securing M-Commerce:
1. Difficult User Tracking:
o Roaming and Network Changes: Mobile devices are o en on the move,
and users frequently switch between different networks (like Wi-Fi, 4G,
5G). This makes it challenging to track the user’s ac vi es, which can be
a problem when trying to detect fraud or a acks.
o Frequent Online/Offline Switching: Mobile devices connect and
disconnect from networks frequently. This constant switching can hide
any malicious ac vi es happening on the device, making it hard to
monitor for security breaches.
2. Risk of Loss or The :
o Device The : If a mobile device is stolen, the thief could gain access to
personal informa on, bank accounts, payment apps, and more. Unlike a
laptop or computer, which may have be er security protec ons, mobile
devices are o en easier to steal and can be used immediately if not
secured properly.
o Fraud Risk: If the stolen phone contains sensi ve informa on (like
passwords, banking apps, etc.), the thief could poten ally commit fraud,
making it difficult to trace and stop the unauthorized transac ons.
3. Authen ca on Issues:
o Lack of Strong Authen ca on Methods: One of the biggest security
issues is the absence of a robust system to verify the iden ty of the
person using the mobile device. If someone gains access to your mobile
 phone, they could easily impersonate you and carry out fraudulent
transac ons.
o Biometric Solu ons: Although many mobile devices now use fingerprint
scanning or facial recogni on for authen ca on, these methods are not
foolproof and can some mes be bypassed.