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Computer Network, Structure, Types, and Topologies

Computer Networks allow multiple computers and devices to connect and
communicate. They can share resources like files, printers, and internet connections.
The structure of a network can vary widely depending on its size and purpose.

Types of Networks:

● Personal Area Network (PAN): This is the smallest and simplest type of
network, typically used for personal devices within a single room.
● Local Area Network (LAN): This network covers a small geographical area
like a home, office, or school. It's fast and used for connecting computers close
to each other.
● Campus Area Network (CAN): Larger than LANs, CANs cover a range of
buildings like a university campus or corporate facility.
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): This spans a larger geographic area,
such as a city or metropolitan area, providing high-speed connectivity between
different LANs.
● Wide Area Network (WAN): The largest type of network, covering national
or international distances, used to connect different smaller networks like
LANs or MANs.

Network Topologies:

● Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable, the bus.
Data travels in one direction, and if the bus fails, the whole network fails.
● Ring Topology: Each device is connected to two others, forming a ring. Data
travels in one direction, or both if dual rings are used, which can provide
redundancy.
● Star Topology: Each device connects to a central hub. If a single cable fails,
only the connected device is affected, not the entire network.
2. OSI Model
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) helps in understanding how
networks operate. It divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer
serves a specific function:

1. Physical Layer: This is the basic network layer that deals with the physical
connection between devices, like cables and switches.
2. Data Link Layer: It organizes data into frames and detects errors in the
physical layer.
3. Network Layer: It decides how data is sent to the receiver’s address.
4. Transport Layer: Ensures complete data transfer by checking for errors and
providing flow control.
5. Session Layer: Manages connections and maintains sessions between
applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates data between the network and the application
format.
7. Application Layer: Handles end-user operations and provides services like
email and file transfers.

3. Computer Network Working Principles – Channel and

Packet Commutation
Computer network working principles refer to the foundational rules and
techniques that enable computers and other devices to communicate over a network.
These principles guide how data is sent, received, and managed across different
devices and connections. The main goal is to ensure that data moves efficiently,
securely, and reliably from one point to another within the network.

Channel Commutation

Channel commutation is a method where a direct and continuous path is set up and
held open between two points for the entire duration of a communication session. It's
like having a road reserved only for one driver from start to finish, ensuring that they
can travel without interruptions. This method guarantees that the communication will
be smooth and steady, which is perfect for phone calls or live videos where you can't
afford delays. However, this can be inefficient because the road (or channel) can't be
used by others until the conversation is over, even if no one is talking at the moment.
Packet Commutation

Packet commutation is more like sending a series of small notes through different
routes in a city to reach the same destination. Instead of sending one long message
over a dedicated line, the message is broken into smaller parts called packets. Each
packet can travel through different paths in the network, depending on which roads are
less busy. Once all packets arrive at the destination, they are reassembled into the
original message. This method is very flexible and efficient because it uses all
available routes and adjusts in real-time to avoid congestion. It’s great for sending
emails or browsing the web, where a slight delay in assembling the messages at the
end is acceptable.
4.Physical Layer Environment
The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model, dealing directly with the
network's physical aspects of data transmission. It includes various types of cables and
wireless technologies.

Copper Cables

Copper cables are prevalent in network setups:

● UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Commonly used, affordable but susceptible

to interference.
● STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Includes shielding to protect against
electromagnetic interference.
● FTP (Foiled Twisted Pair): Features overall foil shielding for enhanced
interference protection.

Categories:

● Cat 3: Up to 10 Mbps (Ethernet).

● Cat 5: Up to 100 Mbps.
● Cat 5e: Up to 1 Gbps.
● Cat 6A: Up to 10 Gbps.

Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optics use light to transmit data, offering higher speeds and longer transmission
distances:

● Single-mode fiber (SMF): Long-distance applications using laser technology.

● Multimode fiber (MMF): Shorter distances using LED technology.

Wireless Technologies

Wireless technologies transmit data using electromagnetic waves, eliminating the need
for physical cables. Types include:

● WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks): Local area coverage.

● WPANs (Wireless Personal Area Networks): Very close range, like
Bluetooth.
● WMANs (Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks): City-wide coverage.
● WWANs (Wireless Wide Area Networks): Large areas such as cities or
countries, using technologies like cellular networks or satellite links.
5. Ethernet Networks and the CSMA/CD Working
Principles:
Ethernet Network

Ethernet is the most widely used method for connecting devices in local area networks
(LANs). It defines how network devices can format and transmit data so other devices
on the same local network segment can recognize, receive, and process it.

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD protocol to manage how data is transmitted across the
network to prevent conflicts and ensure reliable data transfer:

● Carrier Sense: Before sending data, a device checks the network to ensure no
other device is transmitting at that moment. If the line is clear, the device will
proceed to transmit data.
● Multiple Access: This refers to the fact that multiple devices are connected to
and can transmit on the same network medium. This setup requires rules like
CSMA/CD to manage the access efficiently.
● Collision Detection: During transmission, if the device detects that another
device has transmitted simultaneously, leading to a data collision, both devices
stop transmitting. They wait for a random period before attempting to resend
their data, minimizing the chance of colliding again.

Ethernet Performance

The performance of an Ethernet network can degrade with the increase in the number
of devices or heavy traffic, primarily due to collisions. When too many devices
attempt to communicate at once, collisions become more frequent, and the network
must spend more time resolving these collisions rather than transmitting actual data.

Half-duplex and Full-duplex Modes

Ethernet networks can operate in half-duplex or full-duplex mode:

● Half-duplex mode: Devices can either send or receive data at any given time,
not both simultaneously, which can lead to collisions.
● Full-duplex mode: Devices can send and receive data simultaneously,
effectively doubling the potential bandwidth and eliminating collisions.
6.Network Devices Working Principles and Differences:
Network Devices Overview

Network devices are essential components used to connect and manage the flow of
data across a computer network. Each device plays a specific role in facilitating
communication and ensuring data reaches its intended destination correctly and
efficiently.

Network Cards

● Function: Allows computers to connect and communicate over a network.

● Details: Network cards, also known as Network Interface Cards (NICs), are
hardware devices that provide the physical interface between the computer and
the network cable.

Repeaters

● Function: Regenerates and amplifies signals in a network to extend the

distance over which data can be transmitted.
● Details: Repeaters are used in networks to strengthen signals that travel long
distances and start to weaken due to attenuation.

Hubs

● Function: Connects multiple Ethernet devices, making them act as a single

network segment.
● Details: Hubs transmit data packets to all connected devices, regardless of the
intended recipient, which can lead to collisions and network inefficiency.

Switches

● Function: Connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching

to receive, process, and forward data to the destination device.
● Details: Switches are intelligent devices that store the addresses of the
computers on the network and can forward data directly to the intended
recipient. This targeted approach reduces collisions and increases network
efficiency.

Differences Between Hubs and Switches

● Transmission Type:
○ Hubs: Broadcast data to all network ports.
 ○ Switches: Direct data to specific devices based on MAC address.
● Performance:
○ Hubs: Can lead to data collisions because all devices share the same
bandwidth.
○ Switches: Reduce collisions and effectively manage network traffic
through segmentation and dedicated communication channels.
● Usage:
○ Hubs: Simple and cost-effective for small setups.
○ Switches: Scalable and suitable for larger networks with higher
performance needs.
7.VLAN Technology Overview
Overview of VLAN Technology

A Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) allows network administrators to create

separate networks within the same physical infrastructure. It's like having distinct
departments within a single company, where each department operates independently
even though they share the same office space.

How VLANs Work

● Segmentation: VLANs divide a large network into smaller, logical sections.

Each VLAN acts as an independent network, which helps to contain broadcast
traffic and enhance security. This segmentation ensures that devices within the
same VLAN can communicate more efficiently without interference from other
network traffic.
● Flexibility and Management: VLANs are configured through software, not
hardware, which makes it easy to modify network settings without needing
physical changes to the network. This flexibility allows for quick adjustments
to the network as business needs change, without disrupting the physical setup.
● Tagging: To keep track of where data should go within the network, VLANs
use a process called tagging. When data enters a switch, a tag that identifies the
VLAN to which the data belongs is added. This tag helps the network switch
understand how to route the data correctly, ensuring that the data packets reach
the right destination within the segmented network.
● Access Control: VLANs enhance security by controlling who can see and use
network resources. By assigning devices to specific VLANs, administrators can
enforce policies that restrict access to sensitive information and critical systems
to authorized users only.

Benefits of VLANs

Using VLANs can improve network performance by reducing congestion. It also

enhances security by isolating sensitive data and makes network management more
straightforward by allowing for easy changes to network configurations.
8.NETBIOS/NETBEUI, IPX/SPX, TCP/IP Protocols
Description and General Works and Differences
NETBIOS/NETBEUI

NETBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System):

● Purpose: Provides services related to the session layer of the OSI model,
allowing applications on different computers to communicate over a local
network.
● Functionality: It is not a networking protocol but a programming interface. It
uses a software interface and a naming service for locating networked
computers.

NETBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface):

● Purpose: A transport protocol designed to use with NETBIOS.

● Characteristics: It is lightweight and fast, suitable for small to medium-sized
networks. It does not require extensive configuration, which simplifies network
setup but limits scalability.

IPX/SPX

IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange):

● Purpose: The network layer protocol in the IPX/SPX stack which routes
messages from one node to another.
● Functionality: Primarily used in networks involving Novell NetWare
operating systems. It provides connectionless datagram services.

SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange):

● Purpose: Works with IPX at the transport layer, providing connection-oriented

services.
● Characteristics: Ensures complete data transfer and is used for applications
requiring reliable communications.

TCP/IP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

● Purpose: Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of

data between applications running on hosts communicating over an IP network.
 ● Functionality: Manages message assembly before they are sent and
reassembly after they arrive, ensuring data integrity.

IP (Internet Protocol):

● Purpose: Handles addressing and routing of data packets between computers.

● Functionality: Directs packets from the sender to the receiver across one or
more IP networks. Supports both IPv4 and IPv6 address systems.

General Works and Differences

● NETBIOS/NETBEUI: These are tightly coupled with LAN technologies,

primarily useful in small, less complex environments due to their simplicity
and lack of scalability.
● IPX/SPX: Once popular for its simplicity and efficiency in Novell NetWare
networks but has largely been replaced by TCP/IP due to the latter’s scalability
and ubiquity.
● TCP/IP: The dominant set of protocols for the internet, ensuring robust,
scalable, and cross-platform communication across diverse devices and
networks. It supports a wide range of technologies and applications, making it
the foundation for modern networking.
9.Digital Systems Compares (Boolean, Octal, Decimal, and
Hexadecimal)
Digital Systems: Number Systems

Digital systems use various number systems to represent and process data.
Understanding these systems is crucial for programming, computing, and digital
electronics.

Boolean (Binary)

● Basics: Uses only two digits, 0 and 1. Each digit in this system is called a bit,
which is the smallest unit of data in computing.
● Usage: Ideal for computers because digital devices have two stable states,
generally represented as on (1) and off (0). Boolean logic is fundamental to
circuit design and programming, where it helps in decision-making processes.

Octal

● Basics: Base-8 number system, using digits from 0 to 7.

● Usage: Historically used in computing because it's relatively easy to convert
between octal and binary. Each octal digit represents three binary digits. It was
commonly used in early computers but has largely been replaced by
hexadecimal for most modern applications.

Decimal

● Basics: Base-10 number system, which is the most familiar to us because it's
the system used in everyday counting. It uses the digits 0 to 9.
● Usage: Predominant in human interactions and data entry. Most programming
languages support decimal input and can convert it into binary code that
computers process.

Hexadecimal

● Basics: Base-16 number system, using digits from 0 to 9 and letters A to F,

where A stands for 10 and F stands for 15.
● Usage: Widely used in computing and programming because it's more succinct
than binary for representing values and aligns closely with binary — each
hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits, making it easier to translate
into binary than decimal.

Summary
Each number system has its specific applications and advantages:

● Binary is fundamental for all digital technology, underlying all processes and
storage.
● Octal offers a simpler, more compact alternative to binary but is less
commonly used today.
● Decimal is essential for interfaces that interact directly with humans.
● Hexadecimal provides a compact and efficient way to represent binary data in
a form that is easier for humans to understand and manipulate, especially in
programming and digital electronics.
10.TCP/IP Protocol Addressing System; (A, B, C, D, E)
Classes
TCP/IP Protocol Addressing System

The TCP/IP protocol suite is a foundational technology for modern networks,

including the internet. Part of what makes TCP/IP so powerful is its method of
addressing devices, which allows it to efficiently route data across complex networks.

IP Address Classes

The Internet Protocol (IP) version 4 (IPv4) defines several classes of IP addresses.
These classes are designated A through E, primarily based on the size of the network
and the number of hosts it supports:

● Class A:
○ Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
○ Networks: Large networks with many devices.
○ Structure: First octet is the network part, followed by three octets for
the host part.
○ Identifier: The first bit of the first octet is always 0.
● Class B:
○ Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
○ Networks: Medium-sized networks.
○ Structure: First two octets are the network part, and the last two are for
hosts.
○ Identifier: The first two bits are 10.
● Class C:
○ Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
○ Networks: Small networks (commonly used in business environments).
○ Structure: First three octets are the network part, and the last octet is
for hosts.
○ Identifier: The first three bits are 110.
● Class D:
○ Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
○ Purpose: Reserved for multicast groups.
○ Structure: Not divided into network and host parts.
○ Identifier: The first four bits are 1110.
● Class E:
○ Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
○ Purpose: Reserved for future use, experimental purposes, and research.
 ○ Structure: Not divided into network and host parts.
○ Identifier: The first four bits are 1111.

11.TCP/IP Protocol Addressing System; Public and

Private Addresses
Public and Private IP Addresses

In the TCP/IP protocol suite, IP addresses are categorized into public and private
addresses. This distinction is crucial for managing traffic on the internet and within
private networks.

Public IP Addresses

● Purpose: Public IP addresses are used on the internet and can be accessed from
any computer around the world. These addresses must be unique across the
entire internet.
● Usage: They are typically assigned to websites, external-facing servers, and
routers that connect home or business networks to the internet. Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) allocate these addresses.
● Characteristics: Public IP addresses are routable on the global internet,
meaning data can be sent to these addresses from anywhere in the world.

Private IP Addresses

● Purpose: Private IP addresses are used within a private network (like a home,
office, or enterprise internal network) and are not routable on the public
internet. This means that these addresses are not accessible from outside the
network and can be used without registration with an internet authority.
● Usage: Devices within the same local network communicate with each other
using private IPs. If they need to connect to the internet, a device called a
router uses Network Address Translation (NAT) to convert private IPs into a
public IP.
● Ranges:
○ Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
○ Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
○ Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
○ These ranges are set aside specifically for private use and are recognized
by all routing equipment as private.

Benefits of Private IP Addresses

● Security: Because they are not accessible from the internet, private networks
are inherently more secure from external threats.
● Cost-efficiency: There is no cost to using private IP addresses within a local
network.
● Flexibility: Organizations can use more IP addresses than publicly available to
them by utilizing private IP addresses internally.
12.Network Mask, Network and Subnetwork Creating
Principles
A Network Mask, also known as a subnet mask, is crucial in IP networking, used to
differentiate the network portion of an IP address from the host portion.

Purpose and Function:

● Purpose: Helps in dividing an IP address into a network and host identifier.

This separation is essential for routing traffic within and between networks
efficiently.
● Function: The mask is a binary pattern with '1s' in positions representing the
network bits and '0s' in positions for the host bits. For example, in a common
subnet mask 255.255.255.0 (for an IPv4 address), the first three octets
(255.255.255) identify the network part, and the last octet (0) represents the
host part.

Network and Subnetwork Creation

Creating networks and subnetworks is an important part of network design, allowing

for organized, scalable, and secure networking.

Network Creation:

● Purpose: Defines a specific range of IP addresses that form a distinct network,

which can communicate internally and externally.
● Process: Network creation involves assigning a unique network address, which
uses the subnet mask to define how many addresses are available for the
network and how the network is segmented.

Subnetwork Creation:

● Purpose: Further divides a larger network into smaller, more manageable

pieces, or subnetworks. This is particularly useful in large organizations to
improve performance and security.
● Process: Involves creating a more specific network mask that allows for a
greater number of network bits and fewer host bits compared to the main
network. This process, known as subnetting, increases the number of possible
subnetworks while reducing the number of hosts each subnet can handle.

Example:
 ● Main Network: 192.168.1.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 can host 254
devices.
● Subnetting: Changing the mask to 255.255.255.192 creates smaller
subnetworks, each supporting up to 62 devices.

Importance of Network and Subnetwork Creation

● Efficiency: Proper network and subnetwork creation enhances the efficiency of

network traffic management by reducing congestion.
● Security: It allows for better control over who accesses different parts of the
network, as different subnets can have different access policies.
● Scalability: Facilitates network growth and expansion, accommodating
additional devices without affecting existing network structures.
13.Network ID, Network Broadcast Definitions in IP
Networks
Understanding Network ID and Broadcast Address is crucial for managing and
configuring networks effectively. These concepts are foundational for network
communication and help in data routing and delivery.

Network ID

● Purpose: The Network ID (also known as Network Address) is used to identify

each network uniquely. It specifies the portion of an IP address that represents
the network itself, rather than any particular device.
● How it Works: In an IP address, the Network ID includes all the bits up to the
subnet mask. For example, in the IP address 192.168.1.34 with a subnet mask
of 255.255.255.0, the Network ID is 192.168.1.0. The subnet mask indicates
that the first three octets (192.168.1) are used for the network portion.
● Importance: It's used by routers and switches to forward packets between
different networks. Identifying the network portion of the address allows these
devices to correctly route traffic to the appropriate network.

Network Broadcast Address

● Purpose: The Broadcast Address is used to send data to all devices on a

specific network or subnet. It allows one packet to be sent to multiple hosts.
● How it Works: The Broadcast Address is the highest address in the network
range. For the Network ID 192.168.1.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0,
the Broadcast Address is 192.168.1.255. This address targets all devices on the
192.168.1.0 network.
● Importance: It's used for network-wide announcements, sending the same
message to all devices on a local network without needing to send individual
messages to each IP address. This is particularly useful for protocols that
require initial communication with all nodes, like DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol).